614 Air Insulated Substation Design For Severe Climate Conditions

614
Air Insulated Substation Design for Severe

Climate Conditions
Working Group
B3.31
April 2015
AIR INSULATED SUBSTATION DESIGN
FOR SEVERE CLIMATE CONDITIONS
B3.31
Members
Mark McVey, Convenor (US), John Nixon, Secretary (UK)

Gunnar Adamczewski (AU), Akira Okada (JP), Alexandre Barreira (PT)
Gene Brown (US), Bambang Cahyono (ID), Gerald Buchs (CH), Andrew Cheang (SG) Radivoje Crnjin
(RS), Hugh Cunningham (IE), Ciprian Diaconu (RO)
Gilles Tremouille (FR), Tibor Kertesz (CA), Koji Kawakita (JP), Gerd Lingner (DE)
Romain Migne (FR), Toly Messinger (CA), Takanori Nishioka (JP)
Ms Anita Pharmatrisanti (ID), Jarek Sadowski (PL), Slawomir Samek (PL)
Shmuel Shoval (IL), Ms Emilia Stoicescu (RO), Mark Steindl (AU), Dean Sharafi (AU)
Ms Enderani Naicker (ZA), Caprice Davey (AU), Terry Krieg (AU)
Suriya Prungkhwunmuang (TH), Dieter Fuechsle (CH)
Copyright © 2015
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-316-3
Air Insulated Substation Design for Severe Climate Conditions
ISBN : 978-2-85873-316-3
Page 1
Air Insulated Substation Design

for Severe Climate Conditions
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 4
Where Do You Build A New Substation? .......................................................................................... 4
Long Term Strategy and Short Term Mitigation .............................................................................. 4
1. DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS ............................................................................. 5
2. THE QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................... 7
3. DESIGN FOR SEVERE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ........................................................... 11

3.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust .............................................................................................. 11
3.1.1. Outdoor - Substation Impact ........................................................................................... 13
3.1.2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact ............................................................................... 18
3.1.3. Indoor - Equipment and Secondary Systems Impact .................................................. 22
3.2. Severe Flooding ......................................................................................................................... 24
3.3. Severe Rain and Humidity ........................................................................................................ 31
3.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice ...................................................................................................... 40
3.4.2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact ............................................................................... 51
3.5. Severe Wind ............................................................................................................................... 53
4. EXPERIENCE BASED RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 67

4.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust .............................................................................................. 68
4.2. Severe Flooding ......................................................................................................................... 77
4.3. Severe Rain and Humidity ........................................................................................................ 83
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4.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice ...................................................................................................... 92

4.5. Severe Wind ............................................................................................................................... 98
5. IMPLEMENTATION APPROACH (RISK/COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS) ........................... 104
6. SAFETY AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE .................................................................... 106

6.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust ............................................................................................ 106
6.2. Severe Flooding ....................................................................................................................... 106
6.3. Severe Rain and Humidity ...................................................................................................... 107
6.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice .................................................................................................... 107
6.5. Severe Wind ............................................................................................................................. 109
7. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ..................................................... 109

7.1. General...................................................................................................................................... 109
7.2. Severe Heat .............................................................................................................................. 110
7.3. Severe Flooding ....................................................................................................................... 111
7.4. Severe Rain and Humidity ...................................................................................................... 111
7.5. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice .................................................................................................... 112
7.6. Severe Wind ............................................................................................................................. 113
8. CONCLUSION AND CLOSING................................................................................... 113
9. CASE STUDIES ........................................................................................................... 116

9.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust - Middle East ................................................................... 116
9.2. Severe Flooding ....................................................................................................................... 120
Case study 1 - Preparing a Substation for a Flood - Poland ................................................. 120
Case study 2 - Trans-en-Provence 400kV - France ................................................................... 122
Case study 3 - Shinkawa Substation (33/6.6kV) - Japan ....................................................... 128
Case study 4 - Lesson Learned from 2011 Great Flood Crisis - Thailand ........................... 132
9.3. Severe Rain and Humidity - USA .......................................................................................... 141
9.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice - Mount Storm Substation - USA.......................................... 142
9.5. Severe Wind – Preparation for Hurricanes - USA ............................................................ 145
10. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 162
Page 3
INTRODUCTION
Utilities today are faced with many challenges to improve reliability. Significant long term impacts to
reliability from severe weather conditions are no longer relegated to once in 30 year or once in 100 year
events. Changes in world weather patterns are causing utilities around the world to re-evaluate design
standards to improve reliability and minimise restoration time. This brochure will attempt to provide a shared
perspective of substation design criterion by utilities confronted by severe weather events.
This brochure does not attempt to debate the controversial subject of global warming or climate change.
The focus is on shared experience in substation design. A weather condition which may be abnormal for
one utility could be considered normal for another. The design of a substation will focus on the most
probable weather in the specific region. The advancement of electrical devices and technology has created
increased expectations in reliability. The economic and political impact of weather-related outages is now
part of the substation design and serves as a focus for possible mitigation. How to design to mitigate against
a catastrophic substation outage or rapidly return it to service is the desire of this brochure.
Where Do You Build A New Substation?

The questionnaire that was developed and distributed by the working group provides many examples of
outages and reliability challenges for asset owners. In many cases the most critical factor impacting
reliability was the site chosen to build a substation. Often challenges for weather-related outages are not the
most critical factor when choosing the location of a new substation. Availability to customers and lowest
capital investment cost tend to be the dominating factors. These factors may not be the most reliable or
lowest service cost. The cost of substation mitigation or rebuilding after a weather disaster significantly adds
to the total life cost of a substation. Consideration of abnormal service conditions such as severe weather
can have a significant impact on reliability with a small incremental cost. Refer to chapter 3.2(b) which has
an example of a flood contour map that shows the choices available to enable the preferred option to be
selected. The benefit of this type of analysis is that substation locations in different regions may have similar
costs but different risks based on elevation. Therefore, the site location is very important.
Long Term Strategy and Short Term Mitigation

The questionnaire provides a rich selection of lessons learned and produces a central theme. Substation
operation and reliability for severe weather events is not a one size fits all philosophy. Total prevention of an
outage due to weather is not always the best design when it comes to total cost. Designing a substation to
restore service in a short or expedited manner can be low cost and effective. The brochure highlights short,
medium and long-term approaches, refer to section 4 for further details. The short and medium term would
be both proactive and reactive measures which can be taken to eliminate or prevent a substation outage.
The long-term approach is more of a design philosophy or asset management approach when time to
Page 4
consider and plan is available. In either case the individual utility must evaluate what approach best suits
their economic needs and regulatory responsibility. In many cases a hybrid approach is taken to address the
needs of existing substations and proactively prevent impacts on new substations. A change in operating or
design philosophy becomes a lessons learned approach.
1. DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Abnormal Level of weather severity that exceeds design standards (e.g. IEEE, IEC, IEE, etc).
AIS Air Insulated Substation
ATH Aluminium Trihydroxide (a Nano composite polymer for housings of products)
BIL Basic Impulse Level
CB Circuit Breaker
Ceramic An insulator with an insulating body that consists of either ceramic material, porcelain,
Insulator toughened glass or annealed glass.
Creepage Creepage is the shortest path between two conductive parts (or between a conductive
Distance part and the bounding surface of the equipment) measured along the surface of the
insulation. The proper creepage distance protects against tracking, a process that
produces a partially conducting path of localized deterioration on the surface of an
insulating material as a result of the electric discharges on or close to an insulation
surface.
CT Current Transformer
CVT Capacitive Voltage Transformer
End of Life End of life is reached if the system does not meet the requirements any more. Usually it
involves a combination of technical, economic and strategic requirements.
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Rubber (polymer housings of products)
ESDD Equivalent Salt Deposit Density is the amount of sodium chloride that, when dissolved,
gives the same conductance as that of the natural deposit removed from a given surface
2
of the insulator divided by the area of this surface; generally expressed in mg/cm .
Expected Life Expected life is the expected service time of a system under normal operating conditions
(equals to the remaining life of a system).
Extreme Level of weather severity that exceeds far beyond design standards (e.g. IEEE, IEC,
IEE, etc) and/or exceeds past experiences and knowledge.
Flashover A disruptive discharge through air around or over the surface of a solid or liquid
insulation, between parts of different potential or polarity, produced by the application of
voltage wherein the breakdown path becomes sufficiently ionized to maintain an electric
arc.
Page 5
GIB Gas Insulated Busbar or Bus duct
GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear
GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic
HTV High Temperature Vulcanisation (polymer housings of products)
HV High Voltage
IP International Protection (degree of protection) [1]
IR Infra-Red
LSR Liquid Silicone Rubber (polymer housings of products)
OHL Overhead Line
NOAA National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, USA Government Department of

Commerce providing daily weather forecasts, severe storm warnings, etc
Remaining Life The remaining life of a component at this moment is the difference between the moment
when the end of life is reached and this moment.
RTV Room Temperature Vulcanizing
RG Resistive Glaze (Insulator)
SCD, USCD Specific creepage distance, unified specific creepage distance
Severe Climate condition includes "extreme" and "abnormal"
SLOSH Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH) model is a computerized
numerical model developed by the USA National Weather Service used by the National
Hurricane Centre
Strategy Should the design be robust enough to withstand the severe condition or should it be
designed to break so it can be repaired quickly, should the strategy be to design to
protect, replace, mitigate, bypass or repair? Dependent upon the circumstances the
strategy could be short, medium or long term.
UV Ultra Violet
TB Technical Brochure
VT, EMVT Voltage transformer (Electro Magnetic or Capacitor)
WG Working Group
[X] Refer to reference information located in Section 10
Page 6
2. THE QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire was created and distributed to the members of the working group. These were then
forwarded to other colleagues and known experts in utilities, engineering companies, consultants and
academia. Forty three questionnaires were completed and returned from participating experts from
nineteen countries worldwide, see Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Countries That Completed the Questionnaire

A mix of organisations with a spread of knowledge participated, from both the public and private sectors.
Refer to the charts below which indicate the mix of organisations and sectors that completed the
questionnaire.
Figure 2: Percentage Completion of Questionnaire Split by Organisation and Sector
Page 7
In the questionnaire the WG asked:
Has the utility experienced a substation outage from a severe weather event in the last 10 years?
What was the nature of the weather, what problems were encountered during restoration and what
counter measures were required to mitigate any future events?
What was the failure mechanism?
Did the utility determine if it was the equipment design or the design application?
Does severe weather cause equipment failures, outages and restoration difficulties?
The WG wanted to know which of the following equipment, in Table 1 below, were impacted by the
particular weather condition:
Rain,
Heat and flooding Snow and
Severe…. Wind
drought and ice
humidity
Transformers
Circuit breakers
Switches/isolators/disconnectors
Insulators or insulation
Foundations
Control houses and associated

protection equipment
Cable trays
Fence and roads
Drains and pumps
Ground grid and earthing
Energized bus contact and clearance
Static wires (lightning shield wires)
Lightning masts
Bushings
Capacitors
Energized Bus
Connectors and conductors
Bus Supports
Not applicable to organization?
Additional problems
Table 1: Substation equipment impacted by a particular weather condition
Page 8
For each severe condition question the response provider was asked to describe any additional
problems their utility had encountered and what counter measures were needed to mitigate these
problems.
The WG was interested in written answers to the following:

What effects have prolonged droughts made on the utilities substation and its operation
What basic design value or criterion is used for the following:
- Severe rain and flooding (International Standard or once in xxx years)

- Severe humidity (International Standard /average of most humidity month/once a year/other
special considerations)
- Severe snow and ice (International Standard / once in x years /other special considerations)
- Severe heat, desert conditions (International Standard/once in x years/other special
considerations)
- Severe wind (International Standard/once in x years/other special considerations)
- Does the utility use any other design criterion for the substation design other than those
mentioned above?
What proven or non-traditional technologies have the utility used in substation design to improve
substation reliability and longevity against severe weather conditions? Some examples were
provided for guidance:
- GIS
- Polymer insulation
- Drains & pumps
- Temporary flood walls
- Condition based weather monitoring
- Air conditioned cabinets
- Reinforced ceilings on control houses
- Increased bus heights
Had the utility developed or was it adopting a best practice in terms of standards, counter measures
or additional engineering design philosophies for future designs to mitigate severe weather
conditions?
Was there any other climate condition not mentioned in the questionnaire that impact on substation
designs and reliability that would be beneficial for the WG to know?
What impact did the severe weather event have on the utilities organization? Were the impacts;
extended outages, financial, reputation or image? Those responding to the question were asked to
provide as much detail as possible, particularly on cost information.
If the utility organization has a formal policy or management position in regard to climate change
risks could they give a brief summary of the policy or strategy?
Page 9
The WG wanted to understand what factors would the utility organisation consider in establishing a new
substation site? The choice of substation site location is an important part of minimising the effects of
severe weather, for example:
The risk of nearby streams or rivers or known flood levels that could cause platform erosion, stability
of hillsides above the substation
The existence of natural vegetation or forest plantations that could be a source of windblown debris
or, if removed, could cause land alongside the substation site to become unstable
The topography of the surrounding landscape which can significantly influence wind speed, e.g. lee
slope factors
Nearness or height above sea-level
Any other factors
The results of the questionnaire have been used by the Working Group to create this brochure. Clearly,
what is “normal” to one organisation that contends with “severe” climatic conditions on a frequent or regular
basis is “abnormal” or “severe” to another organisation that never has to contend with such conditions.
The results indicate that the vast majority of central European communities have “normal” climates whilst
most other countries have a range, including “normal” to “severe”. Europe generally does not suffer from
severe heat, cold and wind. These aspects tend to have moderate values. Some countries have increased
values to cater for severe conditions and this is captured in the questionnaire results. However, flooding has
been experienced by most respondents and clearly is becoming an increasing issue.
Most respondents have had problems with flooding, a common issue. Issues range from hurricanes and
tornados, to thick ice and excessive heat, from droughts to tsunamis. A full spectrum of issues has been
identified and solutions discussed.
Similar standards are applied but with different values in different regions of the world. All these are
discussed in detail in the following chapters.
The questionnaire focused on five specific areas:
Severe heat, drought and dust

Severe flooding
Severe rain and humidity
Severe cold, snow and ice
Severe wind
Page 10
3. DESIGN FOR SEVERE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

This section takes the different severe climatic conditions one-by-one and considers their effect on the
substation infrastructure and the associated equipment design.
3.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust

Heat, drought and dust cause different phenomena and problem to the affected substations.
a) Heat
Heat is a prime enemy of electrical equipment. Elevated heat levels, above nameplate temperatures,
can cause premature failure of the electrical transmission and distribution network increasing
maintenance and operational cost to the utility. Heat is not only generated from electrical losses from
transmission and switching but from natural sources such as the sun.
Elevated temperatures from natural sources are prone in desert and equatorial regions of the world.
Areas other than these can see elevated temperatures during abnormal environmental cycles creating
heating conditions that are detrimental to the correct operation of electrical equipment and the
electrical utility.
Equipment manufacturers and engineers consider the heat generated from losses when designing
equipment and provide the required cooling for these applications. Special applications where
elevated heat levels exist, alternate or additional methods of heat dissipation can be applied.
Generally, when there is increased or severe heat condition, the affected equipment will be less
efficient. Some potential problems associated with severe heat include:-
Transformer temperature increases

Mal-operation of digital devices
Transformer overload
Hydraulic leak
Operation of additional motors
Insufficient cooling fan capacity
Changes in SF6 pressure causing alarms or incorrect operation of the equipment
Some respondents pointed out that high temperature could cause de-rating of transformers, to prevent
oil and hot spot temperatures exceeding upper limits. Periods of high temperature are normally
accompanied by high solar radiation (UV) levels, which have detrimental effects on most PVC and
polymer products used in insulation over the long term.
Page 11
Additional cooling systems such as forced or conditioned air units are alternatives to increasing
cooling effectiveness. For most situations this application is not practical. Forced air requires the use
of electric fan motors to circulate the surrounding air. In some instances the external air temperature
may be high enough to endanger the electrical equipment requiring heat removal. For most
applications the additional forced air motors would be mounted on the equipment it serves.
Conditioned or cooled air requires the use of an additional unit used to cool or chill the circulating air.
Depending upon the amount of dissipation required this unit may be mounted adjacent or near the
equipment it services and requires routine maintenance to ensure optimized utilization.
A reflective coating on the exterior of electrical equipment is an additional solution to reduce the
effects of natural or sun generated heating. This involves the use of a reflective material such as
glass chips or other material to combat the effects of external heat sources. This coating can be
applied during the electrical equipment manufacturing process.
Some other solutions to reduce the effects of severe heat are:
Providing sunshade or pergola roof over transformers, other equipment and even cables
Operate transformers at reduced rating
Specify additional requirements for radiators
Provide temporary cooling fans
Provide permanent air-conditioned enclosures
Uprating of transformers for overload operation
Use of indoor equipment
In addition to adding fans, spraying radiators with water during adverse temperature conditions
b) Drought
Drought is often associated with heat, however, the effect on the substation is quite different. Some of
the potential issues resulting from drought include:
Bushfires, causing fire around substations and overhead transmission lines, creating ash
Cracks in ground, causing ground movement affecting settlement of direct buried cables and
trench foundations
Drying out of the soil reducing the effectiveness of ground grids
Some of the solutions to reduce the effects of severe drought are:
Providing fire-extinguishing systems

Ensuring that the area around substation is bush-free
Condition monitoring of ground settlement/movement
Micro-pile countermeasure for dislodged equipment foundations
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c) Dust
Heat and drought environment will create more dust. Some of the potential issues caused by dust
include:
Dust mixed with grease may reduce the effectiveness of grease applied to devices such as
disconnecting switches, etc.
Dust particles if mixed with corrosive materials may cause corrosion
Dust with contaminants may reduce insulation strength and creepage distance
Some of the solutions to reduce the effects of dust are:
Upgrading the IP protection to IP5X or IP6X [1]

Providing pressurized ventilation or air-conditioning system to rooms or equipment
cabinets/enclosures in order to keep the dust out
Regular cleaning and greasing of equipment
3.1.1. Outdoor - Substation Impact
3.1.1.1. Insulation, Dust, Light Rain Causing Flashovers [2]
Pollution of insulators due to higher dust levels needs to be monitored. Whenever dust settles on insulators,
the creepage length is reduced. When severe pollution occurs, insulation washing is recommended. Often
following periods of drought, light rain appears and is insufficient for insulation cleaning, a downpour is really
what is required. Light rain is a problem as tracking of the insulation often follows.
Automatic or manual insulation washing can often eliminate issues such as insulator flashovers.
3.1.1.2. Insulation Coordination and Surge Arrester De-Rating
Metal oxide varistors (MOV), which are the active components of the surge arresters are rated typically for a
-40ºC (-40ºF) to + 40ºC (+104ºF) ambient temperatures with a temporary maximum air temperature of 60ºC
(140ºF). Refer to [3] for selection of arresters outside this range.
Page 13
3.1.1.3. Ground Drying Affecting Earth Grid Performance
The ground electrical resistivity is

highly temperature dependent, see
Figure 3. The ground is highly
resistive at low temperatures, typically
under 0°C (32ºF) whereas the
electrical resistivity variation from 0°C
(32ºF) to 60°C (140ºF) is lower.
Figure 3: Earth Electrical Resistivity versus Temperature [4]
The main impact is coming from moisture variation

that could be linked to temperature variation. Soil
resistivity rapidly increases when the moisture
content reduces, refer to Figure 4. Additionally,
contraction of the soil due to the reduced moisture
can be observed. The soil resistivity increase
could be very severe when air gaps appear
between the buried conductors and the soil. The
electrical contact between the soil and the earthing
conductor reduces and the substation earth grid
resistance increases significantly.
Figure 4: Earth Resistivity versus Moisture Extract [4]
As an example of the combined effect of moisture and temperature variation, a set of measurements has
been collated over a 14 year period and is shown in Figure 5 below. A United States National Electric Code
(NEC) study graph is an example of how ground conductivity changes over a 14 year period. A test
electrode of 12.5m (41ft) length buried at 0.9m (3ft) was tested approximately twice a year to track the
variation of impedance. Moisture content of soil changes over time and as Figure 5 shows three readings
were taken during extended periods without rain where the soil resistivity increased approximately 40 ohms
thus moisture aide’s conductivity. To mitigate against drought and the effects of severe heat on the soil
resistivity soil can be treated with bentonite clay to not only reduce the resistance per cubic metre but
enhance the soils capability to absorb and maintain moisture.
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Figure 5: Example of Buried Earth Grid Resistance Variation over a 14 Year Period
3.1.1.4. Lightning Performance during Severe Heat Conditions

The substation lightning performance capability is an insulation coordination topic which is linked to several
parameters such as; the rating of the surge arresters, the location of the substation in the transmission
network, the substation layout, etc. An assumption of the insulation coordination study is that the earth grid
resistance is required to be low. One Ohm or five Ohm criteria are regularly used worldwide to address this
point. Generally, the most severe design case, regarding lightning insulation coordination, is associated with
a lightning stroke to the overhead line which is connected to the substation.
A shielding failure of the overhead line shield wire system may be observed for a relatively low ampacity
lightning stroke or a back flashover between the tower and the phase conductor for a high ampacity lightning
stroke [5]. In both cases a surge in the phase conductor of the overhead line is generated and will reach the
substation.
If the substation earth grid resistance is higher than the required criteria then the resulting voltage amplitude
of the incoming surge will exceed the lightning impulse withstand voltage of the equipment, called “BIL”. In
this case a flashover inside the primary equipment could have dramatic consequences.
Therefore, the ground drying could generate an increase in earth grid resistance, as observed in the
previous section, and thus the lighting performance of the substation will be impacted and in the most severe
case, the destruction of some HV equipment may be observed.
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3.1.1.5. Air Clearance

The withstand capability of an air gap depends on the air atmospheric pressure. As the atmospheric
pressure is temperature dependent, a link can be established between temperature and air gap withstand
capability as discussed in [6].
The relative air density is given by:
δ = 1 for an atmospheric pressure of 1.013bar (14.7psi) and an ambient temperature T of 25°C (77°F).
The breakdown of a non-uniform long air gap takes the processes:
Corona inception (peak formula, the inception voltage is proportional to the relative air density)
Streamer propagation
Leader formation and propagation
Final jump
The streamer and leader processes are the decisive processes. It has been concluded that the influence of
air density is the most significant on the streamer formation and propagation.
The air density has less influence on the leader process. As an approximation [7], one may consider that the
streamer propagation dominates the breakdown processes in the case of a short air gap (up to 2 m/6.5ft),
the dielectric strength of this air gap being proportional to relative air density.
For longer air gaps, the breakdown will happen by both the streamer and the leader process. Therefore, the
dielectric strength of a longer air insulated gap reduces the impedance and is less than proportional to air
density.
3.1.1.6. Ground Drying Affecting Buried Insulted Cable Systems

Drying out of the soil is the consequence of severe climatic condition (heat) and heating due to cable joule
effect and dielectric effect.
The dry soil thermal resistivity is larger than the ones usually assumed for moist conditions and can be as
high as 4.0°Cm/W. Commercial computer software is able to handle “drying out of soil” in the vicinity of the
cable surface in order to provide a validation of the design.
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3.1.1.7. High UV/Solar Radiation
a) Sunshades
Applying sunshades over cable trays containing high voltage cables, allows the mid-day rating of the
cables to be maintained or increased.
b) Choice of paint colour, reflective paint (over cabinets and transformers,

instruments, electronic sensors)
Equipment paint colour – use of reflective paint

High absorptivity painting or materials collect the heat dissipation
High emissivity painting or materials emit collected energy
c) PVC cables
Periods of high temperatures are normally accompanied by high solar radiation (UV) levels. High
UV levels have detrimental effects on most PVC and polymer products used in insulation over the
long term. Deterioration of these materials leads to failures. Mitigation measures include restricting
the use of materials that are likely to be affected by UV and to locate such materials to indoor
application or shaded areas.
3.1.1.8. Bush Fires and Atmospheric Pollution
Heat can generate a fire, which

consequently can generate deposits of
conductive material. Rain drains dust and
pollution along cables and creates
accumulation on insulators, which
generate continuous corona and regular
arcing. See Figure 6 which shows an
example of the result of arcing. Fires may
arise from leakage-current discharges.
Vegetation control around or local to

substations is very important.
Consideration of access to substations in Figure 6: Insulator Showing Signs of Arcing
or after severe weather is a consideration
in the choice of site location. Bush fires in forested areas and the effect of contamination from bushfires
needs to be built into the design criteria. Flashovers of insulation, following bushfires causing atmospheric
pollution, are a major concern. Particularly as light rain does not wash the contamination off.
Page 17
Extended creepage insulators, creepage extenders for existing insulators or self-cleaning RG can
improve the situation. Proximity to forested areas increases the risk of contamination caused by
bushfires.
Burning debris can be an issue if blown into a substation. Fences can act as a barrier. Flammable
materials need to be protected or eliminated to remove possibility or reduce the risk of equipment
catching fire.
3.1.1.9. Civ il Works
a) Foundation movement/ground drying out, excessive strain on HV connections
For in-service substations, should the ground dry out around the foundations, in some instances
can cause soil movement to the point that the substation structure foundations move. This can
result in the stressing of the high voltage connections potentially giving rise to an outage.
During prolonged drought conditions potential movement of foundations should be checked.
b) Oil separators, collection systems that rely on the presence of water
Water supplies (for hygiene and cleaning purposes) need to be monitored in locations where
reticulated water is not connected. Oil separation/collection systems that normally rely on water
being present need to be monitored to ensure the required amount of water is present.
3.1.2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact
3.1.2.1. Conductors and Connect ions
a) Flexible conductor sag and clearance
The conductor sag is temperature dependant as metal is subject to thermal expansion and
contraction which is load dependant. The increase of the conductor sag may reduce clearance
to an unaccepted level that may generate flashovers and/or no longer allow safe access to
people and vehicles in the substation.
To mitigate the increase of sag tension springs can be used, see Figure 7 below. These
springs are installed between the gantry fixing point and the insulator string. Due to thermal
expansion the tension force decreases and the spring deflection balances the elongation and
the sag. These springs are also used in conjunction with pantograph disconnectors in
substations having flexible busbars to keep the sag stable which ensures the correct
disconnector contact.
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Figure 7: Compensating tension springs
The conductor temperature is not only linked to the energy supply of the conductor, hence joule
effect and solar radiation absorption, but also to the energy dissipated by the conductor by wind
convection and conductor radiation emission.
In the case of severe heat, it may be relevant to reduce the acceptable nominal current i.e., the
rating, to prevent overheating and consequently increased conductor sag.
The sag is supposed to be designed for its installation condition, but long time or high-tension
plastic deformation, which is also temperature dependent, may increase. In some cases
ambient temperature may be above the design temperature.
The settlements and strand deformation could be easily compensated for during substation
commissioning as these phenomena may be identified during the first weeks of the straight
connection installation, by conductor hardware setting adjustment.
The long-time “metallurgical creep” elongation occurs at everyday tension levels over the life of
the conductor. Metallurgical creep of aluminium is accelerated at sustained high temperatures
(above 20°C/68°F), which is relevant to severe heat condition locations.
Over 10 years or more, the plastic elongation of aluminium conductor layers associated with
long-time creep elongation may exceed that of the high short time loads. This is especially true
in geographical areas not subject to ice or hurricane.
Verification of the conductor sag and adjustment of the sag through conductor hardware setting
during relevant maintenance period is a solution to mitigate this plastic effect amplified by the
severe heat condition.
Refer to Figure 8 below which shows the combination of the various strains sustained by the
conductor.
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Figure 8: Conductor Elongation Diagram, Extract from [8]
b) Rigid conductor
Severe heat is linked mostly with most extreme temperature variation during the year, ie hottest
day/coldest night. Rigid conductor dilatation is linked to this large temperature variation.
c) Connectors
A contact or terminal will have its life reduced by half if the temperature of the ambient medium
surrounding it increases by ∆e (K) [9].
In some countries the ambient temperature can swing significantly from very hot during the day
to very cold during the night. The installation of the connector should be carefully undertaken,
taking into account the ambient temperature of the site on the day of the connector installation,
as systematic initial setting in the middle of the allocated range may not be correct. Expansion
connectors should be a viable option.
As an example, a -10mm (25/64in) to + 40mm (1-37/64in) setting variation may be preferred to

as –25mm (-1in) to + 25mm (+1in) variation, if the erection day is relatively cold compared to
the maximum temperature.
3.1.2.2. Equipment M al- operation
a) Leaking SF 6 Gas
Gas insulated circuit breakers (SF6) can have a significant need for gas replenishment due to
increased leakage rate.
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b) Electronic Equipment
Control equipment (microprocessor type devices) is very sensitive to temperature variation.

Additional forced cooling has to be temporarily added to cool the equipment ensuring it remains
in its operating range. New substations may have air conditioning/heat exchangers to take
advantage of the heat and create additional cooling. GRP portable relay rooms incorporate
control systems that generate their own heat needing ventilation. On hot, still days, forced
ventilation within the building and the control equipment will also be necessary.
3.1.2.3. Seals and Coat ings
Equipment subject to severe climatic conditions should have extra protection. Some of these can
include:
Gaskets and seals with:

- Choice of filtering in dusty environments
- Positive pressure for enclosures in dusty environments
Heat and humidity controls with redundant heating or cooling in applicable environments
Anti-fungal or fungus proof coatings
A thicker minimum thickness of paint in corrosive environments
Corrosion inhibitors in concrete structures and foundations
3.1.2.4. Equipment Failures
a) Bushings and capacitors
Oil insulated equipment, such as bushings and capacitors, often leak from increased internal
pressure due to increased temperature. These devices are designed for a specified
temperature range, with a normal tolerance. Without expansion chambers or safety valves
temperatures which exceed design ratings promote leaks.
b) Instrument transformer failure
Severe heat can result in a significant increase in oil leaks. This will not generally result in
outages. A safety mitigation measure for the operational staff, during high ambient temperature
periods (for example >40°C (104°F)), is to restrict access to live substations with the particular
type of current transformer.
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c) Power transformers
Power transformers, including tap changers, are designed to operate within a specific
temperature range. This equipment would need to be de-rated to ensure hot spot and top oil
temperatures are not exceeded. Tap change control relays can mal-operate when running up to
the top tap. Due to the severe temperatures pressure transformer pressure relief devices can
mal-operate, usually due to breather blockages or stuck valves. Breathers should be well
sealed and replenished with silica gel as required.
d) Power cables
Power cables are designed to work over a specified temperature range. When severe heat
occurs the rating of the cable is reduced. In direct sunlight one way of ensuring cables remain
within their rated temperature design range and achieve their midday rating is to install sun
shades over the cables.
3.1.3. Indoor - Equipment and Secondary Systems Impact
3.1.3.1. Indoor
To maintain the equipment so it achieves its anticipated life expectancy, e.g. 40 years, each
manufacturer specifies a routine maintenance policy. Periodically the equipment needs to be taken out
of service to enable this work to be undertaken. Often the work requires access to the inside of
enclosures and housings. Ingress of dust and moisture can have a detrimental effect on the operation
of the equipment if this was to occur. Filters on air ventilation systems in dusty environments are
essential to prevent the ingress of dust whilst allowing sufficient ventilation. Arranging access has to be
coordinated with the system operator, often requiring weeks or months of planning. Selecting a time to
suit the network planning, resource availability, etc. may result in difficulties should the selected day be
severely hot, cold, wet, humid or dusty. Placing the equipment indoor improves planning and
availability, workability, avoids sandstorms, severe humidity and heavy thunderstorms associated with
high temperatures, etc.
Buildings surrounding the switchgear eliminate the need to erect separate or mobile accommodation or
shelters. The building provides the required environmental control to enable the work to be carried out.
3.1.3.2. Lif e Reduct ion

Hot environments have always been known to decrease the life of the product, particularly electronic
items and batteries. To avoid such an outcome all locations where such equipment exists shall be
climate controlled. Either active or passive cooling could be provided.
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Figure 9: Aluminium Sunshade on the Surface of the Control Box

Figure 9 above shows an example where a sunshield has been retrofitted to an operator cabinet to
reduce the effect of solar radiation. For this same reason, electronic devices out in the yard need to be
avoided as much as possible. There are many examples of electronic equipment failing due to severe
heat when placed in outdoor cabinets, where the cubicles do not provide enough thermal insulation.
The excessive heat inside the equipment causes deterioration over time leading to eventual failure.
Although substations are designed for 40 years, say, electronic equipment if not in a controlled
environment so as to remain within their specified operating temperature range will need replacing
several times in the life of the substation.
Technology on the low voltage elements, such as that found in motor operators of HV products, is
moving towards digital technology. This type of technology is more susceptible to severe temperatures,
more so than the previous electro-mechanical type which is much more robust in such conditions.
However, this can be overcome by introducing local environmental control equipment, which itself will
require maintaining.
Batteries are another product which is sensitive to ambient temperatures. Batteries are best kept in
cool environments and be partially loaded throughout their lifetime to reduce internal temperature and
avoid deterioration thus ensuring they achieve their specified design life.
Sealed cabinets may be required for harsh environments but sealing in heating equipment will cause
equipment to fail sooner than anticipated. Appropriate ventilation, with screens over the ventilation
apertures to prevent the ingress of salt, dust and other contaminants, should always be fitted which will
allow air to flow through and remove the heat from the source preventing a build-up of excessive heat.
Fans can be fitted but they themselves require maintenance so should be considered as a last option.
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3.1.3.3. Air Condit ioning in Rooms and Equipment

Digital control and protection devices have specific temperature and moisture environmental
requirements. Additional substation control room equipment such as batteries are also sensitive to
heat and will have significant loss of life. Failure to meet specified environmental requirements will
cause improper operation or failure. Air conditioning equipment is normally recommended and installed
to maintain the specified environment. For new installations use of air-conditioned protection and
control buildings is recommended. Redundant air-conditioning systems or environmental mitigations
such as dehumidifiers is cost effective and prevents single point of failure. Redundant environmental
systems should be installed in locations where rapid restoration of service is not possible. Air
conditioning can also be installed in outdoor cubicles when needed to protect controllers and monitoring
equipment.
3.2. Severe Flooding
a) General
Substations located in areas where floods are common or are a possibility are subject to the
same hazards as any other buildings. However, the negative effects of flooding occurring at
substations and in consequence, their shut downs are more difficult to deal with than other type
of constructions. If a substation ceases to operate, due to restoration or repair, it is possible
that electrical energy will not be provided for a long period of time, when it is especially needed
in order to cope with the consequences of a flood. In the interest of preventing such situations
or, at least, limiting their negative effects, it is necessary to treat substations as constructions of
particular type, and to make sure, during the design stage as well as the actual construction
works, to put an end to such long lasting shut downs due to floods.
For both newly built substations as well as the ones that have already experienced a flood,
necessary steps should be taken to limit the consequences of floods. In both cases earlier
operating experiences along with existing local legal regulations should be taken into account.
b) Newly built substations
It is crucial to find out whether an area is subject to flooding before selecting it for the final
substation location, see Figure 10 below.
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Figure 10:
Selection of Location
Enabled by Flood
Prediction Mapping
If it is then it is advisable to first explore the option of changing the location to an area outside the risk
of flooding. If such an alternative does not exist and the substation must be built in an area subject to
floods it is a necessity to investigate means essential to limit the negative effects of floods.
Examples of such measures are as follows:
1. An increase of the ground level, in the area where the substation is to be built, to a height
above the predicted increase in water level due to the flood,
2. Utilization of higher supporting structures for high voltage equipment and substation
buildings,
3. Construction of additional walls preventing the water from entering the entire substation or
its elements (buildings, transformers, berms).
c) Substations reconstructed after floods
When reconstructing a substation after flood related damage, the following approaches can be
considered:
1. Relocation of the substation to an area which is not prone to the presence of floods
In case of deciding to relocate the substation, it has to be kept in mind that the existing
substation is a part of a larger power system and is connected to it by high voltage power
lines. Therefore, a relocation of the substation results in necessary adjustments in the
positioning of the power lines. Given the numerous issues related to the arrangement of
power lines, mainly the resistance of local residents, creating the connection between the
substation and the systems might be a task more difficult than the mere relocation of the
substation.
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2. Reconstruction with the utilization of prevention methods limiting the negative effects of
floods,
a. Rebuilding control house with elevated structure
b. Installing water tight door. Only if cable access is overhead
c. Installing temporary barrier or wall around the access door, control house or equipment
d. Replacing control and communications panels to keep equipment above flood level
e. Elevating batteries, station service panels or boxes to prevent emersion
f. Installing berms or flood walls around control house or equipment.
Replacing the substation in the same location may be an option with a more appropriate
design to cope with future flooding. It may well be that the cost of such a construction
along with any other environmental actions to ensure it is a success may be prohibitive and
that an alternative, less flood prone location may be preferable.
3. Reconstruction in the same setup as was present prior to the flood.
Reconstruction of a substation without performing any alterations implies a high risk of

heavy damage in case of additional future floods. Such an approach should be considered
only if there are credible predictions that exclude the possibility of a future flood.
The proposed means should be thoroughly analysed with respect to financial costs as well
as consequences due to the reconstruction itself and future operation, prior to making a
final decision.
d) Temporary protection of a substation in case of an approaching flood
In case a flood affects multiple large regions and is progressing relatively slowly, there is a
possibility to temporarily protect the substation and decrease the intensity of the damages. An
example of such protective means is the creation of dyke around the substation’s fence in order
to prevent the water from reaching the substation’s devices. After the water level decreases the
embankment can be removed and the substation can be utilized as before. A case study
(Section 9.5) is available that gives detail on what steps can be taken prior to a hurricane to
mitigate or allow for rapid restoration.
e) Examples of solutions limiting the negative effects of floods on substations
Examples of solutions that prevent flood related damage can be found in Case Studies 1 to 4
inclusive, in Section 9.2. Suggestions by representatives of different countries are presented; it
has been proven that they successfully limit the negative effects of floods on reliable
performance of substations.
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3.2.1.1. Ac cess and Egress

Substation layout, sloping site, strategic starting point, raised road, road/fencing destroyed), retaining
walls are all design and maintenance issues critical to a good substation performance.
Access to the substation can be a problem if it is built in a flood prone area. Even general erosion
relating to fences and roads can create safety issues allowing unintended access or preventing access.
While erosion is more of an operational issue rather than damage, restoration time can be significantly
impacted. In design of station roads, walkways and fences additional care need to be taken for areas
with low-lying areas.
3.2.1.2. Drying O ut of Equipment

Heater strips or elements will keep equipment enclosures or cabinets dry and help inhibit corrosion. If
equipment is immersed in water, an assessment needs to be made on how to clean and repair or if total
replacement is required. Contaminates in floodwater must be washed out of motor operators. The
cabinet should be pressure washed or flushed and then dried. To accelerate the drying process, fans
or contact cleaning spray can be used. Flood damage results in equipment reduced life in the long
term. Asset managers should consider replacement of the equipment as soon as practical.
3.2.1.3. Drainage Syst ems

Dykes have been built around some existing stations to protect against flooding, see Figure 11 below.
This enables substations to remain relatively dry in periods of severe rainfall.
Some silting of drains may occur on occasions; however no counter measures may be required. There
have been a few incidences involving flooding of oil separation tanks. Again no specific counter
Figure 11: Dyke around Substation to Divert Floodwater
Page 27
measures are required other than cleaning the tank and ensuring through maintenance that no oil is left
in the tank.
Early trench designs allowed rain to accumulate and drain into control room basements. Trenches
should be designed with gradients to allow water to drain away. Consideration should be given to
exposed open trenches during construction and high storm periods.
Cable insulation submerged in water filled trenches deteriorates over time and should be avoided.
Vertical draining well: if the soil permeability allows it and if there is no river close to the
substation to evacuate the water, an artificial well can be drilled. The Administrative
Authorities may strictly control this method as these wells modify the natural water flow.
Retention basin: this is a common counter-measure for substations. This can be installed
in substations located in floodable areas or in large/strategic transmission substations. In
this case the drains are all connected to one or several well-dimensioned retention basins.
Waterproof concrete walls with high raised doors around transformers: this is a new way of
mitigating the flooding risk, see Case Study 2 in Section 9.2.
3.2.1.4. Increased Height

Mitigation when constructing new substations in flood zones is to raise the whole substation above the
anticipated flood level and use elevated structures and enclosures in flood prone areas. An example
has been reported from a utility where in a substation, prone to flooding, the transformer had been
relocated to a higher level in the compound and switchgear was mounted on additional higher supports
to successfully mitigate against future floods. Elevating equipment at an existing station can be an
acceptable mitigation technique. Typically items that have long lead times or are cost prohibitive can
be prioritised and the strategy can be implemented over time to reduce flooding exposure. Clearance
or work methods could be addressed through proper design. See Section 4.2.

Equipment that has been submerged most likely will need replacing; however, they may be used for a
short time. Circuit breaker reclosing function should be disabled and placed on manual. If SCADA
control is immersed, inadvertent operation may take place. Reclosing of breakers onto faults will
reduce the life of transformers subject to through faults which, therefore, should be limited. If practical,
de-energisation of control and relay panels prevents irreversible damage and improves the probability
of continued use. In most cases the panels can be cleaned and dried for medium-term use. The panels
will need to be replaced at some point but may provide enough service time to plan for replacement.
Relays should be removed if possible and stored in a dry place. Equipment includes circuit breakers,
instrument transformers, switches, relay panels, communications panels, marshalling cabinets,
batteries etc. Floodwater not only contaminates the control cabinets and the mechanisms with silt and
chemicals, but in many cases moisture may leak into the live part chambers. Thorough cleaning, as
Page 28
described in Section 4.2, should be performed and then equipment should be tested and commissioned
as new to prove proper operation.
Asset managers should evaluate what equipment and how long each device should stay in service.
More frequent testing, operation and inspection may allow for delay in replacement. Submersion from
flooding shortens the life of any asset not specifically designed to be submerged. Figure 12 is an
example of equipment emersion from flood.
Figure 12: Substation Flood Impact
3.2.1.6. Gasket s and Sealing

The failure of most equipment is caused by the penetration of water or moisture into a cabinet or control
enclosure. If a severe flood is expected, such as in the case of a hurricane, water tight duct seal or RTV
silicone can be applied. In many flood events water migrates into a protection or control cabinet
creating short circuits and causing premature or inadvertent operation of equipment.
Free breathing transformers and breakers can be severally impacted by flood water. The condensation
separators should be raised as high as practical to prevent water contamination or siphoning of
floodwaters into the energized equipment tank.
Conduits are also a potential source of water ingress and proper sealing should be taken to prevent
water ingress. A moisture trap or weep hole needs to be available to prevent trapped water from
causing erosion, but this may cause problems with flooding. Water tight duct seal can be applied
temporarily and removed in cases where warning of flood conditions is known.
Successful short-term mitigation of cabinets can be achieved by wrapping cabinets in plastic preferable
heat shrink. A good seal can be obtained if the conduits of the cabinet are adequately plugged. While
this method is not inexpensive, the cost is economical compared to replacing the breaker.
Page 29
All gaskets of both cabinets and CT wells on transformers should be inspected periodically and
replaced if physical damage is observed. Proper maintenance of gaskets is a low cost and effective
asset life extension practise that prepares equipment for all environmental conditions.
3.2.1.7. Cable Ent rance

Restoration presents the major issue after flooding and water contamination (chemical and fine solids)
in substation infrastructure. Cable entries should have a step where the trench interfaces with the
building and the cable aperture, once cables are installed, should be sealed to prevent water ingress.
Based on experience from past flood events, it is recommended to design overhead control cable entry
to the control houses. A major outage was experienced due to basement flooding of a substation with
metalclad switchgear. The cause of flooding was a broken water pipe due to severe low temperatures.
Counter measures to avoid frozen pipes in metalclad substations were carried out and design change
can be implemented when a new control house is needed.
3.2.1.8. Eart hing and G round Grid

Flooding can affect the ground grid in two ways. Fast moving water causes erosion and can deposit
sediment. Flooding that erodes the substation soil and exposes the ground grid is a safety hazard for
personnel and equipment. Lose ground contacts can cause touch potential and ground neutral shifts.
Once the water level is stable, fill dirt can be applied and grid can be tested to ensure conductivity.
Bentonite clay can be added to improve conductivity, longevity and resistance to erosion. Most of the
time, flooding deposits sludge silt and debris. This material must be skimmed off or removed and
environmentally disposed. All ground grid leads and connectors must be tested using a high current test
method to confirm the integrity of the earthing system. New insulating stone must be reapplied to cover
the ground for safety of substation personnel. Coverage of the substation ground is for safety and
reduces the possibility of shock due to induced currents or differences in potential.
3.2.2.1. Indoor
Control houses and indoor substation facilities generally do not perform well unless they are designed
specifically for flood conditions. In some cases the control house may be destroyed, see Figure 13. In
other cases the unsealed indoor facility allows water to damage or destroy critical equipment, refer to
Figure 14.
Page 30
Figure 13: Substation Control House

Destroyed
Figure 14: Substation Control
House Flooded
3.2.2.2. Auxiliary Supplies

The key to reliability or restoration of a substation indoor building is the availability of station service.
Station service should be designed in a manner to survive the severe storm event if possible, or be
designed for quick restoration. Portable generators may be the best option in the case so a flop over or
disconnect switch may provide a quick and safe installation.
3.3. Severe Rain and Humidity

Severe rain and humidity is relative to the norms of the country in question. International standards
give advice on what levels can be expected in various locations. Equipment standards also give
guidance to utilities and buyers on what environmental criteria HV and LV equipment have been
designed to operate in. This section of the brochure endeavours to give some guidance on the issues
to be considered in relation to situations where severe rain and humidity may be a factor in substation
design.
In this type of environment, high voltage apparatus may suffer from electrical, thermal, chemical and
mechanical stresses during its lifetime. Experience shows that the impact of severe rain and humidity
on the electrical, chemical and thermal stresses of high voltage apparatus are detrimental to life and
reliability.
Severe rain can cause some degree of flooding or potential flooding. Refer to section 3.2 – “Severe
Flooding” also for associated experience and possible remedial actions.
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3.3.1.1. Generic Subst at ions Concern, Unplanned Out ages

For outdoor switchyards there are two areas of concern with regard to severe rain – the substation civil
design (buildings and compound) and the HV equipment design and their relative ability to withstand
significant increase in rain. In case of high humidity the primary concern is its impact on HV and LV
electrical equipment in the substation.
a) Substation Civil Design
i. Site Selection
The ability of a substation to absorb large amounts of rain over short periods comes down
to the provision, or lack thereof, of rainwater management systems at the initial design
and site selection. When choosing the site for the substation, it is important to review the
surrounding location and identify how rainwater may be safely routed away from the
substation. It is also important to review adjacent land and ensure that there are no
scenarios where rainwater could be routed from adjoining properties on to the substation
compound.
ii. Compound Design

Various materials are available which have significantly differing characteristics when it
comes to managing water on a substation site/compound. As such, selection of the
substation compound ground composition material is important in management of
rainwater.
iii. Drainage Design

The next area which must be considered in the design of the compound is the provision of
drainage for the substation which should be designed to adequate size to direct all
rainwater from the site in a safe manner.
iv. Building Design

Substation buildings must be designed to take account of severe rain and humidity.
Ventilation and sealing of building access points (cable duct/ doors etc.) must be carefully
designed. Alternative roof arrangements, e.g. pitched roofs, so ensure effective water
run-off.
b) Equipment Design
The primary concern for equipment as indicated from our survey is the low voltage wiring and
maintaining separation of the secondary connection to the HV devices.
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equipment design where possible, to

The following are general principles to be applied to HV equipment
mitigate against severe rain.
Secondary cables should be glanded in to the bottom of marshalling boxes where possible.
appropriate IP rating (see Table 2
Marshalling/termination boxes should be designed to an appropriate
below which is an excerpt from [1]).
Where it is not possible to gland into bottom of marshalling boxes, provision should be
made to route rainwater away from terminal box i.e. additional rain cover.
All secondary connection points should be appropriately sealed.
Seals of secondary marshalling boxes, covers etc. should be checked regularly and
maintained/replaced as required.
In exposed locations, severe rain and wind need to be considered. As such the possibility of
‘horizontal rain’ should be considered and provisions taken
taken to shield devices from this
phenomenon.
Table 2: Extract from [1] , Degr ees of Protection against Water Indicated by the
Second Characteristic Numeral
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Table 3 below is used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to IEC Enclosure Types:
Table 3: Extract from NEMA 250-2003
The above table is helpful for converting between NEMA and IEC for ingress protection in the design of
enclosures. Note! NEMA standards meet or exceed IEC standards. The conversion does not work in
the opposite direction.
To mitigate against high humidity, the following should be considered in the design of equipment:
Appropriate heating and ventilation systems

Designs to allow moisture egress (where a sealed environment is not possible or practical)
Avoidance of pneumatic drive systems where alternatives are available, as these are prone
to issues in high humidity environments (discussed in more detail below)
Careful maintenance of breather systems for transformers and reactors. (discussed in more
detail in 3.3.1.8 and 3.3.1.9)
Use of materials and coatings which minimise risk of fungal and microbial growth
3.3.1.2. Ac cess and Egress (To t he Sit e and t he Cont rol Room)
Heavy rainfall can have a serious impact on substation access. Access roads may become flooded as
drainage systems become swollen with excessive rain water. Once in the substation, access to
equipment rooms may become the next issue. Doors must be sealed type if particularly prone to
rainwater access.
Access will always be necessary from an operational perspective, therefore, the location of the
installation and the prevailing weather conditions need to be considered when designing the substation.
Page 34
3.3.1.3. Drainage Syst em Issues
Excessive rain can lead to flood damage due to blocked or burst storm water pipes and channels.
Burst water mains can create damage even though the substation may be well above the traditional
flood level. This type of flooding is usually not anticipated. A good principle is to choose sites with
consideration to this type of flooding or to raise switchgear and equipment rooms above the
surrounding ground level. Past events in which flooding in basements of control and relay buildings
had resulted in damage of electrical equipment have provided learning for utilities that this equipment
should not be installed in basements. Flooding of cable basements can, therefore, generally be
tolerated if they are free from electrical equipment. On occasions silting of drains can occur and oil
separation tanks can become flooded. Cleaning of tanks and maintenance is required to ensure no oil
is left in the tank.
3.3.1.4. Equipment Flooding Issues
Heavy rain can fill cabinets and affect wiring and internal components causing rusting and short circuits.
Cables and termination sockets are generally located at the bottom of cabinets and panels. After
draining out the water all wiring terminals of the secondary circuits will need to be cleaned and dried.
See Figure 15 below, for example, of a situation where rain water filled a cabinet above electrical
connections with subsequent damage.
Figure 15: Example of Control Cabinet with Plug and Socket Connections on
the Bottom Face Where the Cabinet Filled With Rain Water above
the Connections
Page 35
3.3.1.5. Corrosion issues (Cabinet s, Support M et alw ork)
a) Cabinet corrosion
Figure 16: Rusting Motor operators Caused by Rainwater and Humidity
Cabinets should have a minimum thickness of paint, particularly in corrosive environments. If

cabinets rust and corrode, sealing between the hinged doors and the rest of the cabinet
becomes ineffective, allowing rainwater to enter. Corroded cabinets can lead to problems with
the integrity of the equipment and can ultimately lead to complete mechanical failure. Figure 16
above indicates the result of insufficient corrosion protection. The internal view shows corroded
equipment caused by insufficient or ineffective anti-condensation heating.
b) Support metalwork corrosion
Like cabinets other metallic items in a HV substation are equally prone to problems with
corrosion. For example the metal base of a bushing has a shape that can hold the water (or
slows down the rain water draining). This may produce a humid condition that is ideal for
oxidation of the metal base. Tracks of corrosion may be formed in both the radial and axial
direction of the metal base. In the axial direction, the corrosion creates penetrable paths for the
SF6 gas leakage and water vapour ingress. This can eventually lead to a catastrophic event
when the lightning impulse breakdown strength of the SF6 is lower than the lightning
overvoltage that can occur prior to a bushing explosion following an abundant surface charge.
Page 36
Figure 17: Corrosion in the Radial Direction
Figure 17 above illustrates this phenomenon. Note, it is important to review the design of all
surfaces to ensure water is directed away from sensitive areas and that all metallic objects in
the substation are coated with appropriate levels of corrosion protection.
3.3.1.6. Inf rast ruct ure Erosion
a) Foundation movement/erosion issues
Movement of foundations causes additional strain on the primary equipment, eg connectors.

Excessive rain can cause erosion of the supporting soil around the foundations, which will
ultimately undermine the structure causing the primary equipment to lean, leading to potential
failure of the equipment. Foundations should be piled well down to rock or solid ground so as to
tolerate ground wash-a-ways.
This may cause significant difficulties in situations where equipment foundations are per pole
and erosion can cause differential displacement of the disconnector pole and operating
mechanism rods on the same phase.
Ground wash-a-ways can be seen in substations close to the sea. Due to tide erosion, the
underground sand can be washed away. Tides can be seen as regular flooding. If this is not
considered correctly in civil works it results in:
Movement of foundations and settlement of HV equipment

Breaking of HV connectors, because of elongation of stranded conductor
Sinking of cable ducts and shortening of control cable connections
See Figure 18 for examples of the above
Page 37
Figure 18: (left) broken HV connector, (middle) holes are indicating that sand in the
ground disappeared, (right) cable connection has become too short
b) Fungicidal and Microbial Contamination Issues
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere at a given location. Humidity
determines how wet/moist or dry the air is. Humidity aids in the development of fungicides and
microbiological organisms expansion. Higher values of humidity typically exist in tropic and sub
tropic regions. However other regions can be susceptible based upon environmental conditions
that exist.
Areas subject to heavy rainfall may see increased humidity levels. Areas with heavy snowfalls
during the spring melt will see increased humidity levels. Areas suffering abnormal weather
conditions may experience increased humidity levels. With these increased humidity levels
power utility industries will see an increased incidence of fungal and microbial growth on
electrical equipment.
Elevated humidity levels will provide environmental conditions that promote increased fungal
and microbial growth. Fungal and microbial growth can have detrimental effects on electrical
utility equipment. This increased prevalence on electrical equipment can cause premature
outages, power failures, increased maintenance, and equipment failure. Traditional wisdom is
to incorporate resistive condensate or space heaters in the electrical equipment space. With
increased incidence of fungal and microbial growth, resistive heating may not be enough,
additional measures can be employed.
One measure that can be employed is the use of anti-fungal and anti-microbial coatings on
electrical equipment. Today these coatings can be applied to the exterior of existing electrical
Page 38
equipment or can be specified and applied during the manufacturing process. On existing
electrical equipment the coating is applied topically on all exposed non-energized, surfaces.
During the manufacturing process the coating can be applied on interior and exterior, non-
energized, surfaces. The applied coat will range from 100µm (4 mil) to 500µm (20 mil) thick
based upon coverage and manufacturer requirements. Coatings today can inhibit the growth of
fungal and microbial growths on electrical utility equipment for a period of 5-20 years depending
upon the time, type and method of application.
3.3.1.7. Issues w ith HV Insulators
When rainwater infiltrates the Portland cement seal of the lower flange of hollow insulators and the
water freezes caused by a temperature drop, the hollow insulator is likely to crack due to expansion.
This has created catastrophic impact on circuit breakers in the past. A countermeasure is caulking of
the cement part to prevent water infiltration.
When this situation becomes an issue with a range of switchgear, then a plan must be developed to
repair or replace this generation of equipment. A regime needs to be put in place to limit personnel
access by assigning an exclusion zone around the equipment. This exclusion zone can be active when
raining and for a predetermined time after the rain has stopped.
As indicated in the preceding sections, issues relating to severe rain and humidity have the potential to
cause equipment mal-operations. The following are some examples noted in our survey responses.
An issue was reported with respect to an HV disconnector design where the control cable entry was
located to the top of the LV marshalling box where rain water drained off the disconnector directly on
top of the cable entry causing a leak. This issue was resolved with a design change ensuring that the
box was moved to a location where water would not drain naturally on top of it.
During a typhoon, as a result of strong winds, rainwater may leak in through air vents of cubicles,
resulting in insulation failure and consequently outage. A countermeasure is to improve vents so that
rainwater may not leak into the cubicles.
Power transformers have been reported as particularly prone to difficulties in conditions of high
humidity resulting in a potentially high probability of water vapour ingress through poor sealing of the
main tank and the oil preservation tank with opened breather system. This causes a hydrolysis process
which in turn leads to de-polymerization of the paper insulation [10]. Open breather systems cause
oxygen to enter the transformer oil through oil preservation.
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The high humidity has the potential to also cause the failure of the transformer control system and
mechanical protection. Experiences from utilities in areas of high humidity show that a large amount of
transformer trip is triggered by relay malfunction caused by corroded micro-switches.
Substation equipment which uses pneumatic mechanisms for switching operations has proved
troublesome in areas of high humidity and/or severe raining. Moisture entering these systems causes
corrosion and eventual failure of the system. Consideration of alternative control systems is
recommended to avoid this potential risk.
3.3.2.1. Cont rol House
Long-term heavy rains in substations can create severe humidity in control houses. The advent of
severe humidity causes condensation that impacts controls, relays and communication devices. These
impacts can be failure or reduced service life. If batteries are free breathing service life can be affected
also.
3.3.2.2. Equipment M al- operation and M it igation
Humidity can affect buchholz devices, tap changer surge relays and pressure relief devices and seal-in
circuits. Moisture inside these devices can cause short circuits, false trips and unplanned outages.
Mitigation using RTV coatings, additional enclosures or additional sealing is inexpensive methods of
maintaining for humidity.
3.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice
Among the severe climate conditions affecting AIS, some of the most pervasive in the Northern
countries are manifested during the winter conditions: low temperatures, high levels of snow and ice
storms. Such conditions affect the air-insulated substation equipment in different but equally difficult
ways, often leading to equipment failures, alarms and occasional blackouts. It is important to detail
these conditions separately and discuss the mitigation available for each of them.
Most electrical equipment sold for outdoor use is designed and built to international standards that
require the equipment to operate within the design parameters with no loss of performance between -
30°C (-22°F) and +40°C (+104°F). Such equipment is type-tested accordingly by the manufacturers.
However, a significant number of utilities operate in countries and territories that are, during periods of
the year, subject to temperatures below -30°C (-22° F), sometimes even lower than -50°C (-58°F).
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Equipment subjected to such low temperatures can be affected in a number of ways, depending on its
construction, insulating medium, lubricants used for its moving parts, gaskets and seals, materials used
for fabrication, etc.
a) High Snow Levels
Air-insulated substations are by definition susceptible to snowfalls, and when such snowfalls
exceed the average levels, they can affect not only access to equipment in the substation, but
also safety of personnel and the operation of the substation.
b) Icing Conditions
Under certain conditions that can mostly occur in Northern climates, freezing rain can lead to a
phenomenon known as “Ice Storm” or – in some parts of the United States a “Glaze Event”.
Such events occur when a layer of warm air is trapped between two layers of colder air. Water
vapour precipitates in the upper cold layer, passes through the warm layer in a liquid form and
cools down in the lower cold layer. If the temperature of the lower layer is close to 0°C (32°F),
the precipitation comes down as sleet. But if the temperature of that air layer is below 0°, the
precipitation hits cold objects, such as tree branches, power lines, etc. and freezes instantly,
covering them with a layer of ice.
The U.S. National Weather Service defines an ice storm as a storm that results in the
accumulation of at least 6.4mm (0.25in) of ice on exposed surfaces. The build-up of ice over
electrical conductors and steel frame power structures can reach unsustainable weights and
can lead to broken lines, wood poles or metal structures.
Built-up ice can also accumulate on porcelain bushings and insulators, eventually causing line-
to-ground flashovers, taking the equipment out of service.
North-eastern US and Eastern Canada are particularly susceptible to ice storms; however other
parts of North America have also experienced this phenomenon. Of notable interest was the
ice storm of January 1998 in Eastern Canada, one of the most damaging and costly in North
America. It resulted in power outages to over 3 million people that lasted from several days to a
month. Some areas recorded accumulated ice due to freezing rain of up to 80mm (3-5/32in).
The power system in the Province of Quebec was particularly affected as shown in Figure 19
below.
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Figure 19: Area Affected by “The Great Ice Storm of 1998” and
Accumulation of 51mm (2in) of Ice on a Twig
3.4.1.1. Damaged Equipment
Gas filled equipment can be susceptible to leaks if the weight of snow and ice can distort the equipment
and create a leak in the seals. This may occur in GIS outdoor bushings or other gas filled equipment,
such as surge arresters. One possible countermeasure can be to attach snow protection covers on the
insulators to prevent the build-up of heavy snow and ice.
Horizontally mounted auxiliary cable tray work can be very susceptible to damage caused by heavy
build-up of snow and ice. By modifying the tray to be vertically mounted or relay cables in an
alternative route that avoids the use of cable trays altogether are possible countermeasure alternatives.
3.4.1.2. Froz en Equipment
Some metals, depending on their alloy composition, become brittle at very low temperatures. This
phenomenon is particularly affecting moving parts, from simple devices such as local control cabinet’s
door locking mechanisms to levers and springs of the operating mechanisms of switching equipment. It
is not uncommon to experience fractures in metal castings, or broken door handles in -50°C (122°F)
temperatures.
Low temperatures affect lubricants used in various mechanisms to facilitate smooth operation of the
moving parts. Some lubricants’ viscosity increases, greases harden and lose their lubricating
properties, making the operation of the equipment slower or outright impossible. For circuit breakers
whose performance depends on prompt interruption of the arc, slowing down the movement of the
contacts can lead to failure of interrupting function or even explosive failure due to lengthy arcing in the
interrupting chamber.
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Similarly, at low temperature various gaskets and seals are affected. Depending on the materials used
to manufacture them, they can lose elasticity, and some may shrink. That phenomenon can lead to
leakage of insulating fluids (oil, compressed air, SF6 or other gases), resulting in environmentally
damaging leaks, low-pressure alarms or even blockage of the operation, if the level of insulating fluids
reaches below acceptable limits. Very low temperatures, leading to ingress of moisture and corrosion
of internal components, also affect control cabinets gaskets.
For circuit breakers that depend on pneumatic mechanisms, should the compressed air not be
sufficiently dry, moisture can condensate and freeze at very low temperatures, possibly leading to air
pipes blocking and failure to operate.
Ground freezing can have a detrimental effect on the footings on which AIS equipment is installed.
Deep freezing temperatures accelerate the footings erosion, and in some cases movement of footings
can lead to operating issues (e.g. HV disconnect switches)
Finally, the insulating fluids may also be affected by very low temperatures. Insulating oil viscosity
increases leading to less circulation within reactive equipment and difficulties for the moving parts in
switching equipment that slow down the interrupting process. SF6 used in outdoor circuit breakers
usually at operating pressures around 480kPa (70psi), start liquefying around -32°C (-26°F), thus
generating low-gas alarms and affecting the interrupting performance of the breakers.
SF6 insulated equipment is affected by significant changes in the temperature and can cause alarms or
even tripping due to the change in gas pressure. Transformers and potential devices are affected in
the same way and oil levels can drop substantially due to prolonged cold weather. Care must be taken
to make sure the equipment oil levels are checked and kept at manufactures recommended level.
Mitigating Methods
All the above phenomena are well known to utilities operating in cold climates and over the years these
utilities have arrived at various solutions in collaboration with manufacturers to deal with these issues:
The first step is identifying the severe weather conditions applicable in the areas covered by
utilities. This can be done by listing these conditions in the equipment specifications issued by the
utilities based on historical records, (e.g. zones where temperatures of -50°C (-58°F), can occur,
wind chill factors, average and maximum snow levels, likelihood and frequency of ice storms, etc.).
The next step consists of listing specific type-tests and acceptance criteria that the equipment must
pass successfully before it is installed in the cold area zones. An example of such a specific test is
a requirement for a circuit breaker to perform a number of no-load mechanical operations (e.g.
200) at the lowest temperature limit, after it has been exposed for a minimum 12 hours to the
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temperature conditions and with a wind velocity of 115km/h (72mph) and a gust factor of 1.3. The
timing of the breakers should match that obtained under +20°C (68°F), conditions and gas leakage
should not exceed 0.5% per year by weight.
A specific test for ice storm withstand would include similar conditions as above, but with a wind
velocity of 75km/h (47mph) and ice accumulations of 20mm (3/4in). Such a test would be
conducted on circuit breakers and disconnect switches.
Another test requirement covers frequent switching within 1 hour, to simulate exposure to storm
conditions that can lead to frequent trips, without leading to thermal runaway on the breaker
contacts and SF6 gas within the interrupter due to insufficient heat dissipation. IEEE C37.04
specifies the number of such operations (duty cycle) within one hour that breaker is expected to
withstand, for voltage ratings above and below 121kV.
Mitigation for ice storms and ice forming includes reinforcement of the structures and foundations
as well as using composite insulators with hydrophobic properties that prevent a build-up of ice.
Insulating control cabinets, use of special gasket materials and procedures, and installation of anti-
condensation heaters prevent ice build-up within the cabinets.
3.4.1.3. Sev ere Snow
Snow drifts can cause a serious threat to site access and inside the substation if blown against primary
equipment. As a countermeasure for snow drifts, an increase in the perimeter fence height can be
considered. Due to significant snow accumulation in some countries, design guidelines for safety
clearances in substations requires adding a buffer of 600mm (24in) to any safety clearance measured
from finish grade or from top of buildings. In 1998 most of the province of Ontario and Quebec had
major and long outages due to ice forming on the conductors in substations. The ice thickness
exceeded the design criteria leading to the collapse of strain conductors in substations.
High levels of snow occasionally prevent work in substations due to the Limits-of-Approach issues.
Equipment specifications include special allowance on Limits-of-Approach dimensions of up to 1m
(39in) of packed snow and equipment withstand of ice accumulation of 30mm (1-1/4in).
In countries and areas prone to severe snow and ice levels, it is essential to consider snow and ice
risks in the substation components mechanical design, e.g. structures, control house, conductors, etc.
In France, for instance, they have developed a Regulation, i.e. UTE C11-001. In specific areas of the
French Alps, where packed snow can reach 1 metre, the fence height is increased by 1 metre (39in).
Other counter-measures can be taken in very specific locations. For example, outdoor equipment when
re-built can have higher structures and specific platforms (about 1 metre (39in) higher) so that the
operating staff remain safe whenever they enter the substation during severe snow conditions.
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Classification of areas can be based on the mean deepest snow derived from historical snow data, and
from this information the height to the live parts, i.e. the height to the top of the support structure for the
equipment, can be determined and fixed.
Due to very high snow pack accumulated during the winter, melting of the snow can cause high water
levels of rivers, creating strong currents. Substations close to swollen rivers may become subject to
flooding threat and may necessitate temporary mobile substations in case the threat materialises.
Mitigation for severe snow levels includes the installation of equipment on raised foundations/support
structures in order to maintain the prescribed Limits-of-Approach. This method, however, will require
the use of platforms installed to provide access to the control cabinets of the equipment, see Figures 20
and 21 below. In these severe cases snow melting devices can be fitted to the platforms.
Such platforms can add significantly to the total installed cost of the equipment. There is a trade
between a comfortable access and encroaching into Limits-of-Approach.
Figure 20:
230kV Circuit Breaker Installed on High

Foundations to mitigate Against High Snow
Levels. Note the Extensive Access Platform.
Figure 21: Raised Equipment and

Associated Access
Platforms
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3.4.1.4. Ground Heav e
Ground heave is caused by moisture in the soil freezing. Ice expands when freezing causing soil to
expand or to move outward and up. If foundations are not dug deep enough, foundations are
susceptible to soil movement from ground heave. Piling and foundations can literally be forced to the
surface. Local/regional freezing line depths can change if abnormal freezing temperatures are
experienced. To avoid ground heave engineers should consider more conservative depth requirements
for foundations. Deeper footers and pilings are recommended.
Foundation movement puts strain on connections. Ground frost may cause concrete pad movement.
Deep footings or piles are recommended for all new constructions.
3.4.1.5. Hoarf rost
In the context of climate change, there has been an increase in severity of weather phenomena
impacting reliability of electrical systems [11].
Frost, or hoarfrost, is a deposit of ice crystals formed when water vapour in the air condenses on a
substrate of temperature below zero. Increase in weight due to frost is normally small but the effective
wind area can be increased significantly and cause adverse effects if the accumulation persist. Frost
can also cause high-energy losses due to corona effects on HV and UHV lines.
Formation of ice may produce difficulties in the operation of electric power systems. Under certain
atmospheric conditions, a deposit of ice can build up a thickness that sometimes makes the operation
of outdoor switching equipment difficult. [12]
In addition to mechanical damages due to excessive ice accumulation and dynamic loads caused by
wind, the presence of ice and snow on insulators may lead to flashover and consequent power outages.
For example, on April 18, 1988, at the Hydro-Quebec Arnaud substation, a series of six flashovers
occurred on insulators covered with wet snow and resulted in a major power interruption for a large part
of the province of Quebec (Hydro-Quebec, 1988) [13]. Also, power outages caused by multiple ice and
snow accumulation have been reported by many authors in Canada [14].
In Romania there were severe weather manifestations between 4th and 12th February 2012, during
which a snowstorm and frost affected the power distribution network [11]. 274 poles were damaged in
the 20kV network, mostly, an older version of concrete poles, and affecting new ones in smaller
number. A large number of brackets, insulators and conductors were also damaged. The severe
weather condition also affected low voltage overhead lines which fed 736 MV/LV transformer
substations. The damage included breaking of 48 poles, breaking of aluminium conductors, insulators
Page 46
and electrical connections. Heavy snowfall and frost

blocked the roads, which added to the difficulty of
repairing the damaged network. During this period, the
phenomenon of frozen rain was also recorded. The effect
of frost deposits is shown in Figure 22. [11]
Figure 22:
Electrical Installations Affected by

Frost Deposits
a) Techniques for de-icing equipment
There are several techniques available for de-icing equipment. One such method uses CO2
pellets to clean and de-ice insulators similar to using sand blasting equipment. One of the most
widespread methods involves the use of a high-pressure jet of hot water. This method is very
efficient for de-icing aircraft, fire hydrants, water pipes, etc. It is very simple and quick to use.
However, large quantities of water and power are required, and operating mechanisms are
splashed by the water, which is problematic. This technique cannot be used to de-ice
energized equipment outdoors due to the increased conductivity of hot water, the effects of
wind on the proper dispersal of the water stream, and the required minimal safety approach
distances. [15]
Another useful technique involves infrared technology, used to de-ice aircraft in hangars. This
method is very efficient under indoor conditions. However, its efficiency is reduced outdoors
due to climatic elements (e.g. wind, cold temperatures, freezing rain). In order to de-ice
energized equipment, a minimum approach distance must also be met, which further reduces
the efficiency of the mitigation technique. [15]
Glycol-based liquids are also used for de-icing purposes. However, they are generally
electrically conductive and would present a hazard when de-icing energized equipment. There
would also be a risk of short-circuiting the post insulators through the effects of conductive
liquid runoff that has been contaminated by minerals on the surface of the ice. It would also be
important to collect these liquids for environmental purposes, which entails some costs. [15]
Another technique is steam-based de-icing, which is an improved version of the hot water
method. Steam-based de-icing is frequently used by Quebec municipalities. It is efficient for de-
icing fire hydrants, water pipes, the ground, and cabinets. The technique is simple to use and
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low in cost. Operators are not splashed by the water. This technique was therefore retained in
view of further evaluation of de-icing applications for energized and de-energized equipment.
[15]
b) AC Ice melting
A Canadian utility has accumulated experience with melting ice from conductors for over
twenty-five years. The theory and the basis of using AC short circuit currents to melt ice is to
use the short circuit capacity inherent in the local power system. These sources have included
using mobile transformers (66-12/25kV), substation transformers (66-12 or 25kV), and terminal
station transformers (115 or 230-66kV). In most cases the power transformer in substations is
the most popular source. Cases have also been developed for melting sub-transmission and
transmission lines at their operating voltages (33kV, 66kV and 115kV). For details on methods
refer to [16].
3.4.1.6. Clearances
High levels of snow in the substations can encroach on the limits-of-approach around energized
equipment, making inspection and manual operating of the equipment unsafe for field personnel. Some
Canadian utilities take high levels of snow (up to 900mm/3ft of packed snow) into account when
designing the foundations and height of equipment, a situation that leads to higher costs and issues
related to access by operating personnel to equipment control cabinets.
On very rare occasions, cases have been reported where snow levels exceeded any expectations and
due to shorter dielectric distances L-G arcing between HV terminals and snow has occurred. In British
Columbia at least one occurrence is known (in mid. 1990’s) where the level of snow under a 500kV line
through the mountains required taking the line out-of-service.
3.4.1.7. Insulat ion
Ice accumulation on insulators during cold winter days followed by slowly rising temperatures creates
favourable conditions for insulator flashover especially in heavily polluted areas. This can cause
numerous outages due to this phenomenon. A possible solution is to use RG insulators and to monitor
weather conditions. For details on this method refer to [17].
The whole substation may not be affected due to snow and ice. It can be only some parts of the
installation, e.g. terminal parts of a disconnecting switch covered by snow-cap. As countermeasures
against snow-cap, upgrade of insulation level of insulator or bushing and attaching covers for snow-cap
prevention may be considered.
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3.4.1.8. M ixed G ases
Another solution to prevent liquefaction of insulating gases is to use specific gas mixtures (such as
SF6/CF4 or SF6/N2) which lower the liquefaction point of the mixture. This solution is advantageous for
static equipment (e.g. instrument transformers); however, the downside for using mixed gases in
interrupting devices will result in slight de-rating of their interrupting capability.
3.4.1.9. St rengthened Roof s
Buildings will have roof strength based on national requirements for snow loadings. In Canada, for
example, snow loading is per the National Building Code of Canada. Due to severe climatic conditions
an additional external roof may be added to supplement the ability to carry additional snow loading,
refer to Section 6.4 for further details.
3.4.1.10. Sit e Access
AIS in isolated areas often become inaccessible during winter periods due to high levels of snow. The
access roads become impassable, thus creating a challenge for winter station inspections and
attending to equipment issues.
Snowfall and ice on roads, leading to or inside the substation, can make access and egress for the
transportation of equipment very difficult. High levels of snow in the switchyard can make it difficult to
install heavy emergency equipment in a timely manner.
Burst pipes can be the cause of a major outage due to flooding, e.g. in the basement of a substation
where metalclad switchgear may be located. Flooding can be caused by a break in a water pipe due to
severe low temperatures. Additional measures must be taken to avoid such leaks in the basements of
metalclad switchgear buildings.
During spring time, depending on the previous winter, there can be problems caused by melting water
(e.g. damages on roads and drains) requiring repair works.
3.4.1.11. General Equipment Failures
Designs need to be based on a snow-area classification reflecting past snowfall data, and in case of an
important substation, specific design needs to be carried out.
Severe snow, the torsion break of the support part in the steel structures may occur. This may cause
maintenance staff difficulties during restoration, in getting to the power station, bringing necessary
equipment and materials, and working in high places in the deeply-accumulated snow. As a recurrence
prevention policy, the hydropower stations located in the heavy snowfall area need to be identified, and
Page 49
the exchange of out-dated supporting metal fittings with those with more margins to high tension and
torsion completed.
Substation design should cater for conditions yielding maximum recorded values. The maximum
designed weight of snow sticking to conductor is 6kg/m (43lb/ft).
Gas leak may occur from bushing of a neutral surge arrester due to snowy load. Countermeasure is to
attach a snow protection cover.
Utilities have recently experienced failure of older high voltage breakers at high-elevation locations,
requiring adequate spare or stock in place for special bushings.
3.4.1.12. M itigat ing Solut ions
Each severe weather phenomenon must be dealt with depending on what equipment is likely to be
affected and the consequences.
Mitigation for low temperatures involves using materials, lubricants, seals and gaskets that have
been tested and found suitable for the specific weather conditions.
One solution to prevent the increase in viscosity of insulating fluids or the liquefaction of insulating
gases is to use electric heaters attached to the tank, wrapped around conduits and placed at
sensitive locations in the control cabinets, see Figure 23 below.
Figure 23: 72kV Circuit Breaker with Tank Heaters

to Prevent SF6 Gas Liquefaction
Page 50
Circuit breakers using pneumatic mechanisms can be retrofitted with small heaters installed
around air pipes, or connected to a central air system that controls the air supply moisture levels
using dedicated dryers.
If platforms are not sufficiently raised, access to the control cabinet can become difficult.
3.4.2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact
3.4.2.1. Capacitors
Capacitor banks generally are sealed by welding the stainless steel can and solder connection on the
bushings to seal the terminal lead connection. Quality in manufacturing is important to maintain seal
integrity that can be compromised by unanticipated cantilever force. Ice loading on the capacitor and
bushing can cause pressure on the seal between the can and the bushing. There are no design
standards for manufacturing of capacitor cans that insure specific mechanical integrity of capacitors.
Unless specified in the can bank design the mechanical requirements are assumed to be light or
negligible for the capacitor can and connection. Ice loading on bushings and attached leads, shown in
the fuse less example in Figure 24, creates a significant cantilever force that may cause leaks. Care
should be made specifying larger BIL bushings. The porcelain strength will be greater but the
additional length places more cantilever force on the attachment point between the bushing and the
capacitor can.
Figure 24: Capacitor Bank Covered in a

Thick Layer of Heavy Ice.
3.4.2.2. Dead Tank Circuit Breakers
The use of tank heaters comes with caveats: proper sealing of the heater to prevent moisture ingress
between it and the tank is required. If such sealing is not effective, it can lead to serious corrosion of
the tank; see Figures 25 and 26 below.
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Figure 25: Corrosion Under Figure 26: Tank Heater

Incorrectly Sealed Tank Correctly Sealed
Heater
Some manufacturers offer complete blankets enclosing the entire interrupter tank; see example in
Figure 27 below. It is, however, a solution that has yet to be proven on long-term bases.
Figure 27: Blanket Covered Interrupter Tanks
Wildlife protection can be installed on switchgear as it also protects against ice build-up on switches
and around insulators and bushings. Many have been replaced with improved designs. Higher
creepage bushings and insulators can be installed in high frost or high pollution areas to combat
insulation flashover.
3.4.2.3. Transf ormers and T ap Changers
In severe cold conditions, mechanical parts, such as the shaft of the on-load tap changer of a power
transformer can freeze. It is important that the correct use of grease and seal materials are applied
under severe cold conditions and not the types used for normal weather conditions.
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3.4.3.1. Indoor GIS
The substitution of AIS equipment with indoor GIS in areas that are frequently exposed to harsh winter
condition is one of the most efficient solutions. At present, the decision to use GIS versus AIS is
dictated in most utilities by the availability and cost of the land, and is most prevalent in large urban
concentrations, where land for a large area required by AIS is scarce and expensive. However, in the
Northern areas where such severe weather conditions are frequent; there is a definite trend towards
using indoor GIS even in remote, rural areas, where land scarcity and cost does not represent an issue.
Indoor GIS offers significantly higher protection not only for low temperatures, severe snow levels and
ice storms, but also against corrosive atmosphere that stems from proximity to marine environments or
industrial pollution. The indoor GIS enclosure facilitates maintenance and significantly extends the life
expectancy of the equipment. With the advent of industrial type enclosures, the cost of the GIS shelter
comes at an acceptable level when evaluation of all options takes into account lower maintenance
costs and extended life of the assets.
3.4.3.2. Cont rol Room and Panels
Equipment such as protection and control devices are designed over a specific temperature range and
are located in control rooms. Space heating or specific panel heating may be incorporated with
thermostatic control to ensure the ambient temperature remains in the required operating range.
3.4.3.3. Equipment M echanisms, Driv es and Cont act Syst ems
Equipment such as motors, auxiliary electrical systems, replays, etc. is located inside operator
mechanisms designed for a specific temperature range. Space heating or specific panel heating is
normally incorporated with thermostatic control, to ensure the ambient temperature inside the enclosure
remains in the required operating range. Breathers at the top and bottom of the enclosure are normally
fitted to promote a diagonal flow of air through the enclosure, to reduce or eliminate condensation.
3.4.3.4. Hydraulic leaks, et c.
Low temperature conditions affect the operation of the hydraulic mechanisms, slowing down the
operation due to increased viscosity of the hydraulic fluid. Normally such mechanisms require special
heaters placed in strategic locations that maintain the viscosity of the oil within acceptable limits.
Occasionally heaters fail or are underrated for the lower than expected temperatures, when combined
with the wind-chill factor. Increased viscosity increases hydraulic pressure and creates hydraulic leaks
around the seals
3.5. Severe Wind
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There are many wind related events that contribute to outages, but tornadoes, hurricanes and cyclones
have the most significant impact on reliability and outage time. Mostly this is due to intensity and the
wide area effect of this type of weather. Hurricanes and cyclones cover vast areas and can impact
utilities for days. Tornadoes may have a shorter and more targeted impact than hurricanes.
Devastating wind energy from tornadoes makes designs expensive and improbable to prevent outages.
The intensity, frequency and change in expected location cause significant outages for utilities that they
may not be prepared for. Events such as Hurricane Katrina 2006 and Sandy 2012 highlight the human
impact of long protracted outages.
Designing substations for the worst-case event may be expensive and fruitless. A good example of this
occurred as a result of Hurricane Katrina. The force of the storm completely destroyed Grand Isle
substation levelling the transmission backbone. The cost of building this substation to survive the storm
was not prudent since all the distribution feeders and customer loads were also completely destroyed.
The need for the substation to be rebuilt may be in 10 years in the future. The same philosophy is true
for a hurricane or a cyclone. Each utility must evaluate the probability and impact of the storm and
design to meet certain reliability needs.
The questionnaire did not highlight a specific philosophy or design load standard for high winds. This
section will discuss some design philosophies that improve reliability performance of the substation for
severe wind events. The cost of improving reliability or availability goes up exponentially while the
margin of improvement may change slightly. Expedited restoration capability through the use of mobile
substations for example is an effective, low cost and versatile philosophy. Substation outages caused
by high winds can cover a wide range of effects for which this section breaks down specific aspects of
the storm types, and covers countermeasures for short-term and long-term mitigation or designs.
Utility experience shows a few design concepts that are helpful at reducing impact and expediting
restoration time.
3.5.1.1. Subst ation Design t o Reduce Damage and Expedit e Rest orat ion
When designing substations that will be subjected to severe wind conditions it is essential to have a
rapid restoration strategy from the outset. This can be by the introduction of weak points, such as
connectors, and take advantage of the low tensile strength. These items are cheap to replace and
readily available. Damage to major and minor equipment increases outages. For substations designed
with string bus instead of bus bar, leads that detach from equipment and bus prevent equipment and
foundation damage to cantilever forces above their design limit. The key to rapid restoration is having
no damage sustained by the major equipment such as a breaker, switches or CVT’s. The lead can be
Page 54
reattached quickly, accelerating restoration. Figure 28 is an example of a broken connector on a CVT.

The connector has the least mechanical strength, so it will detach before exerting cantilever force
detrimental to the CVT porcelain housing. The short term alternative is to ensure enough spare
equipment such as insulators CVT’s and pipe stands are readily available. Availability of spare
equipment will allow restoration activities to begin immediately.
Figure 28: Mechanical Connector Designed as Weak Point
3.5.1.2. M itigat ion Techniques for Salt and Pollut ion
Mitigation techniques include washing of insulators, barriers and application of silicone grease or RTV
coatings. If substations are rarely subjected to contamination, a washing program may be adequate.
Coating insulators with silicone grease or RTV coatings is an approach that can be done without
replacing the insulators. This requires minimal or a short outage time. If a substation has substantial
financial impact, sensitive or critical customers, a moderate or permanent approach may be needed.
Outage risk tolerance must be established as part of an outage mitigation project scope.
Severe winds from all types of storms can create a reliability challenge for operators and designers.
Contamination deposited on insulation reduces tracking resistance and can lead to flashover, faults and
bus lockouts. Contamination condition is accelerated when moisture is present, creating a conductive
path that can bridge the sheds of an insulator. IEC 60815-1, 2008 [18] and IEEE1313.2, 1999 [19] give
guidance on insulator shed design shape and creepage distance that will increase tracking resistance
and overall performance of the insulators.
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Salt or dust pollution is a challenge for grid operators managing air insulated substations located near
the ocean or any sandy flat or farm basin. For example high winds blowing from the ocean towards
inland substations are bound to lead to mineral layers contaminating the insulators’ sheds, decreasing
the leakage distance. The leakage distance then may not be long enough to ensure the electrical
withstand or tracking resistance between the grounded support frame and the live equipment connected
to the network voltage.
This salt pollution impact may be worsened when combined with other environmental factors such as
industrial, agricultural pollution, icing rains or any kind of activities producing microscopic flying debris
(salt crystals, pollen, vegetal cuttings, steel plant residues, conductive dusts), likely to stick on
insulators disks. Special care should be taken when designing an AIS substation for additional factors
from location surroundings such as proximity to the sea.
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a) Live washing
Figure 29: Insulator Washing System
In general, anti-pollution type insulators and fixed spray type live washing equipment can be installed,
see Figure 29 above, in substations in coastal regions. This equipment results in a higher cost of
construction and maintenance. Below is a description of how to prevent salt contamination by the
introduction of a coastal wind barrier.
b) Coastal Wind Barrier [20]
i. Summary of a Coastal Wind Barrier
A coastal wind barrier includes many wave-form holes and is used against sand and
wind.
Figure 30: Image of Coastal

Wind Barrier
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When the wind goes through the holes in the barrier, the direction of the wind is
changed from the horizontal plane to 45º vertically. The velocity of the wind is,
therefore, reduced by mutual interference. Refer to Figure 30 above and Figure 31
below.
Pilot insulator
Wind barrier
Anemometer
Figure 31: Photograph of Field Test Facility
ii. Shield factor of fence
The effect of anti-wind is dependent on a shield factor. The relationship between the
effect of anti-wind and the shield factor is shown in Figure 32. In this case, the ratio of
the wind velocity is the ratio of including and not including the barrier. Low ratio shows
highly effective anti-wind shielding.
Figure 32:
The Relation between the Effect of

Anti-Wind and Shield Factor
This figure shows that the barrier which includes 60% of shield factor has the best effect
of anti-wind.
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iii. The shape and height of the barrier
The relationship between the shape of the barrier and the effect of the wind velocity
reduction is shown in Figure 33. The shape of the barriers that have the highest effect
are A and B. Due to lower cost, application of ‘A’ shape is more common.
Figure 33: Relation between the Shape of the Barrier and the Effective
Reduction of Wind Velocity
The relationship between the height of the barrier and the distance from the barrier,
regarding the effect of wind velocity reduction, is shown in Figure 34. In this case, the
shape of the barrier is type A, shown in Figure 33 and shield factor is 60%.
Figure 34:
Relation between Height and

Distance from the Barrier With
Regard to Reduction of Wind
Velocity
Inside 20m (65½ft) of horizontal distance from the barrier, the wind velocity applied to
the fence is 20% to 30% slower than that in the absence of a barrier at 75% barrier
height.
The relationship between the height of the barrier and the distance from the barrier due
to density reduction of salt adhesion is shown in Figure 35 below.
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Figure 35: The Relation between Height of the Barrier and the
Distance from the Barrier Due to the Density Reduction of
Salt Adhesion
Density of insulator salt adhesion applied to the barrier is 10% to 30% less than in case
of the absence of a barrier at 75% barrier height. For severe winds such as hurricanes
or cyclones, a removable or collapsible blocking barrier design maybe considered.
3.5.1.3. Reinf orced Fencing and Foundat ions
Much detail is placed on design of bus structures, foundations, etc but rarely are safety systems such
as substation fencing systems considered or reinforced. Either in the future or as part of a mitigation
strategy the barrier plays an important part of keeping debris out of the substation. Public safety is of
great concern after a severe weather event and more focus will be necessary in the future on these
systems.
3.5.1.4. Flying Debris
It is not easy to prevent objects external to the substation from entering during severe wind conditions.
It is essential, however, to ensure that objects within the substation that could become airborne during
severe winds, are fastened down and prevented from becoming mobile. Metallic objects once airborne
can create short circuits so particular attention shall be given to these items. Cable trays are
particularly susceptible to severe winds, due to their lightweight designs and large surface area, and
these should be securely fastened down. In future, more rigid designs, e.g. cable ladders, conduits,
may be more appropriate or eliminate them altogether if possible.
Other items, such as ladders, long operating poles, temporary grounding cables, etc. shall be located
and padlocked to racks on walls or inside rooms/workshops to eliminate the possibility of becoming
airborne.
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3.5.1.5. Redundant Bus Insulat or Design
Redundant insulator design for critical bus positions prevents outages for a single point of failure. This
is a similar concept used on transmission lines were double insulators or strings are used for dead ends
or critical locations. Station post insulators have different strengths based on orientations. Table 4
below illustrates the ratings for a 345kV ANSI/NEMA [21] insulator mounted with different orientations.
Insulator Mounting Design 40% of Working

Strength
Orientation Strength
Compression 27,000kg (60,000lbs) 10,900kg (24,000lbs)
Tension 9,000kg (20,000lbs) 3,600kg (8,000lbs)
Cantilever 660kg (1450lbs) 260kg (580lbs)
Table 4: Changes in Insulator Strength Due to Orientation (Based on 345kV)
The key weakness for substation bus insulators design is insulators in tension (under hung) or
cantilever (side arm) mounting position. There is a drastic change in design strength and capability.
Often this weakness is overlooked in bus designs. Using two insulators instead of one can provide
additional strength and prevent forced outage from strong winds. Figure 36 gives an example of the
redundant insulator design.
Figure 36: Redundant Insulator Design
Table 4 and Figure 36 show that the tension insulators have a better performance than post insulators
for tubular busbars, which have to withstand the cantilever forces of the connected tubes. In normal
operation there are no cantilever forces acting on the insulator. In the case of severe wind the larger
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the diameter and length of tube generates high cantilever forces. It has to be checked if two insulators
instead of one per support point must be used.
Wind perpendicular to tubes can generate wind induced vibrations with vertical oscillation, known as
Aeolian vibration. Depending on the relationship between the type of tube, diameter and length
(defining natural frequency), this wind induced vibration can bring the whole system into resonance.
This has to be avoided, because the resonance increases the swinging amplitude and forces on the
post insulator, by inserting damping cables or using damping facilities that are connected to the tube;
see Figure 37 below.
Figure 37: Collapsed 400kV Busbar Caused by Vibration
3.5.1.6. As sessing Cont amination Risk
Before trying to mitigate a risk, it is essential to assess and rank it according to a common and
measurable scale.
Table 5 below provides a SCD as used in the 1986 edition of IEC 60815 was based on the system
voltage. For a.c. systems this is the phase-to-phase voltage. The USCD refers to the voltage across
the insulator, i.e. for a.c. systems the phase-to-earth voltage. Both SCD and USCD are specified as a
minimum value and the table gives the correspondence between commonly used values of SCD and
USCD.
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Specific Creepage Distance

(SCD) for three-phase a.c. Unified Specific Creepage
Polution Level as systems Distance (USCD)
IEC 60815:1986 (mm/kV) (mm/kV)
- 12.7 22.0
I Light 16 27.8
II Medium 20 34.7
III Heavy 25 43.3
IV Very Heavy 31 53.7
Table 5: IEC 60815-1 (2008) [18], Table J.1: Correspondence between

Specific Creepage Distance (SCD) and Unified Specific Creepage
Distance (USCD)
Insulator
Rated System Voltage Previous USCD
Creepage distance
(kV) - Um Pollution Level (mm/kV)
(USCD x Um / √3)
420 III (Heavy) 43.3 10,500mm (420in)

225 IV (Very Heavy) 53.7 6,975mm (275in)
Table 6: Examples of how Table 5 is to be used
Based on this classification it is possible to build a risk map to take into account the salt pollution to
which AIS is exposed. Figure 38 below is an example based on RTE (French TSO) salt pollution map:
Figure 38:
Example of Salt Pollution

Map of France
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Conducting specific on-site measurements such as:
Volumetric conductivity of a pollutant measured with directional probes

ESDD methodology to assess the equivalent density of salt layer at the surface of insulators
Numbers of previous flashovers for several leakage distance of on-site insulators
Leakage current measurements for live insulator on-site
Measurements of the superficial electrical field above live insulators.
IMPORTANT: when conducting on-site measurements, it is essential that the measured insulator has
been connected (even without any load) to the voltage network all along its life, as the electrical field
plays an important part in attracting the pollutants due to electrostatic forces.
Additional factors can also be taken into account to assess the salt pollution risk. Below is a non-
exhaustive list of those factors:
Main wind orientation

Rain level
Temperature
Specific or severe climatic events (hurricane, icing rain, sticky ice, fog, etc)
Industrial pollution
The 4-level scale combined with the measurement procedures give strong and reliable keys to properly
design AIS, built in a climatic and environmental challenging site.
a) Design Standards for Long-Term Approach
A proper design for AIS when dealing with pollution, salt pollution in particular, consists of
defining the minimum leakage distance long enough to avoid the triggering of the insulators with
no specific maintenance means; live washing, greasing, etc. A GIS substation enclosed in a
building is an alternative to AIS for network operators, in mitigating the salt pollution risk.
The best way to avoid insulator tracking due to salt or industrial pollution is to take the risk into
account early in the designing step of an AIS project. Keys to properly assess the level of risk,
the future or current AIS will face can be to use international guidelines presented in [18] or on
site measurements (conductivity of the pollutants volume measured with directional probes,
ESDD methodology, to assess the equivalent density of the salt layer on the surface of
insulators). Once the pollution risk is assessed, usual design values for the leakage distance
are given; see Table 5.
Beside the minimum leakage factor in mm (in)/kV, the average diameter of an insulator has also
to be considered when designing AIS for constant winds and pollution. Designing for salt
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contamination from heavy windstorms is particularly difficult. An empirical relation based on

experiments and measurements [18] illustrates that the pollution withstand decreases when the
average diameter of the insulators disks increases. That leads to add another factor Kad (as in
coefficient for average diameter) such as shown below:
Figure 39: Insulator Alternative Long and Short (ALS) Shed Profile
This empirical relation can be approximated with the following values:
Average Diameter (Daverage) of the insulator Kad to add to the minimum leakage
disks in mm (in) distance in mm (in)/kV
Daverage < 300mm (12in) 1.0 (0.039in)

300mm (12in) < Daverage < 500mm (20in) 1.1 (0.043in)
Daverage > 500mm (20in) 1.2 (0.047in)
Table 7: Leakage Distance Constant for Level of Contamination
The influence of the average diameter of the several insulators; insulator chain, surge arrester,
busbar, switchgear/breaker/instrument transformer support, etc in AIS is very important, if one
wants to mitigate the tracking risk due to salt pollution. The diversity of insulator diameters
found in the several equipment types may compose a verity of different pollution classes at the
same substation. This diversity is related to the required insulator strength need for the
configuration of bus designs.
For instance, in 400kV technology the biggest diameters are usually found in the instrument
transformers (Daverage > 300mm (12in) often) and can lead to the use of a higher pollution class
for that specific equipment. The necessity for increased creepage comes from phenomena
associated with the aerodynamics. A low air pressure pocket is formed on an insulator on the
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opposite side of the wind. In this low-pressure area, contamination sticks to the insulator
forming a conductive line. The smaller the insulator diameter then there is a reduced
opportunity for contamination to deposit. Costal salt deposits will form when sustained winds
from the direction of the ocean are present for long periods. If hard rains are present every 8 to
10 days or showers are present every 3 days contamination will not build up under normal
conditions.
Rain or precipitation has a large impact on insulator contamination. Light rain for a short period
of time can be almost as detrimental as fog. Once the contamination is moist, water shedding
forms a conductive path. An opportunity for flashover is present. The reduced level of
emissivity or contamination then the lower the probability of arcing and flashover.
b) Prioritisation of Contaminated Insulators
After experiencing a high wind period leading to a strong salt pollution in AIS, a network
operator may want to assess the impact on dielectric withstand of insulators in order to target
specific maintenance actions for contaminated insulators, in addition to those that have already
flashed over, in order to ensure the overall network security.
Measurements of the superficial electrical field above live insulators are a way of assessing the
pollution level and thus the risk. These measurements can be made using a simple probe. This
technique consists of sliding the probe on live insulators using an insulated rod specially
designed for live line work. The data acquiring process is simple, reliable and fast. It requires
few labour hours and a minimum of expertise that consists in comparing the electrical fields
measured to a well-known curve pattern for same insulators.
The most critical contaminated insulators can then be identified and targeted for heavy
maintenance actions such as live washing or other mitigation techniques.
This methodology can be useful to prevent further tracking after the climatic storm event.
Another quick mitigation is to use RTV or Silicone coating for insulators. The value is that the
coatings make the insulators hydrophobic. The water beads up instead of sheeting, so no
conductive path can be developed to create a flashover of the insulation. Silicone products are
also self-cleaning and will repel most levels of pollution that is non-acidic. New products are
available that can be applied with a paint sprayer, drastically reducing outage time and
improving consistency of coating. Figure 40 shows an example of an insulator that has been
sprayed with silicone coating.
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Figure 40: 230kV Porcelain Insulator Sprayed with Silicone Coating
4. EXPERIENCE BASED RECOMMENDATIONS
This section gives recommendations on how to deal with substations that experience, are increasingly
more likely to experience or are to be built in an area likely to experience severe climatic conditions.
The information has been provided by the questionnaire respondents. It tabulates the various
scenarios dependent on whether the substation already exists or a utility is planning to build a new
substation. Existing substation designs are based on historical weather parameters which are changing
so substations are starting to experience more severe weather previously unseen in the particular area.
It considers issues, subject-by-subject, considering:
Short term - the immediate mitigation action, ie what can be done today, to change the
design to ensure it is more robust before the severe climatic condition occurs
Medium term - planned mitigation that is not urgent and can be organised sometime over the
next 12 months
Long term - future substations to have designs modified to be more robust against severe
climatic conditions
Reactive - Immediate action to be taken when the severe weather condition strikes
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4.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact

Short term/immediate Medium term/planned
Subject Issue mitigation action, i.e. today! mitigation, e.g. next 12 months Future design Reactive action
• Pollution of insulators • Pollution of insulators due • Specify longer creepage • Replace affected
due to higher dust levels to higher dust levels need on insulators to prevent insulators with longer
need to be monitored to be monitored flashovers creep insulators
(1) Flashovers
Insulation; dust and light • Remove dust by insulator • If regular problem fit • Specify live line washing
rain washing using portable permanent live line equipment for
equipment washing equipment to all regular/permanent
insulators insulator washing
• Fit creepage extenders
• Wash insulators to • Coat insulators with • Design substation • Changes insulator BIL to
prevent contamination silicone or RTV material to insulators with extended increase creep may be
Insulation Tracking across build up. take advantage of self- creep and or use silicone required
(2)
coordination contaminated insulation cleaning polymer. Improve ground
grid design with deeper
ground rods
• Check if lightning studies • Complete review of • Substation design to • Test Grounding Grid for
have been carried out on lightning protection include the outcome of a bad connectors and
each substation systems lightning study ground rods
During severe heat and
(3) Lightning • Major investment in the • Improve ground grid
humidity
upgrading of protection design with deeper
and the widespread ground rods installed in
installation of Surge bentonite clay
Arresters
• Install grounds deeper • Install grounds deeper • Improve ground grid • Test ground grid fall of
than 6m (20ft) and test than 6m (20ft) and test design with deeper potential IEEE 80 or
Ground drying Loss of moisture in the soil again again ground rods installed in verify ground loops with
increases the soil resistivity bentonite clay clip on impedance tester
(4) affecting
changing the earth grid
earthing
performance • Change assumptions due
to change in ground
resistance
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4.1 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact Severe Heat, Drought and Dust

• Order or design • Plan to fit OEM sunshades • Specify sun shields over • Fix mal-operated
permanent sunshades during a planned outage sensitive equipment or equipment
Sunshades over GIS
• Add temporary shade susceptible to UV • Add temporary shade
busbars, cabinets and
over affected equipment radiation over affected equipment
transformers, instruments,
electronic sensors, etc. • Equipment to be supplied
suitable for the ambient
conditions
• Add coat of paint to as • Plan access to parts which • Specify and order • Remove existing paint
much of the equipment are live and paint equipment that has system or overcoat with
High UV/solar as is safe to do equipment during outage reflective/ appropriate new compatible reflective
(5) Choice of paint colour,
painting system system to all areas safely
radiation
reflective paint • Modify standard
specifications to incorporated accessible
incorporate better
painting systems
• Order or design • Plan to fit OEM sunshades • Avoid PVC for outdoor • Replace faulty cable
permanent sunshades during a planned outage use or limit to indoor or section using straight
• Add temporary shade shaded areas joints or replace whole if
PVC cables
over affected cables • Specify sunshades where short length
cables exposed • Fit sunshades over new
installation
• Pollution of insulators • Pollution of insulators due • Specify longer creepage • Replace affected
caused by bush fires to higher ash levels need on insulators to prevent insulators with longer
need to be monitored to be monitored flashovers creep insulators
(6)
Atmospheric
Bush fires • Remove pollution by • If regular problem fit • Specify live line washing
pollution insulator washing using permanent live line equipment for
portable equipment washing equipment to all regular/permanent
insulators insulator washing
• Fit creepage extenders
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4.1 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact Severe Heat, Drought and Dust

• Check all substation • Plan to replace foundation • For equipment that • Adjust the levelling of
foundations for or tie to another foundation cannot tolerate settling the structure to
movement and which for stability without effecting its compensate for the
ones will apply stress on • Plan to replace connectors operation, e.g. settling foundation
Foundation movement/ the equipment. Monitor with different type having disconnectors, have • Replace any connector
ground drying out, extent of continuing greater flexibility common or or insulator that was
excessive strain on HV movement interconnected base per damaged by
connections • Change connections to disconnector (not per overstressing
allow for additional phase)
(7) Civil works
movement • Consider enhanced
• Check mechanism movement or more
operations flexible connectors
Collection systems that rely • Check and fill systems • Plan to use mains fed • Specify mains fed • Fill dried up systems
on the presence of water, that rely on water supplies, if possible supplies where possible
e.g. oil separators,
substation amenity header
tanks
• Check seals on doors • Plan to fit positive pressure • Specify level of sealing of • Block all entries
and windows are sound environment system to buildings and rooms • Change poorly fitting
to prevent ingress of dust prevent dust ingress • Specify positive pressure doors and windows
Atmospheric
(8) Dust ingress • Cowls are fitted over environment • Vacuum dust out of
pollution
louvers equipment
• Clean out clogged
filters
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4.1 2. Outdoor – Equipment Direct Impact Severe Heat, Drought and Dust
Medium term/planned
Short term/immediate mitigation mitigation, e.g. next 12
Subject Issue action, i.e. today! months Future design Reactive action
• Install Connector Shunts • Reduce Load, Bypass • Consider changing standard • IR scan substation
Rating, excessive
any hot spot with to eliminate mechanical during to identify bad
Conductors temporary jumpers till connectors. Increase connectors and
sag/contact permissible
(1) and repair can be completed emergency rating design. conductors
design tolerance, de-
connections or upgraded Consider more conservative
rating
temperature rating for
conductors and connectors.
• Top up SF6 gas in leaking • Replace suspect seals or • Specify better sealing • Replace leaked gas
zones all seals of a similar arrangements or more • Call in manufacturer
• Check availability or vintage demanding leakage rate to determine leak
replacement seals and order location and identify
if necessary remedial action
Leaking SF 6
• Monitor leakage and
top up as necessary
• Under outage
replace leaking
Equipment components
(2) mal-
operation • Check for leaks, tighten • Increase capacity of • Specify higher ratings and • Inspect substation
joints, top up oil reservoirs cooling fans, change fans higher cooling capacities. and create a list of
Hydraulic leaks, • Cooling fan capacity should or add more • Specify shorter cooling critical equipment
excessive motor be reviewed due to global • Plan to replace seals and periods to stop excessive that could be
running, cooling fan warming gaskets motor running impacted by severe
capacity must be heat
• IR scan substation during • IR scan substation during • Install IR camera permanent
reviewed due to global
peak load to identify peak load to identify to station • IR scan substation
warming, general during peak load to
equipment failures stressed equipment stressed equipment • Install temperature
components components identify stressed
monitoring equipment
components
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Medium term/planned
• Fit temporary air • Plan to fit robust air • All buildings to have robust • Replace faulty
conditioning equipment conditioning equipment air conditioning equipment components, if
• Ventilation to be blocked and with built-in redundancy with built-in redundancy possible with more
Equipment mal- replaced by permanent air suitable alternative
(2) operation Electronic equipment conditioning equipment
(Cont..)
• Add environmental control
systems to switch off heating
and switch on air
conditioning
• Repair leaks • Replace capacitor cans • Specification to include • IR scan substation
and bushings severe temperature during peak load to
Bushings and Fluid filled equipment
(3) leaks, lack of • Incorporate safety valves identify stress and
capacitors
expansion chamber into the future design leaks
specification
• Monitor the humidity • Modify the equipment to • Specify outdoor cabinets • Dry out enclosures
• Modify the equipment to incorporate humidity shall be insulated with seals • Modify the
incorporate humidity control control on anti- or gaskets to prevent or equipment to
condensation heater minimise the ingress of incorporate humidity
• Check anti-condensation circuits in all outdoor moisture
heaters are working in all control on anti-
enclosures • Specify equipment shall condensation heater
Seals and outdoor enclosures
(4)
coatings
Gaskets, seals, heat • Plan to replace seals on incorporate humidity control circuits in all outdoor
controls • Check seals prevent ingress enclosure doors on anti-condensation heater enclosures
of water (humidity) circuits in all outdoor • Replace seals on
enclosures enclosure doors
• Enclosures shall have
ventilation to allow through
flow of air
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Short term/immediate mitigation Medium term/planned

Subject Issue action, i.e. today! mitigation, e.g. next 12 months Future design Reactive action
• Top up oil to maximum level • Order replacement • No longer specify or order • Replace failed unit with
• Take oil samples for testing instrument transformers for the type prone to failure. replacement of the new
the specific family • Change standard approved type
• Review testing methods and
levels of acceptability • Plan replacement works specifications to only order
including HV termination the new replacement type
• Demark exclusion zone materials and structure
Instrument • Add physical barrier to mounting adapters
(5) General failure protect personnel and other
transformer
assets
• Identify the types and site
locations prone to failure due
to severe heat
• Ensure spares are available
• Ensure breathers are not • Plan to replace equipment • Specify higher ambient • Replace faulty
blocked, if so change and that is not at end of life temperature and higher components
use closed type • Plan to use more rating, i.e. higher margins • Check other components
• Check valves and pressure transformers to reduce oil • Specify more appropriate are operating correctly,
devices function correctly & hot spot temperatures to devices or enclose for overhaul or replace
• De-rate transformers so oil & not exceed upper limit additional environmental valves and pressure relief
hot spot temperatures do not • Replace transformers with protection devices
exceed upper limit higher rating or add extra • Change breathers
Power Overloading and
(6) • Spread load between more transformer • Spread load between
transformer over heating
transformers • Fit larger radiators if more transformers
• Thermal scan suspected possible • Load shedding in order to
units • Add force cooling or/and prevent units from tripping
forced oil to give higher under oil and winding
rating temperature
• Re-rate equipment
(transformers) based on
latest higher temperature
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3. Outdoor – Indoor Equipment and

4.1 Severe Heat, Drought and Dust
Secondary Systems Concern
• IR scan and possibly • Possible load reduction or • Change conductor • IR scan and possible
Conductor & connector reduce load change field ties to reduce connector rating criterion reduce load
rating, deterioration of load. to more conservative
(1) Indoor GIS painting, local control criterion
auxiliaries, electronic
• Apply AC to building to
monitoring reduce ambient
temperature
• IR scan and possibly • Review cooling design for • To enable maintenance • Use mobile substation
reduce load transformer to enhance planning and availability to reduce load on
with additional fans or irrespective of the feeder or substation
pumps external conditions transformer
• Apply AC to building to • Environmentally
Maintain equipment reduce ambient controlled to ensure the
(2) Indoor specification, guarantee temperature equipment specification is
scheduling of maintenance not exceeded
and avoid damage • Correct power factor and
reduce load with capacitors • Avoid damage due to
sandstorm/severe
humidity/heavy
thunderstorm associated
with high temperature
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Medium term/planned
Short term/immediate mitigation, e.g. next 12
Subject Issue mitigation action, i.e. today! months Future design Reactive action
• Additional forced cooling • Order replacement fan • Specify air conditioning in • Add temporary cooling
to be added using units for larger air flow equipment in the room
portable AC equipment • Order and fit • Specify higher anticipated • Seal doors and
• Ensure inlet/extract replacement filters ambient temperature and windows to ensure
outlets are clear of debris that the equipment is to efficiency
• Filters are clean in tolerate higher temperatures • Cover windows
cabinets • No longer specify ventilation • Switch off all available
• Check seals on cabinet for cooling but air heating sources
Air doors and gland plates conditioning
Electronics in high
(3) Conditioning temperature ambient are sound to prevent • Reduce equipment that
in equipment environment ingress of dust generates heat
• Specify thermostatically
controlled heating systems
• Specify electronic
components that can tolerate
higher temperature
environment or reduce
eliminate electronics from
outdoor environment
• Fit temporary air • Plan to fit robust air • All buildings to have robust • Calculate benefit of
conditioning equipment conditioning equipment air conditioning equipment conditioned ambient air.
• Ventilation to be blocked with built-in redundancy with built-in redundancy Evaluate benefits of
and replaced by fans or air conditioning
Air To balance with external coolers
(4) Conditioning condition, designed for permanent air
in rooms maintaining a specified conditioning equipment
atmosphere • Add environmental
control systems to switch
off heating and switch on
air conditioning
Page 75

Medium term/planned
• Plan to do more • Plan to replace • Specify equipment to • Replace cell as

monitoring batteries earlier perform in higher necessary
Electronics in the • Order power supplies so temperatures • Replace failed power
(5) Life reduction
switchyard kept to a available for the next • Specify redundancy in power supply module
minimum, battery life failure supplies
reduced, power supplies
life reduced • Avoid electronics in
switchyards as much as
possible
4. HV Network Impact and Indirect Impact on

Substation
Medium term/planned
• Check what are the • Plan to replace • Specify higher ambient • Replace faulty
transformer overload equipment that is not at temperature and higher components
ratings based on. end of life rating, i.e. higher margins
Check highest loads • Check other components
and peak summer day • Plan to use more • Specify more appropriate are operating correctly,
temperature. transformers to reduce oil devices or enclose for overhaul or replace
& hot spot temperatures additional environmental valves and pressure relief
• Re-rate equipment to not exceed upper limit protection devices
(1) Overload Plant tripping
(transformers) based on
future anticipated peak • Replace transformers • We are expecting higher • Change breathers
temperatures with higher rating or add ambient temperatures in
extra transformer the future, so all new plant • Alternate supplies
is being specified for • Load shedding in order to
• Fit larger radiators if higher ambient
possible prevent units from
temperatures, including tripping under oil and
peak of 55⁰ C (131 ⁰F) winding temperature
Page 76
4.2. Severe Flooding 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact

• Install mobile pumps or • Evaluate temporary walls • Design substation gates with • Problems can be
berms that can berms or increased road elevated or mitigated ingress experienced gaining
eliminate flooding to elevations to permit access access access to the substation
roads to substations after flood as flood waters can close
Substation layout,
sloping site, strategic • Current design criteria are access roads to the site
Access and starting point, raised for all substation platforms to
(1) be built such that they lie • Obtain boats or vehicles
egress road, road/fencing
destroyed, retaining 300mm (1ft) above current 1 that can provide access
walls in 200 year flood levels to substation
(determined by known
probabilistic methods
defined in various Australian
guidelines).
• Install sand bags and • Develop strategy for • Design GIS building above • Install sand bags and
Recovery portable pumps to keep preventing water in GIS flood elevations portable pumps to keep
easier/quicker than with water level for indoor house using water level in GIS
AIS. GIS and AIS
issues are similar,
GIS building to a countermeasures • Raise outdoor GIS building to a minimum
(2) GIS minimum foundations above flood
artificial stream,
drainage check valves, • Build temporary walls or plane
underwater level • Outdoor GIS apply duct earth works around
substation anchors seal around cabinets equipment to prevent
and doors future flooding
• Each piece of • Renovation of substation • Seek design plan to prevent • The main problem during
equipment must be buildings flood in station restoration is that it
cleaned with water and requires a long time and
Drying out of Slow and labour
then dried with heaters • Inspect substation on a effort to clean and dry
(3) and blowers. Contact control panels, electrical
equipment intensive process three month basis to
spray is effective to dry access corrosion and components. Portable
wiring and prevent physical condition of heaters and blowers are
corrosion equipment and panels necessary to dry out
equipment
Page 77
4.2 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact Severe Flooding

• Inspect drainage pumps, • Evaluate civil works to • Design and implement • Make sure storm drain and
Drains, pumps, dykes
flood walls and pumps enhance drainage and substation drainage pumps are functional
(transformer
are not blocked. increase redundancy system to prevent
(4) Drainage underground tanks,
flooding from rain water
systems non-return valves),
drainage ditches & • Make sure pumps have collection or runoff
reservoirs back up power for loss of
station service
• Low mounted/ground • Low mounted/ground • When the chosen • Raise any equipment possible.
mounted equipment, e.g. mounted equipment, e.g. location is below flood
battery systems, battery systems, rectifiers, zone level key • Equipment that cannot be
rectifiers, buried cable buried cable joints, cable elements, e.g., relay raised such as relays should
joints, cable terminations, terminations, fence, water room and switchboard be removed to aid with quick
fence, water pump, circuit pump, circuit breaker rooms, must be restoration
Location of
(5) Risk to low mounted breaker mechanism, fire mechanism, fire protection elevated
substation
equipment protection pumps that pump should be raised
equipment
can be raised should be • Site location is the key
checked in preparation • Berms or flood walls could and the 500 year flood
for flooding be developed, sump criterion should be
pumps installed, increased evaluated
height of DC supply/battery
structure supports
• Seek alternative • Develop an asset • Change design policies • After rivers overflow and enter
restoration for customer inspection list and evaluate on flooding to more the air insulated substation
through circuit ties and accelerated equipment conservative criterion short-circuit fault of busbars
(6) Equipment mal- mobile substations replacement based on (500 years) can occur. Restoration work
Short circuits, debris
operation miss operation or test can involve switching load to
• Make sure all work zones • Raise Equipment above neighbouring substations and
are reenergized and safe flood height the installation of mobile
transformers and switchgear.
Page 78
Short term/immediate
mitigation action, i.e. Medium term/planned mitigation,
Subject Issue today! e.g. next 12 months Future design Reactive action
• Dry out cabinets and • Install rain shields over • Specify gaskets and • Replace seals and
compartments cabinets seals for higher pressure gaskets
content as water tight
Breathers on • Replace seals as need • Change gasket material from
Gaskets and transformers, water
(7) cork to alternative gasket • Change specification for
sealing ingress in cabinets:, duct
seal • Apply RTV to prevent materials, ie nitrile rubber (eg rain shield on cabinets
leaks Buna N rubber)
• Use RTV sealant around
• Change breather jars gaskets
• Inoculate for standard • Compile records of employees • Setup contract to have • Restoration, often/
pathogens and to make sure all of been medical professionals on particularly after
instruct employees on vaccinated for work conditions site or a home office to hurricane flooding can be
hygiene and health administer proactive hampered by concerns of
concerns inoculations or worker safety from
vaccinations exposure to hazardous
• Drink only bottled chemicals and bacterial
water pathogens
(8) Flooding Health hazards • Great care must be

taken with personal
protective equipment to
prevent infection of
poisoning
• Consideration of
inoculation for standard
pathogens for all
employees
Page 79
Medium term/planned
Short term/immediate mitigation action, mitigation, e.g. next 12
Subject Issue i.e. today! months Future design Reactive action
• Develop procedures to prepare • Plan to close and • Change substation • Often complete rebuilds are
control houses based on expected rebuild after large location planning required with elevated height to all
flood heights flooding. criterion to buildings and devices
conservative standard
• Some utilities use computer • Rebuilding in the • Flood barriers can be erected
programs, e.g. from NOAA, to same location will • Design Substation around critical areas such as control
forecast storm surges and start require the equipment site to tolerate flood houses
Flooding
substation preparation to be located above conservative criterion
(8) Substation
(continued) infrastructure predicted flood level chosen for site. Some • Be prepared for long total
• Review “lessons learned” substations cannot be substation and generation outage
associated with flooding of • For substations which relocated due to
customers and loads
underground substations have a risk of the • Insulators that flashed over will
flooding, change so elevated have to be replaced
• Monitoring water level and isolate substation building substations and
and equipment equipment must be
power supplies prior to equipment
operation box to designed to make
being submerge
watertight structure reliable
Page 80

• Monitoring water level • Consider replacing existing • Consider specifying larger • Restoration has generally
and isolate power buildings containing LV size fuel supplies for diesel been isolated to the
supplies prior to equipment (perhaps as alternators, particularly in Secondary Systems,
equipment being part of a secondary cyclonic areas requiring replacement of
submerge systems replacement flood damaged equipment
project) with a • Consider alternative
demountable building but sources of supply other • Wind has indirectly caused
at a higher floor level. than from distribution outages due to connected
boards, e.g. EMVT’s, transmission lines coming
• Install an alternative transformer tertiary down. Emergency
(8) Flooding source of supply. This supplies, local restoration has often
Location
(continued) may only be necessary at transformers directly off the caused re-configuration of
critical or important LV bus of transformers, the substation (e.g. re-
substations in the network etc. configuration of remaining
lines, use of spare bays,
• As part of future secondary temporary connections
systems replacement within the substation etc.).
projects consider the use For either event above, re-
of demountable buildings establishment of Auxiliary
at a higher floor level than AC supply often causes
the existing. problems where sourced
from a Distribution Board.
• Confirm fill dirt is burying • Install additional ground • Design substation with • Reinstall fill dirt in areas of
grid thus establishing rods to ensure good touch proper drainage to prevent ground grid exposure
correct earth contact potential and lightning erosion and the excavation
protection of ground grid during • Prevent human contact
(9) flooding while substation is
Earthing Grounding grid
energized (Shock Hazard)
by installing barriers
creating no entry zones or
by prohibiting substation
entry
Page 81
4.2 2. Indoor or Secondary System Concern Severe Flooding
Short term/immediate Medium term/planned mitigation,

Subject Issue mitigation action, i.e. today! e.g. next 12 months Future design Reactive action
Cable entries to be at high • Install temporary sump • Install temporary sump • Specify top entry for • Pump out flood water, dry
level, come in from the top, pumps pumps. Install control and control cables. Consider out equipment before
(1) Indoor sand bags, walls around level switch for unmanned elevated control house putting back into service
doors
station
• Prevent transfer switch • Evaluate station service and • Design electrical • Raise electrical
or supply box from auxiliary supply boxes for connections in the base connections or boxes
Raise height, top entry,
Auxiliary diesel generator back up being energized under relocation to prevent water of enclosures to prevent • Seal Auxiliary supply
(2) water ingress or water submersion ingress of water shorting
supplies elevated, breathers above boxes with duct seal to
water level connections. Conduits make water tight
must have weep holes or
drains
• Dry out cabinets and • Install rain shields over • Specify gaskets and • Dry out as best as
compartments cabinets seals for higher pressure possible relays, panels,
• Replace seals as need content as water tight marshalling kiosks, motor
• Change gasket material from operators, (i.e. secondary
Gaskets and Breathers on transformers,
• Apply RTV to prevent cork to alternative gasket • Change specification for
(3) water ingress in cabinets:, wiring), etc. as moisture
sealing leaks materials, ie nitrile rubber rain shield on cabinets
duct seal in relays and control
• Change breather jars (eg Buna N rubber) • Use RTV sealant around devices will be a major
gaskets problem when returning
• Replace damaged
equipment to service
3. HV Network Impact and Indirect Impact

4.2 Severe Flooding
on Substation
• Seek alternative • Develop an asset inspection • Change design policies on • Replace Defective
restoration for customer list and evaluate accelerated flooding to more Equipment
SCADA (short circuits, through circuit ties and equipment replacement conservative criterion (500
(1) Mal-operation
condensation, debris) mobile substations based on miss operation or years)
• Make sure all work zones test • Raise Equipment above
are reenergized and safe flood height
Page 82
4.3. Severe Rain and Humidity 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact

• When heavy rain predicted • Change standard • Get all staff standing by
temporary mobile specifications to include for action
substations should be experience of flooding in
prepared basements of control and • If not too late wrap
relay buildings so outdoor equipment
• Wrap outdoor equipment ensuring no electrical control cabinets in
control cabinets in plastic, equipment is installed in plastic, etc.
Unplanned Generic Substation etc.
(1) basements • Install temporary mobile
outages concerns
• Dehumidifier hire contracts substations
in place
• Check all sealing, anti-
condensation heater
circuitry, fill all open
apertures
• Build walled barrier with • Plan to visit all substations • Change standard • After drainage from the
removable access around likely to be flooded and specification and detail lower point of the
building access door ways install short term mitigation drawings to show substation or panels, all
actions wiring terminals from the
Access and To the site and the
• Stabilise ground on slopes o Water tight doors secondary circuits shall
(2) • Installation of water tight be cleaned and dried.
egress control room • Make necessary repairs to doors
o Mesh in sloping ground
fences, gates and walls • Place sand bags around
o Pressure vents in walls
• Make ready sand bags in doorways and pump
o Evaluate raised roads water out of rooms
readiness for heavy rainfall or driveways
Page 83
4.3 1. Outdoor – Substation Impact Severe Rain and Humidity

• Install additional temporary • Install additional/redundant • Specification or standard • Install additional

pumps pumps/sump pumps detail drawings to temporary pumps
incorporate additional or
• Clean all debris and loose • Install debris traps redundant pumps/sump • Clean all debris and
materials from drainage pumps loose materials from
channels, gullies, sumps drainage channels,
and bunded areas to gullies, sumps, bunded
Pipes and Burst pipes and blocked prevent blockage areas
(3)
drainage drains
• Water ingress in trenches
below switchgear
deteriorating switchgear
insulation
• Storm water pipes and
channels shall be cleaned
out
• Check and replace seals • Add canopies to • Equipment to be • Wash out all debris and
and gaskets enclosures to allow the rain specified for higher/more silt
to run off frequent rain fall, i.e.
• Check heaters are fully higher IP rating • Hire dehumidification
functioning in motor • Seal any access holes to (waterproof) plant to remove all
operators prevent rain entering moisture
Equipment • Flat surfaces for rain
(4) Cleaning and drying out • Check replacement spare • Replenish or add moisture pooling to be avoided • Mechanisms will have to
contamination
mechanism availability absorption materials be removed, stripped
• Top entry cabling to be down, cleaned, rebuilt
• Check component outlawed and reinstalled in a
availability planned exercise
• All cabinets to have
• Ensure no oil is present in heaters to keep internals
oil separators condensation free
Page 84

• If fitted check heater is • Change box to non- • Specification change to • Wire brush and apply
working. corroding material aluminium, stainless steel anti-rust treatments
or apply special coating before sealing with
• Change seals and apply • Install humidity controls approved painting system
sealant to openings. and space heaters in high • Include relative humidity
humidity locations, provide (RH) controls for space • Lubricate and grease
• Change open breathers to ventilation heaters and ventilation moving parts
closed breathers
Cabinets, gear boxes, • Lift boxes if below flood • Review flood zone data
etc. • Lubricate and grease level and ensure above
moving parts anticipated flood height
• Fit enhanced sealing to
• Check and apply where pantograph gearboxes • Pantograph gearboxes to
necessary minimum have enhanced sealing
thickness of paint in
corrosive environments • Specify minimum
thickness of paint in
(5) Corrosion • Check availability of spares corrosive environments
• Apply anti-corrosive • Replace structure or • Specify aluminium • Replace specific parts

coating and paint components, as necessary structures or different and fixings
coating requirements.
• Cold repair galvanised • Plan to protect the • Grind affected area and
surfaces with proprietary structure with a coat of • Review flood zone data cold repair galvanised
alloy of tin, lead and zinc anti-corrosive paint and ensure equipment surfaces with proprietary
Corrosion (support produced in stick form being supported is above alloy of tin, lead and zinc
metalwork) • Replace corroded cable anticipated flood height produced in stick form
trays
• Cable trays to be
stainless steel, other
non-corroding material or
more robust ladder
racking
Page 85
Medium term/planned
• Repair roads to original • Modify drainage • Find improved repair methods • Replace or repair
specification systems and openings damaged roads
to prevent clogging • Specify more robust road and fences with
• Repair fences and particularly surfaces, e.g. concrete not temporary
foundations • Fit automatic systems flexible paving materials
to tanks requiring no
Roads and fences
• Clean all debris and loose manual emptying • Roads and associated drainage
destroyed
materials from drainage channels, to be designed to cope with
(foundations and gullies, sumps and bunded areas persistent and heavy rain
to prevent blockage
ground eroded) • Fence foundations to be robust
• Empty tanks that have filled with to cope with persistent and
past rain storms heavy rain
(6) Infrastructure
erosion • Have temporary materials
available to allow temporary
repairs
• Apply fungus proof paint to • Plan to clean off • Finish of building to be fungus • Repair flat roof
buildings in high humidity fungus, make good and proof or painted with fungus with approved kit
locations repaint with fungus proof paint
Fungus proof proof coating
coatings (pitched • Ensure flat roof repair kits are • Specify pitched roofs on all
roof) available • Replace flat roof with buildings
pitched roofs
Page 86
Medium term/planned
• Use rock or stone to form • Install bus strain relief • All foundations should be piled • Evaluate impact of
temporary beams. Apply to compensate for bus well down to rock or solid bus movement.
additional stone or rock for movement. Install ground so as to tolerate the Make repairs as
support of foundations flexible jumpers or ground being washed away soon as possible
Strain on connectors connectors where
(7)
Foundation
(erosion of the • A three phase foundation block
movement practical to be considered rather than
supporting soil)
three individual bases per phase
• Wet site conditions to be
considered in the design should
the area dry out
• De-energise control panels and • Evaluate • Raise control room height • Remove loose
remove relays if possible to countermeasures for standards for area. equipment or
prevent emersion in water different flood heights. • Raise height of equipment, materials from
Increased Busbars and substation to
(8) • Plug DC batteries with duck seal • Create a short term AC/DC make up boxes
height equipment prevent floating
• Cut weep holes in conduit for Mitigation plan • Raise height of Motor operators damage
drainage • Evaluate relocation of
substation
• Due to Portland cement • Plan to replace • Use alternative insulator • Replace failed
deterioration, set up a personnel insulators of a particular technology avoiding Portland insulators
exclusion zone around the vintage cement
offending insulators for during and • Plan to replace
Insulation, insulator
for a period, say 8 hours, after the equipment known to
(9) Insulators cement and bus
rain has stopped
supports have a problem with
• Identify all similar installations on insulators during rain,
the network and issue the same e.g. cement failures on
instruction old air blast circuit
breakers
Page 87
Medium term/planned
• Install temporary pumps in control • Install counter • Design station to prevent forced • Evaluate use of
Taller structures,
hose and sand bag doors. Seal measures such as outages from flooding. Height sand bags , stone
Flood outdoor makeup boxes and motor temporary wall and changes, foundation and earth dams to
(10) walls, sealed doors,
management operators with duct seal to raise equipment to reinforcement enhanced prevent or mitigate
etc.
prevent water ingress. prevent emersion in drainage or pumping. flooding
water
• Fit rain deflectors on drive shafts • Install drip shields on • Amend specifications such that • Dry out cabinets
to reduce rain effect on bearings control cabinets or rainwater is diverted away from and makeup boxes
make up boxes to potential entry points in motor when access is
Equipment Earth switches, repeal water or prevent operators and enclosures. safe
(11)
mal-operation Disconnectors ingress.
• Inspect for water ingress in • Plan to fit enhanced • Specify a higher IP rating, e.g. • Replace faulty
protection devices causing mal protection and sealing waterproof, either by a different components, e.g.
operation such as Buchholz, tap- to prevent water design or by incorporating Buchholz device,
changer surge relays and ingress. Inspect and additional protection tap-changer surge
pressure relief device contacts dry out as necessary relay, pressure
• Inspect HV air insulated cable • Seal against water relief device, etc.
boxes on transformers for water ingress in HV air • Enhance the
Including tap
ingress insulated cable boxes protection and
(12) Transformers on transformers sealing to prevent
changers • Inspect compound filled cable
boxes for moisture ingress • Seal against moisture reoccurrence
ingress in compound
filled cable boxes often
failing during sudden
temperature drops
associated with
thunderstorms and high
rainfall
Page 88
Medium term/planned
• Spray cabinets with clean water • Inspect breaker every • Replace breaker before failure • Spray cabinets
to remove contamination and three months for and consider enhanced weather with clean water to
debris. Dry out corrosion or mould cabinets, Relocation of remove
Equipment
• ‘Megger’ all control and CT wires. growth equipment and raising the contamination and
(13) mal- Circuit Breakers
breaker foundation. debris.
operation • Time breaker to insure proper
operation • Dry out breaker
cabinets with
portable blowers
• Spray cabinets with clean water • Replace panels and • Replace panels and cabinets as • Spray cabinets
to remove contamination and cabinets as soon as soon as practical. with clean water to
debris. Dry out panels and control practical. Contamination and galvanic remove
cabinet’s use of contact sprays Contamination and action significantly reduce life of contamination and
Equipment and alcohol based solutions galvanic action equipment. Design future debris. Dry out
(14) mal- Short circuits recommended. significantly reduce life equipment to prevent emersion panels and control
operation of equipment. in flood water cabinet’s use of
contact sprays and
alcohol based
solutions
recommended.
• Frequently wash substation • Replace LSR and HTV • Install aluminium or stainless • Inspect station and
equipment and buss to resist low ATH polymer cabinets. Use paints that are evaluate need for
Atmospheric erosion and deterioration. This housed products as marine based or resistant to washing or
(15) Acid rain can be scheduled based on soon as possible acidic PH. Use EDPM housed mitigation
pollution
observed rate of corrosion polymer materials if required.
Evaluate station relocation to
non-contaminated area
Page 89
4.3 2. Indoor or Secondary Systems Concern Severe Rain and Humidity

• Seal trench and duct • Modify ventilation by fitting • Take additional measures • Pump out water
entries into buildings cowls to deflect rain water to avoid water ingress • Dry out equipment
• Inspect all basements to prevent ingress into basements of
and identify equipment • Plan to move any electrical switchgear buildings
(1)
Control
Equipment Panels that should be moved to equipment, located in a • Create sump in corner of
house a higher level basement, to above basement so pumps can
ground/water ingress level be used
• Specify that no electrical
equipment will be located
or mounted in basements
• Ensure contracts with • Install standby generation • Specify standby diesel • Temporary diesel
hire companies are in and auto-changeover generator as part of the generators to be utilised
place for temporary scheme for failure of mains LVAC supply installation
Auxiliary generator suppliers supplies
(2) Loss of Auxiliary supplies
supplies • Ensure contracts with
diesel fuel suppliers are
in place for use with
temporary generators
• Install temporary air • Plan to fit robust air • All buildings to have • Fix SCADA equipment
conditioning equipment conditioning equipment robust air conditioning • Install temporary air
• Ventilation to be blocked with built-in redundancy equipment with built-in conditioning equipment
and replaced by redundancy and re-commission
Equipment
(3) mal- SCADA permanent air repaired SCADA
operation conditioning equipment
• Add environmental
control systems to switch
off heating and switch on
air conditioning
Page 90
4.3 2. Indoor or Secondary Systems Concern Severe Rain and Humidity

• Monitor the humidity • Modify the equipment to • Specify cabinets shall be • Dry out enclosures
• Modify the equipment to incorporate humidity insulated, with seals or • Modify the equipment to
incorporate humidity control on anti- gaskets to prevent or incorporate humidity
control condensation heater minimise the ingress of control on anti-
circuits in all enclosures moisture condensation heater
• Check anti-condensation
Gaskets, seals and heaters are working in all • Plan to replace seals on • Specify equipment shall circuits in all enclosures
(4) Sealing enclosure doors incorporate humidity
humidity controls enclosures • Replace seals on
control on anti- enclosure doors
• Check seals prevent condensation heater
ingress of water circuits in all enclosures
(humidity)
• Enclosures shall have
ventilation to allow
through flow of air
Page 91
4.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact
Medium term/planned
• Erect temporary canopy • Add permanent • All cable tray work to be edge mounted or • Remove snow and
above tray work canopy above tray horizontal with canopy above to deflect repair/replace
susceptible to work susceptible to accumulation of snow damaged cable
accumulation of snow accumulation of snow trays and cables
Damaged Auxiliary cables
(1) • Erect temporary
equipment and tray work
canopy above tray
work susceptible to
accumulation of
snow
• Ensure that all water • Plan to reroute pipe • Avoid pipe work in unheated rooms • Repair frozen pipe
pipes are lagged or work into areas • Specify that all water pipes shall be lagged or work and insulate
insulated to protect containing heating insulated to protect from freezing for future
from freezing • Add stop valve to • Add temporary
• Rooms containing pipe work shall have frost
• Add frost thermostats, allow drainage during thermostats set at +5°C (41°F) to prevent pipes space heating to
Frozen pipe Burst drains and set at +5°C (41°F), to cold months keep room and
(2) from freezing
work pipes switch on room heating pipe work above
to prevent pipes from +5°C (41°F)
freezing
• Drain water pipes if not
in use during cold
months
• Plough ingress to • Plan to rebuild AIS • Increased height in mountainous regions to • Increase fence
substation and use leaf substations with prevent tripping due to very severe snow levels height to prevent
blowers to access for higher structures and • Equipment specifications to include special access by the
Energised busbar dry snow. Wet snow will specific platforms, public using
allowance on Limits-of-Approach dimensions of
contact and require manual about 1 metre (39”) temporary fencing
up to 1m (39”) of packed snow and equipment
(3) Deep snow increased removal. higher, so that the withstand of ice accumulation of 30mm (1-1/4”)
clearance operating staff are
(approach) safe whenever they • Take snow and ice risks into account in
enter the substation mechanical designs (structures, control house,
during severe snow conductors, etc)
condition
Page 92
4.4 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact Severe Cold, Snow and Ice

mitigation action, i.e. mitigation, e.g. next 12
Subject Issue today! months Future design Reactive action
• Path can be marked • Install markers for • In specific areas where packed snow can • Fit temporary fencing
Height of Taller fences and
with survey rods or ingress above expected reach 1 metre, the fence height should
(4) tall red stakes snow level. Replace be increased by 1 metre
snow roads
switches with ice
breaking capability
• Attach and weld • Plan to replace shallow • As ground frost can cause concrete pad • Evaluate temporary
supports to footings or foundations movement (heave) specify deep footings civil measures to
mechanically with deep footings or (below the frost line) or piles. Helical support foundations.
Foundation
(5) Heave movement and strain
stabilize piles. designs may also be used (cork screw
on connections foundations. footers)
Temporary
foundations or skids
may be required
• De-energize • Plan to change porcelain • Specify polymer insulation to reduce the • Consider de-
Accumulation of ice equipment and insulation to polymer effects of hoarfrost energising the
on equipment from remove accumulated insulation equipment to prevent
• Specify higher creepage on bushings
(6) Hoarfrost natural air moisture ice to prevent damage due to short
and insulators in high frost areas
and cold energized flashover and circuits, which create
equipment damage of prolonged outages
equipment
• High levels of snow • Barriers and flags must • To guard against snow drifts specify • Warning bulletin due
occasionally prevent be installed to prevent increased equipment mounting heights to high levels of snow
work in substations clearance for personnel • Add a buffer distance to any safety that would allow
due to Limits-of- • Energize equipment clearance measured from finish grade or personnel to
Safety Insulation and Approach issues. once minimum approach from top of buildings, eg 600mm (24”) approach live
(7) Safety warning to substation equipment
Clearances structures distance is available
staff to be issued • Specify higher foundations
• Mark ingress and
egress with bright
coloured stakes and
clear snow to operate.
Page 93
Medium term/planned
• Monitor weather • Plan to replace existing • Specify installation of snow- • Ice, can be 2.5 inches
conditions insulators with RG melting device thick, will have to be
• Caulking of the insulators • High counts of freeze/thaw removed before
Portland cement to cycles tend to stress restoration will be
Washing, coatings and prevent water ingress insulators. Specify improved possible.
(8) Insulation
extenders which could lead to designs insulators
water freezing and
insulator cracking.
• Attachment of snow-
protection covers
• Remove snow • Rebuilding of substations • To guard against snow drifts • Remove snow
due to severe snow levels specify increased
Raised up equipment, shall have increased equipment mounting heights
Increased taller structures/flood safety distances and perimeter fence height
(9)
height management (walls, • Consider installation of • Add a buffer distance to any
sealed doors, etc.) RG glaze insulators safety clearance measured
from finish grade or from top
of buildings, eg 600mm (24”)
Circuit
• Install heaters and • Install heaters and • Mixed gases shall be • Install portable heaters
breaker
blankets to keep gas blankets to keep gas specified in live tank circuit and order insulating
Mixed gases and insulation levels safe insulation levels safe breakers heaters for dead blankets
(10) insulating/
heaters tank SF6 type breakers to
interrupting
medium withstand the cold
temperatures
• Remove snow ASAP • Remove snow ASAP • Buildings to be specified • Prevent snow build up
Strengthened with stronger roofs based with blowers and heaters
(11) Weight of snow
roofs upon Snow Loading per the
National Building Codes
Page 94

• Obtain snow removal • Obtain snow removal • Avoid selecting sites that • Obtain snow removal
equipment and earth equipment and earth moving will require working at equipment and earth
moving equipment equipment high altitudes and moving equipment
• Set up a working group to potentially in deep
(12) Site access Access and egress assess the mitigation accumulated snow.
techniques that we will need to
use in the design of
infrastructures to face the
future climatic change
• Replace failed • A complete substation rebuild • Specify designs that • Replace failed
equipment with new may be necessary to mitigate reduce the ability to equipment with new
device against future ice storms collect water that can devices
• Include snow shields • Shielding switch parts and subsequently freeze and • Replace out-dated
where possible addition of resistive glaze expand supporting metal fittings
• Identify the critical insulators may be necessary to • Include weep holes to with those having
substations located in prevent future outages allow water to drain greater margins to high
heavy snowfall areas as • Ice breaking switches can be • Due to the weight of tension and torsion, in
part of a recurrence installed that could operate severe snow, steel the heavy snowfall
General
Ice expansion breaking prevention policy with up to 73mm (3”) of ice, for support capabilities are areas
(13) equipment
failures
connectors, etc. example. exceeded therefore • Include snow shields
• Exchange out-dated standards and safety where possible
supporting metal fittings with factors shall be increased
those having more margins to • Exchange of out-dated
high tension and torsion, as a supporting metal fittings
result of the recurrence with those with more
prevention policy which margins to high tension
identified the critical and torsion.
substations located in the
heavy snowfall areas.
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4.4 2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact Severe Cold, Snow and Ice

Flash over of bushings • Remove ice • Use RTV coatings to • Specify higher BIL and • Remove ice
(1) Capacitors reduce tracking for ice creep bushings
insulation compromised
• Check if weep holes are • Plan to upgrade insulation • Equipment specifications • Bypass Switch
fitted and are not blocked level of insulator and to include, for example, • Replace failed equipment
in Motor operators bushings special allowance on with new device
• Bypass Switch • Attach covers for snow cap Limits-of-Approach
dimensions of up to 1m of • Include snow shields
• Remove Ice from prevention. where possible
packed snow and
contacts and mechanical • Check motor gearboxes equipment withstand of
operators are water free and seal ice accumulation of
Switches, • Ensure spare parts are covers to prevent ingress 30mm
(2) Snow and ice accumulation
disconnector available in case of • Specify design shall limit
failure the ingress of snow and
ice including weep holes
for drainage
• Specification to include
increased ice thickness
for closing/opening
operation
• Keep roads clear to
enable emergency
vehicles, replacement
transformers deliveries, • Plan to raise foundations or • Include ice shield to
Transformers prevent ice build-up on
(3) and tap Frozen moving parts
etc. to gain access mount on platforms • Install portable space
following a transformer shaft of the on-load tap
changers • Install space heating if changer of a power
heaters if available
failure necessary transformer
• Ensure spare parts are
available in case of
failure
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4.4 3. Indoor or Secondary System Concern Severe Cold, Snow and Ice
Medium
term/planned
Short term/immediate mitigation action, mitigation, e.g.
Subject Issue i.e. today! next 12 months Future design Reactive action
• Install space heaters or insulating • Install heater • Specify indoor GIS to avoid • Add temporary space
jackets on equipment strips and heavy snow and ice and to heating
climate allow planned maintenance • Re-pressurize Bus Zones if
controls to be undertaken in severe leaks occur
Frozen AIS weather
equipment,
(1) Indoor GIS
maintenance during • Plan to install improved
severe weather climate controls for
application in cabinets and
consider permanent
directional heat.
• Check heaters are working in all • Install heater • Specify all rooms are to be • Add temporary space
enclosures, cabinets, rooms, etc. strips and air conditioned and prevent heating
(2) Control house Frost damage, climate room temperatures from
and panels condensation • Check thermostat settings
controls falling below +5°C (41°F),
• Doors/windows are closed and
sealed
• Inspect critical items which may not • Equipment • Equipment specifications • Remove blockages in critical
be remotely monitored, eg exhaust specifications require suitability to -50°C items, eg exhaust vents on
vents on pneumatically operated require (-58°F), backed up by cold pneumatically operated
mechanisms, when experiencing suitability to - room testing mechanisms
severe cold temperatures, i.e. <-45°C 50°C (-58°F), • Where applicable, check air
(-49°F), even though the equipment backed up by receivers of circuit breaker
Mechanisms, drives is designed to operate at even lower cold room
Equipment and contact
mechanisms and top up
(3) temperatures, as they can become testing
systems using bottled N2, if
blocked and mal-operate necessary.
• Where applicable, check air receivers • Install heaters on pneumatic
of circuit breaker mechanisms and mechanism exhausts
top up using bottled N2, if necessary.
• Install heaters on pneumatic
mechanism exhausts
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4.5. Severe Wind 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact
Medium term/planned
Panels • Build indoor control house.

(redundancy/ensure Remove outdoor control
operation cabinets
• Cut trees brush and • Build or design circuit • Fire resistant equipment and • Remove any materials
plants to create fire ties to restore buildings are important such as paper prints and
Fire protection of break equipment if substation relay records that may be
buildings associated with is destroyed. Use of • Design and install fire walls flammable
bush fires portable substations is around substation to prevent
(1) Control house a good strategy brush or fire from blowing in to
station.
• Install ventilation with • . Inspect and clean • Consider replacement of • Clean dust and use
air filter control house to control house to control insulation to better seal
prevent ingress and contamination ingress and control house to prevent
Dust entering through • Use portable air filters build-up of dust. design roof with latch supports dust build up.
gaps in doors and
in control house to for high winds
windows, ventilation
reduce dust build up • Use portable air filters in
control house to reduce
dust build up
• Wash insulators may • Spray insulators with • Ash from bushfires fanned by • Wash insulators may
require de-energisation RTV coatings to high wind and high require de-energisation
Contaminated Dust/light rain flashovers
(2) enhance tracking temperature can cause
Insulation
(salt/sand contaminated • Repair damaged resistance and promote flashover of insulation. Site
insulation) porcelain with glaze self-cleaning selection, therefore, is very
sealing materials important
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4.5 1. Outdoor - Substation Impact Severe Wind
Medium term/planned
• Remove items from • Vegetation control • Buildings, structures and • Transfer load and supply
substation that can important not just in the equipment shall be designed
become airborne substation but nearby. to post disaster requirements • Quick action to repair
Physical damage: Tree
branches and other
• Remove potentially • Remove potentially • In areas where flying debris is • Remove Objects and
mechanical objects debris
dangerous trees from dangerous trees from potentially a problem, windows
the vicinity of the the vicinity of the shall either be omitted or
substation substation covered with debris screens
• Secure objects that can • Exchange to improved • Design Substation with high • Ensure objects that can
be blown around are parts which can tolerate wind standard. Control house be blown around are put
put away under shelter the wind pressure roof is the focus along with away under shelter or
Electrical damage: or are locked down to caused by the strong foundations and structures. are locked down to
Metallic debris causing prevent becoming wind. Lightweight aluminium cable prevent becoming
(3) Flying debris short circuits, try to airborne. tray should not be used for airborne
minimize surrounding • Replace light weight these areas
including cyclones and • Look outside of cable tray tops with
typhoons substation and identify heavier fibre grate or
possible debris hazards install fasteners on
items that can become
airborne
• Remove or repair • Evaluate temporary • Placement of static wires – do • Placement of static wires
damaged static wire supports for short term not place static wires over is critical to prevent
Falling/damaged
mitigation energized equipment unless falling on energized
equipment shield angle cannot be equipment.
maintained. If unavoidable a
“catch” shall be installed
should the overhead wire fall.
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Medium term/planned
• Repair Replace • Plan to replace • Specify higher cantilever • Identify damaged

Insulators (use of damaged insulators insulators that are ratings as the original load insulators
polymer insulation? showing signs of force factors used in
• Check metalwork on metalwork corrosion calculations may no longer be
(4) Anything that can break
Insulation insulators for corrosion inadequate
needs to have readily
• Check fittings on all
available replacement
strain insulators have • Redundant insulator design to
spare parts)
sufficient threads prevent single point failure
engaged in the fittings
• Bolt down portable • Inventory portable • Specify that portable buildings • Bolt down portable
buildings and repair buildings and shall be fixed to foundations or buildings
(5) Relocation of damage equipment in substation provide anchor straps
Selection of site location to add to preparation • Check those which have
equipment
plan moved during high winds
have not had cables
damaged
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Medium term/planned
• Insulator washing • Special grease is • Increase distance from sea • If increasingly affected by
also applied on AIS shores where wind can push hurricanes and salt storms
• Replace or repair insulators to protect sea spray inland and thus then restoration will include
damaged insulators them from salt increased the fault rate of the washing of all insulation and in
• Apply water-shedding pollution. HV equipment because of the some cases replacement of
Sea salt pollution salt pollution on insulators insulators and equipment
deposits on insulators
insulating material or • Apply RTV coatings
creepage extender • Specify that the equipment will • Apply water-shedding
made from composite be subject to live water insulating material or
material washing to mitigate this risk in creepage extender made from
(6) AIS flashovers close to the composite material
Pollution shore
• Replace or repair • Special grease is • Design contaminated areas • Inspect insulation and
damaged insulators also applied on AIS with polymer insulators or measure levels of
insulators to protect automated washing stations contamination to evaluate
Salt, sand and them from salt
need for washing
industrial pollution pollution.
affecting mechanisms
• Apply RTV coatings • Replace or repair
damaged insulators
List of actions items

• Inspect station before • Develop list of • Create detailed action plan • Create or activate plan to
(7) Proactive wind event such as preparation tasks for and maintain the plan. Add mitigate or reduce damage to
and number station
Planning hurricane or cyclone operations personnel new substations to list as high winds.
location
to complete necessary
• Shore-up suspect • Reinforce structure • Specify reinforced foundations • After replacement of damaged
fencing to prevent of fence and and fencing fencing temporarily shore-up
(8) Fencing and falling over foundation to prevent falling over
Reinforcement
foundations
• Replace affected fencing with
reinforced structure and
foundation
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4.5 2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact Severe Wind

• Spare parts should be • Improve vents so that • Thoroughly investigate all • Insulator washing of
available for fast rainwater may not leak into new feeder breaker type contaminated insulators
recovery, e.g. the cubicle even in the case tests, to ensure the following a typhoon.
porcelains, broken of wind and rain as strong as breakers can perform
connection interface the typhoon. frequent and consecutive • Cut reclosing off to
switching with no damage prevent excessive fault
• Modify air vents to • Inspect protective circuit to contacts or runaway reclosing and duty on the
prevent the ingress of right of way for danger trees temperature conditions breaker
water to prevent unwanted breaker due to repeated arcing in
fault clearing or circuit the interrupting units
• Investigate cutting off lockout
reclosing to prevent • Equipment specifications
Circuit breakers excessive operation
(1) and other
Frequent operation, high should include
wind withstand requirements for
equipment
withstand against wind
velocities of up to
120km/hour (75mph) with
gust factors of 1.3 and
ice accumulation of
20mm (3/4”), for example
• Following severe
conditions follow
increased legislative
requirements in high and
severe wind impact areas
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4.5 2. Outdoor - Equipment Direct Impact Severe Wind

• Switch as many • Develop plan to de-energise • Design substations for • Cut reclosing off to
transformers out of as many transformers as with redundant prevent excessive fault
(2) Transformers
DGA for recovery, LTC
damage is common service as possible to possible to limit the number transformers that can reclosing and duty on the
limit exposure to faults of through faults. carry station loads for breaker
restoration.
• Check availability of • Higher voltages give rise to • Specify substation bus

bus support insulators larger swinging movement work has to withstand
and busbars potentially leading to wind gusts of up to
flashover. Additional weights 100km/hour (62mph) with
• Check records to see if should be fixed on the no ice or 70km/hour
(3) Faults, lack of damping, anti-vibration conductor to reduce the (43mph) with 25mm (1”)
Busbar systems
vibration conductors are fitted to displacement of ice, or similar
existing busbar tubes
• Add anti-vibration conductors • Modify standard
inside tubular busbars to specifications to include
prevent further vibration anti-vibration conductor
issues in shorter tubular busbars
• Install a temporary • Plan to install a permanent • Design to include the • Insulator washing of
coastal wind barrier coastal wind barrier installation of a coastal contaminated insulators.
(4) Insulation
Salt contamination of
insulators leaving sufficient space wind barrier
to fit a permanent one
in the medium term
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5. IMPLEMENTATION APPROACH (RISK/COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS)

In many cases countermeasures are just as cost effective as more expensive substation designs to
mitigate severe weather. The use of countermeasures to implement rapid restoration of service is very
cost effective. Each utility has to consider the level of reliability or service required in locations where
uninterruptible service is necessary. Substation relocation or replacement may be required.
For example, in the case of a hurricane, it makes no sense to build a substation that can withstand
severe weather conditions, at all costs, when the surrounding infrastructure is wiped out and there is
then no requirement for the substation.
Risk analysis should be undertaken to determine the key factors:
Availability
Impact on critical services; for example; fire, water, gas, medical, etc.
Duration of outage
Cost of outage
Initial investment to survive repeated severe events
Political factors, public image
Maintenance costs
Safety of staff and public
Cost of restoration
Accessibility of the station depending on the type of weather
The use of mobile substations is a cost effective strategy for severe weather. Many of the severe
weather events detailed in this TB are localised and not wide area. A reasonable approach is to
develop mobile substations and/or transmission equipment that can restore electrical service for
multiple locations. This equipment allows continued service while restoration efforts are underway.
The great benefit is that these assets can be used repeatedly. The implementation of the use of mobile
substations, as a strategy, reduces the regional capital cost of substation design to mitigate against
severe weather.
Figure 41 shows a theoretical concept. It gives an indication that there is only so much mitigation that
should be applied before it becomes increasingly obvious that a replacement of a more robust solution
is necessary and that of risk is no longer being reduced or controlled.
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Figure 41: Theoretical Concept, Benefits of Countermeasures v Replacement
Some specific weather conditions are taken into account to mitigate the associated risks both during
the design stage (long-term, preventive action) and the maintenance stage. Other strategies and
counter measures can be developed cost effectively to enhance the performance of existing
substations. Section 4 highlights this approach to reliability.
In the example of the construction of the GIS on pillars or support columns (see 9.2, case study 2) the
decision was made because this specific substation was critical in the network and the recovery time of
it after a flooding would have strongly jeopardized the south-eastern electrical system of the network,
so the availability as well as the company public image were the main drivers in this case. It turned out
that safety of staff could have been a driver because when the flooding eventually occurred the
maintenance team working on site were saved because they climbed on to the GIS upraised platform.
For live washing, a machine was developed to mitigate the salt pollution. The main driver was
availability as the substation in which this device is mainly used feeds three major industrial customers
which processes cannot be shut down to allow a planned outage for cleaning the insulators. This
specific mitigation technique limits the risk of both planned and unplanned outage while minimizing the
maintenance cost as one member of staff is sufficient to operate the live washing machine. The
alternative is to rebuild or re-insulate the substation using composites with extended creep and
modified shed shape. The cost of re-insulating is a significant investment when compared to the cost of
mobile washing.
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In the snow condition mitigation technique, a main driver could be the safety of staff as they need to
have clear and safe access to manually operate switchgear, eg disconnectors, circuit breakers.
Elevated structures supporting HV equipment ensures that the clearances are respected even with
abnormal snow height.
6. SAFETY AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE

This section considers the safety precautions that utilities and substation operators take when
operating, accessing and maintaining substations in severe climatic conditions. This is based on
practices employed by utilities operating under such conditions.
6.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust

The following is a list of safety precautions that should be observed:
1) Solo work should be prevented to allow peer check safety method

2) Provide drinking water and electrolytes to maintain hydration
3) Limit work time to reduce exposure to sunstroke, schedule mandatory time limits/compulsory
breaks
4) Provide sunshields on hard hats in addition to sun screen to protect exposed skin
5) Undertake risk assessments to enable appropriate clothing to be worn
6) Breathing masks to be employed in dusty conditions to prevent repertory distress
7) Goggles or face masks may be required for dusty conditions also
8) In preparing to travel to the work location a checklist is reviewed to ensure all safety
precautions have been taken and that the appropriate food, drink and personal protective
equipment are available
9) Provide tarpaulins for shading of vehicles
10) Create “no access” zones around equipment being subjected to higher temperatures which is
exceeding the equipment design specification.

The following is a list of safety precautions that should be observed:
1) Access to the station should be unobstructed. Do not drive through running water since
erosion, holes or solid paths are not visible. Allow the water to recede.
2) Personal protective equipment should be worn at all times. Gloves that come in contact with soil
or equipment should be waterproof until station is properly cleaned with water and disinfectant.
Water and silt can contain disease, pathogens, and noxious or hazardous chemicals. Great
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care should be taken to prevent skin-to-skin contact until a proper assessment or cleaning has
been achieved.
3) Hand washing and clean procedures should be observed.
4) Falling and tripping hazards are a problem and should be part of each safety brief.
5) All employees should have immunizations up to date, including tetanus
6) Protective clothing, waterproof coveralls, masks, gloves.
7) Tetanus shots, cholera and typhoid preparations may be required.

Substations subjected to severe rain require many of the same considerations as those subject to
flooding. Everything personnel come in contact with will be wet, slick and covered with a fungus or
pathogen. Personal protective equipment such as gloves (water proof if appropriate), no skid safety
shoes and safety glasses are required. Walk ways around the substation should be designed to drain
and promote non-skid or slick surfaces. Care should be taken when opening cabinets and enclosures.
Cabinets can be full of water creating a shock hazard or corrosion can make hinges and latches break.
Protective clothing, waterproof coveralls, masks, and gloves as well as Tetanus shots, cholera and
typhoid preparations may be required.

Substations that can or may be subjected to severe snow have dangerous access. Roads are not
visible making driving hazardous. Tall poles with reflective marking should be installed to mark the
road. Reflective markers should be installed in substations to highlight or guide workers where roads
and paths are safe. Reflective markers also highlight cable trough or equipment covered by snow to
prevent damage during snow removal, see Figure 42 below. While all normal safety rules apply,
special care must be observed when inspecting a station in severe snow or ice.
1) Deep snow fallen conductors or bus work could produce hidden dangers. Care must be taken
to identify the corners of the substitution or fence and walk around the substation. Make sure
that transmission structures conductors and bus work are intact before entering the station.
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Figure 42: Note Yellow Poles to Prevent Damage during Snow Removal
2) Make sure that all personnel are adequately dressed with appropriate cold weather gear and
personal protective equipment. Exposure to the cold fatigue and hypothermia is a present
danger and will effect each person and their decision making process.
3) For stations subjected to severe snow, we should consider vestibules or enclosures over each
substation door. Snow can trap personnel in a control house unable to open the door. Design
should consider safe ingress and egress.
4) Any ice is a falling hazard and thick ice can damage equipment or go through a control house
roof. Layout of the substation should consider overhead lines and their proximity to
equipment. Personnel working in a station must be aware of the falling hazard and should be
briefed before going in to the substation or starting restoration activities. An example of a
building designed for severe snow and ice is shown in Figure 43.
Figure 43: Protection of Buildings for Falling Ice
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5) Provide adequate access and egress through the snow covered substation from main access
gates, roads to control room, vehicle parking areas and all interlinking access pathways. Snow
should be removed but avoid blowing onto live conductors or other auxiliary services. Where
access is to be gained up access steps, to mechanism control cabinets for example, space
heaters can be fitted below the platform grating to help melt the snow and provide safe footing
for operating personnel.
6.5. Severe Wind

Substation construction, operation and maintenance generally continue on days of high winds. When
winds become severe then some additional precautions for the safety of personnel should be taken:
1) Set a limit on wind speed as any higher there will be associated flying debris.
2) Crane operations shall be restricted or limited up to a particular wind speed beyond which all
operations shall be cancelled. Carrying on working whilst suspended in a bucket should be
considered as inappropriate in such severe conditions.
3) Staff working outside in the substation in such conditions shall be equipped with goggles to
prevent eye injuries from dust or other airborne material.
4) Workers shall not carryout work with materials or tools that have the potential to become
airborne. Sheet materials shall be avoided under such severe conditions.
5) When arriving at the substation location it is best to avoid parking vehicles adjacent or under
trees due to falling branches or the tree itself.
6) When entering or exiting buildings, etc. take care when opening gates and doors as other
colleagues could be injured due to opening or closing quickly
7. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

In the questionnaire there was a specific question about what standards do the utilities follow with
particular emphasis on severe weather conditions.
7.1. General
All utilities follow the international standards, such as IEC and IEEE, as “general guidelines”. Additional
national standards tend to be followed in these situations which are based on the countries own
experiences. International standards are slow to be modified with the changing environment. Also,
there is no common understanding as each country has experienced different conditions based on their
location in the world and surrounded by unique geography.
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What was “normal” in the past is now not the case and international standards do need to be modified
to reflect the changing climate. Any revisions in future should concentrate on what needs to be done if
temperatures change from temperature A to temperature B, wind speed changes from speed A to
speed B, etc.
There is additional domestic guidance available, such as Japan Electric Association Guide (JEAG),
Japanese Electro-Technical Committee (JEC), and local standards ASCE7 [Australian Standard],
AS1170.0, AS2067, IEEE’s National Electrical Safety Code [NESC], IEEE 605, IEEE 693, etc. which all
reflect past knowledge and provide primary guides to mitigate against severe weather conditions.
Salt pollution, bushfires and industrial pollution may not be covered directly in standards but their
effects are. Utilities are mindful of such issues due to previous experience, i.e. past observed records,
cost associated with countermeasures, importance of the substation, etc. and these are taken into
account by the individual utility using in-house standards in specific problematic areas. Also related is
that some facilities may be designated as major disaster recovery facilities, such as some designated
hospitals, water supply, sewerage facilities, communication facilities, etc. Substations supplying these
may need to be given additional design consideration to withstand severe events to a higher degree,
e.g. a robust supply for critical disaster recovery facilities, a design load factor of not less than 1.5 for
the ‘ultimate limit state’ for the Short Circuit Forces, etc.
Due to past experience by the utility, internal rules have been created, i.e.
Not allowing the installation of equipment in basements, because of flooding risk

Substations are not located in the 100 year flood plain.
All substations shall be built on a higher level compared to the surrounding area, therefore,
flooding does not need to be considered in the design.
7.2. Severe Heat

Standards cover the vast majority of requirements in the “normal” range, with temperature conditions in
the range of: -25ºC (-13ºF)/+40ºC (+104ºF); with an ambient average temperature: <+30ºC (+86ºF).
However, in severe climates some utilities specify +47ºC (+117ºF) for transformer overload ratings.
Some utilities have recorded +45ºC (+113ºF) as their highest ever recorded temperature and have
shifted their “normal” temperature range to -10ºC (+14ºF) to +45ºC (+113ºF) accordingly.
Other points to note that some utilities are doing in severe climates are:
(1) Maximum sun temperature (on a black body) +80ºC (176ºF)

2 2
(2) With solar radiation on a horizontal surface at 1100W/m (102W/ft )
(3) Maximum rate change of temperature of 12°C (54º F) per hour
(4) Some specify equipment for an average ambient of +45ºC (+113ºF)
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(5) Maximum average over 1 hour; +55ºC (+131ºF)

(6) Maximum average over 24 hours +40ºC (+104ºF)
(7) Monthly average of the hottest month: +35°C (+9 5ºF)
(8) In any one day: +40°C (+104ºF) high in service and +55°C (+131ºF) in storage
(9) In India +50°C (+131ºF) is the standard upper t emperature limit

Most utilities have experienced flooding at substations on their networks and are now undertaking risk
analysis to determine the level of effort, and associated cost, to mitigate substations in flood zones.
They are specifying a ratio of 1 in xxx years depending on how problematic they believe flooding will
be. Some utilities have been requesting that designs shall be based on 1 in 50 years whilst others
have requested designs to be based on 1 in 200 years.
Other points to note that some utilities are doing in severe climates are:
(1) Some utilities are starting to request 1 in 10 or 1 in 20 years with the value theoretically based
on the most important flood in the last 1000 years.
(2) Some utilities have a “Flooding Risk Prevention Plan” which are defined specifically by
administrative authorities in each region of the utilities network
(3) Where there is risk of flooding the substation platform shall be 300mm (12”) above the 1 in
200 year flood level. When there are no past records, 300mm (12”) may be added to the road
level around the substation site
(4) Substation underground drainage system shall be design for 1 in 20 year rain fall to be able to
tolerate excessive rainfall
(5) Government guidelines provided for individual designs of sites shall be according to a flood
forecast map (considering once in 30 - 100 years) which is made by the local government. On
sites where flooding is a risk, government planning policy guidelines require substations to be
able to function effectively through a 0.5% Annual Excessive Probability (AEP) flood and major
switchyards through a 0.2% AEP flood
(6) In some countries, e.g. Indonesia (Jakarta), severe flooding occurs once in 5 years

Humidity is particularly not a commonly defined quantity. Both rain and humidity are not particularly
well defined and, therefore, utilities and national standards specify their own requirements, see
examples below. These are based on collected local or regional data:
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(1) Rainfall – average annual between November and April: 2,300mm (7’-6”) for 10 days
(2) 99% humidity
(3) Average relative humidity: 70%-100% to Australian Standard AS2650
(4) Most have no standard design requirements for prolonged 95% humidity
(5) Usually, humidity is not specified as a normal service condition
(6) Examination of the technical design, for the assumed humidity, is carried out in order to select
the most suitable equipment which is capable of being installed in a continuously wet
environment
(7) No special criteria used – max humidity 100%, mean summer up to 55% & mean winter up to
90%
(8) Mean summer 95% at 40ºC (104ºF), mean winter 65% at 30ºC (86ºF), maximum 100%,
minimum 20%
(9) The requirement for the service condition for substation equipment shall be designed for 90%
humidity, generally 3 months of the year
(10) Very basic specification; 10% to 100% (non-condensing)

Again, utilities and national standards specify their own requirements, see examples below. These are
based on past maximum snow and ice accumulation at substation sites:
(1) Snow in substations and, therefore, ground clearance is modified due to the additional
covering, i.e. 1m (39”) of snow (typical value). Snow can bank against apparatus to a depth of
1.2m (48”)
(2) Maximum value for ice covering high voltage conductors and primary equipment shall be
20mm (3/4")
(3) In accordance with ASCE7 [Australian Standard]
(4) The condition used for substation design is referred to as “maximum recorded value”
(5) Maximum design weight of snow sticking to conductors = 6kg/m (4lb/ft)
(6) Ice coating [no wind] = 26mm (1”); Ice coating [with 115km/h (71.5mph) wind gusts] = 13mm
(1/2”)
(7) Equipment requested to meet IEC test "Operation under severe ice conditions”
(8) Ice cover according to relevant standards (European Standard EN...) is also taken into
account when designing busbars, steel towers, etc.
(9) In any one day: -50°C (-58ºF) low in service an d -50°C (-58ºF) in storage
(10) In Northern Finland -50°C (-58ºF) is the stand ard lower temperature limit
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7.6. Severe Wind

All utilities and national standards specify their own requirements, see examples below. These are
based on past maximum wind speeds and pressures. Wind speed varies slightly dependent on the
utility or country:
(1) The value for the maximum air speed is 46m/s (150ft/s) with 1000 year return period (1 in
1000) suited for 50 year design life. Should stronger winds be expected then an individual
review can be carried out considering the characteristics of each area.
(2) Maximum wind velocity up to 260km/h (162mph) i.e. 72m/s (236ft/s)
2 2
(3) Severe wind values are defined (e.g. UTE C11-001) as 1,510N/m (31.5lbf/ft ) and are applied
as static loads on all structures
(4) Some utilities expect a number of cyclones to affect their network each year with a 100 year
wind event
(5) Wind Loads are assessed in accordance with the requirements of AS1170.2.
(6) The Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) shall be not less than 1000 years (Ultimate Limit State
Design). The Terrain Category (TC) shall not be higher (numerically) than 2.5 (i.e. in the
range 1 to 2.5)
(7) Some utilities work on wind pressure load on the basis of wind speed 40m/s (131ft/s) and
designed wind gust of 152km/h (95mph)
2 2
(8) Other utilities have the following approach; conductor: 1,000N/m (21lbf/ft ), insulator and
2 2 2 2
metal fittings: 1,400N/m (29lbf/ft ), steel structures: 2,400N/m (50lbf/ft )
(9) Indian standard regulations with 1.5 or 2 as a safety factor
8. CONCLUSION AND CLOSING

Severe weather conditions are significant challenges for electric utilities that must provide available and
reliable electric service. Much of electric service facilities and expectations were based on a society
not dependent on the continuous supply of electric power. Electric service needs have changed as
society has become greatly dependent on it for all vital needs. Design philosophy has not kept up with
the change in threats to the electric grid as the frequency and intensity of severe weather events has
changed.
Today’s civilizations and societies are constantly increasing the need for energy supported by critical
infrastructure such as transportation, gas, water and electricity. Significantly, most if not all of these
critical services depend on electricity. Electricity has been widely adopted in the world and has led to
greatly improving the quality of life for all people. The availability of refrigeration, heating, and cooling
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is now seen as a necessity rather than a convenience. The dependence of society on electricity has
increased exposure to wide area high impact events, such as severe weather.
The improvement in quality of life due to electrical development has also created greater risk to society.
For these developments, there are unintended consequences. It is important that electric system
immunity or system hardening of substation design for severe weather be shared. Countermeasures
and effectiveness of design standards experience should be shared with each other so discussions can
continue about how to optimize the design of substations, both existing and for the future. People
remember power outages and their impact on their lives. For some, the impact is catastrophic.
Engineers have a responsibility to prevent electric outages, or to limit the impact, through shared
experience.
By not considering the design of the substation for severe climatic conditions, the substation and the
associated utilities business can be affected in the following ways:
Restoration costs
Time taken to restore supplies
Resources to be pulled from other areas for support
Customers affected by loss of supply
Existing equipment overload and subsequent shortening of asset life
Increased spares inventory
Reputation and image of the utility
More stringent legal obligations
The scope of the brochure is to provide a shared experience of standards and mitigation techniques,
from questionnaire recipients and the vast experience of working group members from around the
world. Several case studies are provided to show the effectiveness of countermeasures to prevent
outages for severe weather or how rapid restoration of service is an effective philosophy.
Include high voltage network impact and indirect impact on substation design
Severe weather is currently considered a major factor when it has a direct impact on populations.
Often utility standards do not reflect the change in reliability and availability need by today’s electric
users. Severe weather stresses the design of legacy electrical systems causing a significant customer
outages or damage to system infrastructure. Most if not all severe weather conditions have the similar
effect, i.e. loss of revenue, on the utility. Customer expectations are to have electrical power
continuous or readily available electricity. Wide area events harm utility reputations. In many instances
public perception affects the rate at which the utility is allowed to earn. As part of the Terms of
Reference a summary of impacts experienced by those who completed the questionnaire was
necessary.
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Severe heat, drought and dust

Impact on ground grid conductivity
Bushfires in forested areas and contamination from bushfires needs to be built into insulator design
criteria
Need to allow for severe combined wind and rain events (e.g. cyclones) as well as prolonged
periods of greater than 40ºC (104ºF) ambient temperatures
Severe flooding
Creation of a flood management plan for each region or district. A plan was developed to isolate
flooded areas from the network for each zone or potential flooded area
Change flood level design standard to make location decisions based on low probability of
occurrence
Develop a strategy to use mobile substations for rapid restoration of electric service
Develop short term and long term asset plan to transition from counter measures to design for
flooding as a service condition
Consider impact of ingress and egress on operations and restoration of substations
Severe rain and humidity

Redundant pumps and frequent inspection of drains to prevent erosion
Install heaters and ventilation ports in cabinets and makeup boxes. Specify heaters and vent ports
in all new equipment
Use anti fugal paint when necessary and specify aluminium or stainless cabinets and enclosures
Severe cold, snow and ice

Seal and gasket issues severely impacted by cold and ice
Install barriers/ visible markers (Tall Posts) for marking substation fence, protecting equipment and
cable tray. Attention to ingress and egress are also important safety factors
Consider elevating equipment to prevent insulation and minimum approach to energized equipment
Severe wind
Design of substations should include redundant insulators to eliminate single point of failure when
possible or practical
Increase wind loading design standard
Develop rapid restoration plans
Some counter measures or changes in design standards have multiple benefits for different types of
weather. Changes in insulator type shed shape and creep have significant advantages for ice, snow,
salt contamination and heavy rain. The use of counter measures as a design criterion should consider
unintended consequences. Changing or modifying equipment or substation design could solve one
problem and create another
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The choice of the substation site location may be the most significant factor economical for all severe
weather conditions. When alternate substation sites are available to build, the lowest first cost land
price may not be the most economic option. Total life of the substation asset should be evaluated for
impacts from severe weather and not just the first cost. Recipients of the questionnaire sited choice of
alternate substation site based on a more rigorous flood standard as best practise.
The choice of a more robust equipment or design standards as opposed to what would normally be
used for regional design as highly effective. The change in standards adds a small incremental cost
when building new facilities or replacing equipment. Asset management can be used as a proactive
tool to harden equipment infrastructure by replacing equipment near or at the end of life with more
robust standards and designs.
All utilities have different weather conditions from region to region and have equally different economic
circumstances. The brochure was written to provide varying levels of mitigation and design ideas that
each asset manager or engineer can select which is appropriate or cost effective for their needs.
9. CASE STUDIES
This section includes real examples for each of the severe conditions discussed earlier. These are to
demonstrate how utilities have learned directly as a result of experiencing severe weather conditions
affecting their networks and have taken actions to prevent such reoccurrences in the future.
9.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust - Middle East

In the Middle East, severe heat and drought is a common weather phenomenon. In such climate
conditions, substation buildings are designed with special provisions to reduce the effects on substation
equipment. Figure 44 below shows the various methods for substation building improvement to cater for
severe heat, drought, dust and rain.
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Figure 44: Various Methods for Substation Building Improvement
a) Severe Heat
The main problem caused by severe heat is the performance of the equipment. One of the
common measures to overcome severe heat is to provide a pergola roof for power transformers
and sunshades over gas insulated busbars. This pergola roof and the sunshades effectively
reduce the direct sun irradiance to the surface of the power transformer enclosure and GIB.
Figures 45 and 46 below show shaded transformers and GIB in use in substations in the Middle
East.
Figure 45: Sunshade Roof over Transformers
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Figure 46: Sunshade Covers over GIS Busbars
Other means of reducing the heat in substation buildings are:-
Construct the external wall of substation building as cavity wall with insulation
Increase the insulation for substation building roof
b) Severe Dust
Sandstorms are a common occurrence in desert and arid areas. In order to minimise the
ingress of sand into substation building, sand trap louvers can be installed at ventilation points
of substation building. Another method is to pressurize the building by providing air-
conditioning or pressurized ventilation. Gaps under access doors or roller shutters should be
properly sealed to minimise the ingress of dust.
c) Severe Rain
Severe rain may cause flooding in the substation compound and/or ingress of water into the
substation building. Some of the measures adopted are:
Elevate floor level of primary equipment such as GIS

Elevate entire substation yard level above existing ground level
Elevate position of cable terminal box
Seal up all spare cable duct with proper waterproofing material
Provide concrete tiles on roof of substation building to protect waterproofing membrane
Increase capacity / size of rain water down pipe to prevent overflow of rain water during
heavy rain
Provide water-stop in the construction of substation building walls
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d) Severe Drought
Severe drought may cause unwanted ground surface cracking and settlement. In order to
minimise these effects, it is advisable to:
Construct substation road / ground by using thin multiple layers of back filling to
maintain well-compacted ground
If piling is used for the substation building or equipment foundation, the pile foundation
level must be carefully considered for future settlement
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Case study 1 - Preparing a Substation for a Flood - Poland

In July 1997 a flood, of an extent not experienced previously, occurred in the southwest region on
Poland. Continuous rainfall that lasted over a week resulted in raised water levels in major rivers in the
region by 2 (6ft 6”) to 3 (9ft 10”) metres in comparison to the previously reported water levels.
Consequently, the flood was named the flood of the millennium. The floodwaters continued to flow
towards the Baltic Sea and areas in proximity to the rivers were in danger of being flooded. The River
Odra carried the majority of the floodwater. A 400/220kV substation, called Krajnik, is situated close to
this river and was in danger by being affected by the enormous floodwaters. This substation is situated
in the north of Poland and is used to evacuate the power from the Dolna Odra Power Plant. In order to
ensure continuous uninterrupted operation of the substation a flood bank was built around the site to
create temporary protection. Refer to Figure 47 below.
Figure 47:
2.5m (8ft 3”) Earth Bank Surrounding the

Substation Created From Local Materials
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The formation of this shield was possible due to the slow speed with which the floodwaters were
moving. Mobile excavator equipment was utilized to produce a flood bank 2.5m (8ft 3”) high; it was
created with the use of the local ground. An additional protective layer was formed utilizing
polyethylene sheeting. The entire work was completed and the substation was ready to face the flood
in 4 days. In the end, the protection system was not called upon. The floodwater that reached the
north of Poland was not large enough to create any threat.
The temporary flood bank can be seen in Figure 48 below. Also within the substation electrical
cabinets were surrounded with sandbags and polyethylene sheeting.
Figure 48: Temporary Solutions Deployed Prior to Floodwaters Rising and

Potentially Entering the Substation
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Case study 2 - Trans-en-Provence 400kV - France
a) Context
Cancellation of a 400kV OHL project (2006): several quick counter-measures had to be

taken to secure power supply in the south of France
Creation of series of 400kV substations and 225kV underground cables
Climatic issue: flood preventing laws
Figure 49: Flood Zones Consideration in Substation Surroundings
b) Design specifications
i. Flooding height of 1.8m (6ft): elevated pre-stressed concrete pad on support columns
ii. Additional cost of the pad on support columns is minor: +4%
Figure 50: Flood Zones and Height Incorporated into Design
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Figure 51: Hydrodynamic Profile of the Support Columns
iii. Special grounding circuit design for the GIS:
Grounding connections through 10 dedicated support columns (connecting the

elevated earth grid to the ground with exothermic or Thermite welding)
Steel mesh of the concrete pad is connected to the earth grid
Use of earth wells
iv. Fence design
Safety due to the French water policy; in order not to block the natural flow of water in
the event of a flooding, it is forbidden to use solid fences or walls perpendicular to the
flood most likely direction.
Figure 52: Welded Reinforcement
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v. Innovating design for the transformer cubicles:
Specific cooling design to cope with the confined configuration:

Waterproof concrete walls with high raised doors around transformers. This is a
new way of mitigating the flooding risk. This has been tested on 2 transformers
(600MVA 400/225kV) connected to a GIS built on support columns in the
southeast of France. This was enormously useful during a recent massive
flooding. The transformers were not damaged (check valves prevented the
collecting oil tank to flood back the surrounding transformers walls). The only
problem was that the LV signals boxes from the transformers were located at the
ground level (construction error) and thus were flooded.
To provide feedback and lessons learned on last year floods, a working group has been put
together. Their studies looked at several methods of mitigating this risk (waterproof LV signals
box, raise the equipment structures, modify the control houses specifications and modify the
drains, etc). It has been analysed that AIS with busbar differential protection equipment will
need to be modified and have all their control houses elevated.
A specific study was conducted to ensure correct cooling for the two 600MVA power
transformers. It turned out that the waterproof concrete enclosures were too confined for the
initial cooling method (12 fans ODAF). The specific study led to the design of air evacuation
chambers connected to each row of fans.
Figure 53: Initial Cooling Design Study
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Figure 54: Final Cooling Design Study
Figure 55: Example of Cooling Air Chambers for Confined Transformer

Enclosures
c) The flooding
6 months after Trans 400kV launch there was massive flooding on the 15th of June 2010
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Figure 56: View of Flooded Site, Enlarged View of Transformer Location
The governmental flooding levels were accurate: 1,8m (6ft) in the red zone, 1m (3ft) in the blue.
Consequences on the network:
• 63kV: Control houses flooded, 1m (3ft) of mud

• 225kV: Despite on raised ground, 50cm (1ft 6”) of water
• 400kV: GIS remained unaffected (the lack of one way valves in the interconnecting
pipework to the buried oil pit allowed the internal flooding of the transformer
enclosures)
Every transmission customer was back online 4 days after the flooding.
d) Restoration process
Day+1 after the flooding: 100 people mobilized
Assistance of the Marseille Navy fire-fighters for pumping and cleaning

Mobilisation of all regional employees (GET and RTE): expertise, cleaning and repair
RTE helicopter-borne resources: site surveys and transport of spare parts
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Project organisation and Leader assigned within 2 days
Collaboration with manufacturers was crucial to ensure a fast recovery:
e) Next steps
• 400kV: Correct the transformer oil pit faulty design

• 225kV: Extension of the GIS using a 3m (10ft) high pad on support columns (2015)
• 63kV: Elevation of all the HV equipment control boxes
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Case study 3 - Shinkawa Substation (33/6.6kV) - Japan
a) Information on Damage
From the 11th to the early morning of the 12th of September 2000, record breaking heavy rain
occurred in the city of Nagoya in Japan. The total amount of rainfall was 562mm (~2ft)
(maximum amount of rainfall was 92mm/h [0ft 4”]). An embankment of the Shinkawa River
broke due to the heavy rain and the Shinkawa Substation (33/6.6kV), located near the
Shinkawa River, was flooded to a maximum water level of 1800mm (6ft). The photographs of
the Shinkawa Substation under water and fire damaged 6.6kV vacuum circuit breaker by short
circuit, are shown in Figures 57 and 58 respectively.
Figure 57: Photograph of Shinkawa substation under water
Figure 58:
Photograph of Fire Damaged 6.6kV

Vacuum Circuit Breaker by Short
Circuit
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Damage of the main equipment in the substation by the floodwater is shown in Table 8. As the
floor level of the building that contained the distribution board and 6.6kV switchgear was 550mm
(1ft-10in) higher than the ground level, the actual flood level of building was 1250mm.
Equipment Type Damage
33/6.6kV main transformer Control boxes were flooded
33kV switchgear Control boxes were flooded
6.6kV switchgear Under water
Distribution panel Flooded up to half height of panel
Battery Under water
Table 8: List of Damage of Main Equipment in the Substation by the Flood
b) Immediate Mitigation
The schedule of the temporary restoration work for the disaster is shown in Table 9.
Construction work was conducted with the use of a mobile substation, as shown in Figure 59. It
took approximately 38 hours for the floodwaters to recede from the substation. In the
meantime, the mobile substation was arranged and the temporary substation was designed.
After the water receded, the mobile substation was installed in the substation and tested on site.
Finally, temporary restoration work was completed, approximately 90 hours after the power
outage occurred.
Table 9: Schedule of Temporary Restoration Work
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6.6kV Cub
Figure 59: Overview of Installation of Mobile Substation
When the existing equipment in the substation cannot be used due to such a huge disaster, it is
necessary to consider the items below in advance for a rapid restoration.
1 Arrangement plan of mobile substation
2 Unification of specification of mobile substation
3 Training of restoration work by mobile substation
c) Planned Mitigation
A list of restored equipment in the substation is shown in Table 10. The 6.6kV switchgear and
battery system installed in the building were completely under water, so this equipment was
replaced. As a countermeasure against heavy rain on the same scale in the future, the floor
level of the building was raised in excess of the flood level, as shown in Figure 60.
It was necessary to replace motor operators of the outdoor equipment due to being inundated
with water. The transformer and 33kV switchgear were not replaced, only their control boxes.
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Equipment Type Method for restoration
33/6.6kV main transformer Replacement of operation boxes by new ones
33kV switchgear Replacement of operation boxes by new ones
6.6kV switchgear Replacement by new ones
Distribution panel Replacement by new ones
Battery Replacement by new ones
Table 10: List of Equipment Restored in the Substation
Figure 60: Substation Control Room after Restoration
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Case study 4 - Lesson Learned from 2011 Great Flood Crisis - Thailand
a) Emergency Mitigation, Post-Flood Restoration and Sustainable Designs for

Substation Protection against Flood Crisis
In 2011, the majority of Thailand especially the central region, Figure 61, encountered the great
flood crisis which posed a huge adverse impact, Figure 62, not only to the lives of the people of
Thailand (Thais) who suffered from scarcity of food and difficulties in transportation but also on
the operation of power substations in flood-affected areas.
Figure 61: Flood Water in Thailand during October and November in 2011.
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Figure 62: Adverse Impact from Floods
As the key component in the electricity transmission and distribution system, substations enable
electricity to flow from power plants to households nationwide. Flood disruption would trigger
severe damage to electrical equipment at substations directly resulting in operational failure and
interruption to service continuity leading to widespread power outages. To prevent such
incidents, effective countermeasures, both interim and long-term plans as well as post-flood
restoration measures, are critically needed to prevent possible harm to the operation of
substation and electrical equipment. From the experience of Electricity Generating Authority of
Thailand (EGAT) in protecting flood-affected substations during massive flooding, emergency
management and mitigation measures; temporary barrier construction, installation of water
pumps and substation bypass, were deployed. These were to protect the substation and secure
normal operation while post-flood recovery plans were implemented to ensure electrical
equipment did not become contaminated by moisture and dirt. Sustainable prevention plans
against future flooding have also been prepared for new substation designs in order to reduce
potential risks. These approaches are considered the best practice to safeguard power
substations from flooding.
b) Emergency Management and Mitigation Measures to Protect Power Substation

from Floodwaters
Between April and November 2011, fourteen power substations nationwide drastically suffered
from massive flooding listed in Table 11 and only five substations which were Bangkok Noi
Substation, North Bangkok Substation, Sam Phran 1 Substation, Sukhothai Substation and
Nakhon Si Thammarat Substation could operate normally because floodwaters were prevented
from entering their control buildings and other critical areas within the substations.
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Highest Water Level

No Substations in Substation Duration Immediate Mitigation
m (ft-in)
Metropolitan Region
1 Nava Nakhon Substation 1.2 (4’-0”) Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
2 Rangsit Substation 2.0 (6'-6") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
3 Sai Noi Substation 0.23 (0'-9") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
4 Bangkok Noi Substation 0.93 (3'-0") Oct– Dec 2011 Normal
5 North Bangkok Substation 1.23 (4'-1") Oct– Dec 2011 Normal
Central Region
6 Thalan 1 Substation 0.96 (3'-2") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
7 Ayutthaya 1 Substation 1.2 (4’-0”) Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
8 Ayutthaya 2 Substation 0.35 (1'-2") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
9 Bang Pa-In 1 Substation 1.05 (3'-5") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
10 Bang Pa-In 2 Substation 1.25 (4'-2") Oct– Dec 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
11 Sam Phran 1 Substation 0.80 (2'-8") Oct– Dec 2011 Normal
Northern Region
12 Sukhothai Substation 0.50 (1'-8") Aug 2011 Normal
Southern Region
13 Surat Thani Substation 2.40 (7'-10") Apr 2011 Bypass (re-configuration)
Nakhon Si Thammarat
14 0.30 (1'-0") Dec 2011 Normal
Substation
Northeast Region (No affected substation)
Table 11: The List of the Affected Substation in EGAT’s System
Several immediate mitigation measures were employed to ward off floodwaters and keep the
crucial electrical equipment operating as the key priority. Temporary barriers, Figure 63, were
immediately constructed, encompassing the substation’s gate to protect the control building and
critical areas from flooding, while a sufficient number of water pumps, also Figure 63, were
provided to remove floodwaters.
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Figure 63: Installation of the Sandbag Barrier and Pumps to Prevent the
Floods.
The construction of a sandbag barrier was selected due to its low cost and wide availability.
While the substation was fortified by a sandbag barrier, critical electrical equipment inside the
building, e.g. marshalling cabinets and junction boxes, were elevated to the safe level. The
water level was also closely monitored as it rose higher up the electrical equipment inside the
building, which was regularly marked on a column in front of the control room, Figure 64. This
meant that an In-Charge Operator would be able to observe the flooding situation without
leaving the control building.
Figure 64: Real-Time Water Level Monitoring
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Note the different height marks from when the rising water reached the transformer auxiliary
equipment.
After the completion of emergency flood mitigation measures the substation could continue to
operate normally as long as the water level was still lower than that of the important electrical
equipment. However, in the worst case scenario the floodwaters managed to enter the
substation, reach the control building and jeopardize critical equipment, the in-charge operator
would instantly de-energize all transformers and other important equipment to bypass the
substation by using the control and protection system of remote substations as depicted in
Figure 65. This method would not compromise the overall transmission system while the
system’s stability was securely maintained.
Figure 65: Substation Bypassing
From Figure 65, Bang Pa-In2 substation (BI2) was flooded so badly that its control and
protection system could not be used. To maintain the stability of the system, it had to bypass
the power flow from Wang Noi substation (WN) to Angthong1 substation (AT1). The path for
the bypass was established by closing some switching devices and using the control and
protection system of the remote substations, i.e.WN and AT1.
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c) Post-Flood Restoration Measures to Rehabilitate Flood-Affected Substation
Once the floodwaters subsided to a normal level, post-flood recovery plans would be executed
immediately to restore the substation’s condition and secure the electrical equipment’s
functionality. Considering that the substation and equipment suffered from a long period of
being inundated by floodwaters, it could adversely affect the equipment’s function with
floodwater residue and dirt left inside the equipment. Hence, post-flood recovery is strongly
required.
Two key considerations in post-flood rehabilitation, Figure 66, are that all operations of the
substation must be shut down, for the safety of a maintenance team, and that the substation
equipment must be meticulously cleaned up and entirely dry because any moisture left inside
the equipment
will lead to rust
and deteriorated
performance.
Figure 66:
Post-Flood
Restoration Measures
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d) Sustainable Substation Design for Flood Protection
Despite satisfactory results in protecting substations from flooding, immediate mitigation

measures are merely for short-term alleviation. Sustainable substation design is still needed as
long-term countermeasures against future flooding. For the construction of a new substation a
flood risk assessment for the site location must be taken into account. The preferred substation
site should not be in a high flood-risk area, floodway zones or other similar location that has a
history of flooding. Furthermore, to make certain that the substation will be safe from
inundation the substation ground level must be adequately raised or built with a soil berm
surrounding the substation site to safeguard the substation from water runoff.
For substation’s building design, the floor level of the GIS room, Figures 67 & 68, the relay
room, Figure 69, and the control room at the substation must be above the highest flood level.
Also, important electrical equipment such as marshalling cabinets, control cabinets and station
service transformers should be repositioned to a higher level and correctly installed. Additional
equipment such as the reinforced concrete (RC) retaining walls, Figure 70, might also be
needed to prevent floodwater and landslides entering important electrical equipment.
Figure 67: The Installation of GIS on the Second Floor
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Figure 68: GIS Building
Figure 69: Cross Section of the Relay Building
Figure 70: The Construction of the Reinforced Concrete Retaining Wall
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e) Lesson Learned and Way Forward for Efficient Substation Flood Protection
As the great flood crisis in Thailand in 2011 inflicted extensive damage on the country’s
infrastructure and electrical substation operation, inconveniencing the many lives of the
Thailand people (Thais) in flood-affected areas. EGAT, as the national state enterprise in
charge of electricity generation and transmission network, thus reviewed its emergency
management and mitigation measures that successfully maintained the substation’s normal
operation. What was concluded from EGAT’s hands-on experience in substation flood
protection was that protecting the substation from floodwaters was essential to keep the
substation operating and energized to prevent power outages. Using the substation bypass
technique was also recommended for the worst-case scenario in which floodwaters could leak
through sandbag dykes and enter the substation’s building. After the floodwater receded to a
normal level, the flood-inflicted substation must be instantly restored by thorough cleaning and
moisture removal for electrical equipment. For a long-term solution, it is advisable to
incorporate flood-proofing into the design of substations and to have a flood risk assessment
prior to the construction of a substation in order to avoid high flood-risk areas and ensure
important electrical equipment is installed higher from the ground above the anticipated
maximum flood level.
In conclusion, the integration of emergency mitigation, post-flood rehabilitation and new substation
design are considered the most efficient substation flood protection measures.
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9.3. Severe Rain and Humidity - USA

Regions with extensive rain and warm climates have significant degradation from moister rust and
galvanic action. Equipment cabinets, makeup boxes and mechanical operators must be designed to
tolerate moisture as a normal environmental condition. The application of heaters to drive out moisture
and vents to allow moisture to escape should be specified for all equipment. Figures 71 is an example
of a motor operator cabinet in a humid environment with insufficient heating and ventilation. Water
builds up and rust forms inside the motor cabinet and gear box causing corrosion and failure. Vent
ports and heaters can be retrofitted to most enclosures. Figure 72 adds ventilation to cabinet.
Figure 71: Condensation Collecting In Operating Mechanism
Figure 72: Addition of Vent Port Motor Operator Cabinet
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9.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice - Mount Storm Substation - USA
In January of 1999 Mount Storm Substation experienced a total blackout due to a significant winter
storm that deposited 76mm (3in) of ice; see Figure 73 below. Mount Storm Substation is a major
Generating Station producing 1600MW of power and is a critical switching station for west to east
power flows in the Pennsylvania Jersey and Maryland (PJM) transmission operating system. The
weight and density of the ice was mitigated somewhat with the equipment rated for ice breaking but the
flashovers occurred when the ice started to melt.
Flashover of insulators at EHV in ice or snow is a rare phenomenon. Several conditions need to exist
for this to happen:
a) Environmental Conductive Pollution

b) Weather parameters need to be just right. Temperature and precipitation not too fast and not
too slow.
c) Insulator shed shape and sizes are key factors. In this case 1559kV BIL at 500kV
Figure 73: Ice Covering Insulation
When all three of these conditions are present the probability of an EHV insulator flash over occurring is
almost three to one. The reduced wet withstand of flashover impedance across the same dry arc
distance is the key factor [17]. Examples of mitigation for ice and pollution can be seen in Figure 74.
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Figure 74: Dry Arc Distance over Insulator
Changing the substation insulators to improve performance and tolerate the environment provided to be
a challenge. Ice contamination flashover is a different phenomenon than salt contamination. The first
thought was to install hollow core silicone polymer insulators. From testing it is observed porcelain vs.
polymer housings show that silicone has higher surface impedance (10X) than porcelain providing 25 %
better performance for arcing in cold fog. The problem is that tests show ice sticks better to silicone
polymer than porcelain that produces ice bridging over the sheds. Both have desirable and undesirable
properties that do not produce a clear choice. An alternate third choice is to install RG insulators that
take advantage of the features of porcelain and limit flash over from conductive glaze. For arrester this
is not possible since the conductive porcelain impacts the voltage grading and could lead to thermal
runaway and failure. For arrester changing the shed shape by adding booster sheds will inhibit shed
bridging and break-up conductive water streams that can promote an external flash over. Examples
are shown below in Figures 75 and 76.
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Figure 75: Installed Booster Sheds on Surge Arrester
Figure 76: RG Insulators Identified by Red Band
Change or mitigation of insulators has greatly improved performance in reliability and availability for
approximately 1/5th of the cost. The alternative would have been to install GIS for complete switching
station and generator led and disconnects. The cost of insulator mitigation was approximately 10
million dollars US versus 50 million dollars US for indoor GIS.
Each utility must way the benefit compared to risk for probability of an outage. Mitigating insulators can
dramatically improve performance but does not eliminate all possibilities of flashover due to ice. If the
design requirement included no outage due to ice or snowstorms can be tolerated then the indoor GIS
option would be the clear choice.
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9.5. Severe Wind – Preparation for Hurricanes - USA

This Case Study is a real example of how a utility documents the preparation necessary and the
methodology for its substations and personnel for a forthcoming hurricane.
Purpose:
a) Check Generators for Fuel and Operation
Check all storm centre facilities for proper generator operation and check for fuel levels. Check
substation locations for Generator operation and sufficient fuel levels. The following locations
have known substation generators:
1. Bearskin 2. Bristers
3. Buggs Island NUG 4. Cunningham
5. Ladysmith 6. Lakeview
7. Louisa CT 8. Marsh Run
9. Septa 10. Shawboro
Portable generators (5 large > 60kW) (4 small > 10kW) should be checked for proper operation
& fuel and prepared for transportation.
b) Equipment Inventory and Preparation
Review spare equipment, transformer, circuit breakers and associated hardware. Look at
existing construction equipment as well to assess capability. Review number of contractor
crews and existing construction crews for deployment prior to storm. Specialized equipment
such as mobiles and processing trailers should be located and accounted for. All Specialized
equipment should be checked to make sure it is ready for operation. An example would be to
check batteries on all mobile equipment to make sure they are charged, etc.
c) Preparation of Vehicles
All vehicles need to be fuelled and checked for proper operation. Map books, sanitary supplies
and water should be supplied to each vehicle.
d) Reduce System Contingencies
Review switching abnormalities and put all equipment possible in normal operating position.
Page 145
e) Notification of Work Assignments
Storm Centre work schedules should be prepared and all employees should be notified prior to
the storm. Employees not assigned to specific duties should be given an assembly location and
time for redeployment. The T&S Control Centre will coordinate these assignments and
movements.
f) Hurricane Transmission Switching Criteria
When the transmission system is exposed to weather conditions at hurricane force, certain
transmission lines are more susceptible than others to multiple operations. Repetitive
operations can cause damage to transmission equipment and result in extended restoration
times. Disabling automatic reclosing and sectionalizing transmission line segments are the two
methods used to mitigate this risk.
The Dominion focus are for the lines in the Williamston and Hampton Roads regions where the
highest wind levels occur as the hurricane makes landfall or enters the Dominion system.
Additionally, lines extending along the coastal area are susceptible to salt spray contamination
which cause multiple operations.
g) Criteria for Disabling Automatic Reclosing
As hurricanes typically track through our system in a northern or north-western direction from
the southern border of our system, the following transmission lines are at the highest risk of
operations due to severe wind levels and should have the reclosing disabled.
Line No. Station Station

64 Winfall Trowbridge Williamston
82 R Everetts Voice of America Williamston
101 R Mackeys Riders Creek Williamston
126 R Earleys Scotland Neck Williamston
139 R Everetts Albermarle Williamston
189 R Wharton Pantego Williamston
15 R Poe Wakefield Charles City Rd
23 R Suffolk Ivor CCR/HR
44 R Suffolk 15T44 @ Wakefield CCR/HR
106 R Poe 23T106 @ Ivor CCR/HR
R = Radial lines CCR/HR = Charles City Rd. & Hampton Roads
Page 146
The following coastal lines should have reclosing disabled due to operations caused by severe
wind levels and salt spray contamination:

27 Virginia Beach Greenwich Hampton Roads
257 Churchland Sewells Point Hampton Roads
288 Yorktown Penninsula Hampton Roads
52 R Kitty Hawk Nags Head Williamston
h) Criteria for Sectionalizing Lines
For networked lines at highest risk of multiple operations, line sectionalizing should be
considered. The objective is to isolate a centre segment of the transmission line which is at the
highest risk, thereby creating two radial segments. This significantly reduces the risk of both
terminals from being exposed to multiple operations, as well reducing risk of customer outages.

27 Bayside (2746) Long Creek (2769M) – 5.5km (3.4 mile) segment
64 Mackeys (6446M) Edenton (6459) – 16.7km (10.4 mile) segment
Emporia D.P.
130 Brink D. P. (13016) – 9.2km (5.7 mile) segment
(13049)
2099 Tanners Pt (209939) Churchland (209952&226T2099) – 8km (4.97 miles)
For radial lines at highest risk of multiple operations, sectionalizing should be considered for the
segment that extends beyond the last tap. Sectionalizing this segment can significantly reduce
the multiple operation risk, as well as reducing risk of customer outages

106 Bakers Pond (10689) Ivor (23T106) – 46km (28.5 mile) segment
44 Windsor (4486) Wakefield (15T44) – 24.5km (15.2 mile) segment
i) Additional Considerations
Any line that operates three independent times during a hurricane would create the same
multiple operation risk, where the terminal breakers should be opened provided this does not
result in unacceptable customer or grid contingencies.
Although this criterion identifies the risk and the planned mitigation targets, an approaching
hurricane should be reviewed for strength and path, where revisions to the targets may be
necessary.
Page 147
j) Substation Hurricane Wind and Flood Plan
With the destruction and devastation brought on by Hurricane Hugo in the summer of 1989,
System and Division management recognized the need for a Hurricane Response Plan. The
main theme of this plan is “what can be done to minimize damage and save the infrastructure of
the transmission and substation equipment” for Dominion Strong emphasis is placed on limiting
damage by removing equipment from service. This is a general change in operating philosophy.
While a large amount of information can now be gathered concerning hurricanes, predicating
direction, magnitude and landfall locations has yet to be an exact science. The USA National
Weather Service when predicting landfall probabilities 24 hours prior to a hurricane arrival will
only assign a highest percentage of “40%” to the location most likely to be struck. Because of
this unpredictability the hurricane plan starts 24 hours prior to expected hurricane landfall to de-
energize distribution equipment and remove relays. The 24 hour “trigger” was selected to allow
sufficient lead time to gather personnel for switching and travel time to the various substation
sites. It is unlikely any appreciable switching can be accomplished in the last 8 hours prior to
landfall due to traffic congestion caused by people fleeing from the approaching storm.
Once an asset such as a transformer is de-energized the protection panels, relays, switch motor
operators, LTC cabinets, Potential and CT makeup boxes for example will be sealed or
prepared for submersion. The salt or brackish water can destroy an electrically energized asset
due to galvanic action. By taking proactive measures isolate and protect, these assets can be
returned to service quickly ensuring expedited recover. The need for proactive measures is
illustrated in Figure 77.
Figure 77: Flooded substation
Significant time in days or weeks is necessary to replace equipment that is damaged or

inoperable due to flooding. The amount of spare equipment available for restoration can also
Page 148
hamper restoration. Protection of the substation assets is critical. In some cases sand bags and
water pumps can be used to limit the amount of water in a substation. This work if the expected
flood height is only a few feet. It takes time and man power to sand bag a control house. Figure
78 is an inexpensive counter measure that can be built to perform the same purpose. A
temporary wall or barrier can be installed in minutes to protect a substation control house.
When the control house capacity is exceed or the age and condition reach the end of life. A
raised control house can be built.
Figure 78: Construction of Temporary Flood Wall
Severe windstorm and flooding events like hurricanes are a challenge because repetitive short
circuits can damage or fail critical equipment. It is important to stop automatic reclosing to
minimize damage to equipment on the system. This is particularly true of transformers that will
experience multiple faults from attached circuits. Lists of transmission line below were created
that require switching the reclosing switch. Some of the transmission lines due to age do not
have remote switching capability and will require a switchman. It is important that all switching
orders be prepared in advance and switchman be coordinated as part of the preparation plan.
Two storm surge scenarios using category 3 and 4 hurricanes (based on the Saffir-Simpson
scale listed below) moving in a worst case direction of west-northwest into the Tidewater area
were used for this plan. The flood height predications are calculated with the assistance of a
program called SLOSH developed by NOAA. Figure 79 below is an example of the flood surge
map produce to predict expected land impacts
Page 149
Figure 79: SLOSH Simulation
A listing of Eastern Division substations, classified below, expecting high floodwater have been
developed from the scenarios listed above. For information purposes only one district is
provided to detail various activities
This is the Saffir Simpson rating for hurricanes:
Category Wind Speed Surges
Km/h mph M ft
1 120-150 74-95 1.2 – 1.5 4-5
2 151-175 96-110 1.8 – 2.4 6–8
3 176-210 110-130 2.7 – 3.6 9 – 12
4 211-250 131-155 4.0 – 5.5 13 – 18
5 >251 >155 >5.5 > 18
Page 150
Classification of types of substations:
Transmission Contains transmission equipment such as transmission breakers or

transmission power transformers
Distribution stations are separated into three different classes

Distribution
depending on the highest distribution voltage served from the station.
1) 34.5/23kV
2) 13.2/12.5/11kV
3) 6.0/4.2kV
Industrial Serving individual Industrial customers
From the floodwater list, substations were selected to have equipment switched out. These
were separated by district and placed into a general format listed below:
k) Switching
Recommended switching done approximately 24 hours before expected landfall.
Recommended stations to be de-energized due to flooding.
Lists should be compiled so preparation work can be compiled and managed. An inventory of
impacted sites with equipment and relays will allow storm managers to manage personnel and
switching.
Re-emphasise “Cut reclosing off” on distribution circuits. Stations with remote SCADA control
can be completed once the storm impacts winds. In Dominion this is typically 48km/h (30mph)
when all personnel are pulled from the field and staged for safety and recovery. It is important
to note that travel after a Hurricane is difficult if not impossible due to downed trees and utility
poles. If possible personnel should be staged around the service territory if possible to aid in
analysis and restoration of service.
Coordination with the Regional Operations Centre (ROC) and the T&S Storm Centre should be
exercised prior to de-energizing entire substations. Plans will need to be developed by the
districts with local civilian and governmental agencies to prevent disrupting evacuation and
emergency plans.
Additional plans may have to be formulated based on events or circumstances that have not
been foreseen. The expected flood heights are on the following tables.
l) Flood Plan
Substation subject to 900mm (3ft) or more water levels in a category 3 or 4 hurricane with
600mm (2ft) pre storm normal tide.
Page 151
WATER
BATTERY
DISTRICT SUBSTATION LEVEL
CAPPED
m (ft)
Norfolk Bollingbrook 3.0 (10)
Edgewater 3.0 (10) N/A
Ocean View 3.0 (10)
Willoughby (Cubicle) 3.0 (10)
Lennox 1.5 (5) N/A
Sewells Point (Control House) 1.5 (5)
Tanners Point 1.5 (5) N/A
Titustown 1.5 (5) N/A
East Ocean View 1.2 (4)
Colonial Normal School 3.0 (10) N/A
Buxton 2.1 (7) N/A
Buckroe 1.5 (5)
Bloxoms Corner (Control House) 1.5 (5)
Fort Monroe 1.5 (5) N/A
Hampton 1.5 (5)
Mercury (Control House) 1.5 (5)
Peninsula (Control House) 1.5 (5)
Phoebus 1.5 (5)
Shellbank (Control House) 1.5 (5)
Willard 1.5 (5) N/A
Chesapeake Portlock 2.1 (7)
Continental Grain 1.5 (5) N/A
Virginia Beach Arctic 2.1 (7)
Atlantic 2.1 (7)
Dam Neck 2.1 (7)
North Virginia Beach (Cubicle) 2.1 (7)
Groveland 1.5 (5)
Page 152
EXAMPLE HURRICANE STATION FLOOD REPORT
CATEGORY 3 STORM HEADING WEST - NORHTWEST
(TIDE HEIGHT + STORM SURGE – ELEVATION = WATERLEVEL)
Substation water heights for these pre-storm normal tides (Tide Height)
0.3m 0.6m 0.9m

Substation District 0m (0ft)
(1ft) (2ft) (3ft)
Transmission Substations:
Reeves Ave. 21 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)

Sewells Point 21 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Tanners Point 21 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
N. A. S. A. 22 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Peninsula 22 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Shellbank 22 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Churchland 24 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4)
Cradock 24 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
Craney Island 24 2.7 (9) 3.0 (10) 3.3 (11) 3.6 (12)
Lake Kingman 24 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4)
34.5/23kV Distribution
Substations:
McLaughlin 21 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
Taussig 21 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.3 (1)
Thole Street 21 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.3 (1)
Bloxoms Corner 22 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Magruder 22 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.3 (1)
Mercury 22 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5) 1.8 (6)
Shea 24 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4)
Long Creek 25 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5)
13.2/12.5/11kV Distribution
Substations:
Cove Street 21 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
East Ocean View5 21 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4) 1.5 (5)
Berkely 23 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
Cofield 23 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
Dozier 23 0 (0) 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3)
Pine Street 24 0.3 (1) 0.6 (2) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (4)
Page 153
HURRICANE SUBSTATION SWITCHING
(1995 FELIX)
Water
Trnf. Circuit SCADA Fuses/
Substation Level m Relays
No. No. R/C Sets
(ft)
Ocean View 3.0 (10) 1 574 4 No 2

Sewells Point 1.5 (5) 6, 7 322 30 Yes 15
E. Ocean View 1.2 (4) 2 720 9 No 3
Reeves Ave. 0.6 (2) 4, 2 317, 320, 351 40 Yes 16
Shellbank 1.5 (5) 1, 2, 4 304, 325 26 Yes 12

Bloxoms Corner 1.5 (5) 1 340, 341 14 Yes 6
Peninsula 1.5 (5) 1 415, 716 12 Yes 6
Dozier 0.6 (2) 2 715 8 Yes 3

Berkley 0.6 (2) 3 812, 853, 857 12 No 6
Churchland 0.9 (3) 1, 2 335, 338, 772 24 No 10

Shea #1 0.9 (3) 4 333, 349 15 No 8
Pine St. 0.9 (3) 2 886 4 No 2
Cradock 0.6 (2) 2 330, 337 0 No 0
Arctic 2.1 (7) 2 768 8 No 3

Atlantic 2.1 (7) 1 705, 706 12 Yes 5
N. Va. Beach 2.1 (7) 2 736 8 No 3
Pendleton 1.2 (4) 2 365, 366 15 Yes 7
Long Creek 1.2 (4) 2 357 8 No 3
The accumulation of site specific data allows restoration managers or operator to create work orders or
work packages based on the number of field personnel available to prepare for storms in advance. The
tables provided re examples of a flood plan based on temporary countermeasures. As substations in
affected areas are rebuilt upgraded or undergo life extension. The substations are designed with
Page 154
maximum flood heights as part of the normal service condition. Elevated equipment, control houses and
enclosures are part of the design criterion.
Substation with low elevation flooding from rain runoff

These substations will/must be prepared prior to any rain event
Substations with low elevation will flood from excessive rain

These substations must be prepared with temporary counter measures in advance of any significant
rain event. This includes tropical storms
Norfolk Chesapeake Va. Beach Portsmouth

Sewells Point Dozier Atlantic Cradock Shellbank
East Ocean View Berkley Arctic Churchland Bloxoms Corner
Cottage Park Portlock N. Va. Beach Shea Peninsula
Ocean View Sandbridge Pine Street Buckroe
NORFOLK DISTRICT – General FLOOD PLAN PREPARATIONS
SWITCHING:
Switch out Tx #2 (84MVA 115/34.5kV)
Switch out circuit 317
Reeves Ave.
Substation –
Approximately 24 Switch out Tx #4 (168MVA 230/115kV)
hours before expected
Switch out Tx #6 (224MVA 230/115kV)
landfall of the Sewells Point
Switch out Tx #7 (168MVA 230/34.5kV)
hurricane the following Substation –
switching is
East Ocean View Switch out Tx #2 (10MVA 34.5/13.2kV)
recommended:
Substation – Switch out circuit 720
Cottage Park Switch out Tx #2 (7.5MVA 34.5/13.2kV)
Ocean View Switch out Tx #1 (4.7MVA 34.5/4.2kV)
As the storm approaches and the decision is 1) Reeves Ave.

made to de-energize entire stations due to 2) Sewells Point
flooding the following station should be de- 3) McLaughlin
energized (listed in priority): 4) Cove Street
1) Willoughby
2) Ocean View
The following 4.16kV distribution substations
3) Bollingbrook
should expect high water levels. 4) Edgewater
5) Lenox
6) Titustown
Page 155
At some point the distribution circuits should have reclosing cut “Off”
SUBSTATION:
Once the power is turned off completely and the station is de-energized the following stations should
have their DC fuses pulled, batteries capped, and relays removed and stored in either the cable tray or
in a dry area:
Reeves Ave. Substation Tx #4 A B C lead differentials

Panel No. 53
Tx #4 A B C differentials
Tx #4 switched out L412 reclosing
L412 sync check
Panel No. 52
L412 breaker failure
Tx #2 switched out
Panel No. 28 Tx #2 A B C overloads
Tx #2 A B C leads differential
Panel No. 27
Circuit 317 switched out
31712 A B C and ground overloads
31712 reclosing
Panel No. 13
35112 reclosing
T602 (normally open)
Position #1 A B C and ground overloads
Panel No. 10
Position #2 A B C and ground overloads
32012 pilot wire
Panel No. 3
32012 transfer trip (Cove ST Tx #2)
Page 156
Sewells Point Substation Fault detector

Tx #6 switched out L672 reclosing
Tx #6 A B C overloads
Panel No. 32 L672 sync
Tx #7 switched out (Bus #4 de-
energized)
Transfer Navy load from N272 to N172.
N272 opened.
Tx #7 A B C
Fault detector
Panel No. 34
L772 reclosing
Panel No. 30 Bus #4 A B C and ground overloads
Bus #4 breaker failure
34.5kV bus #4 A B C lockout
Panel No. 24 Fault detector
Under voltage
Panel No. 22
32272 reclosing
Relays in stand-alone cabinet
Tx #2 switched out
Tx #2 A B C and ground overloads
East Ocean View
Relays in breaker cabinet
Substation Cct 720 switched
out
72022 reclosing
Relays in stand-alone cabinet
Tx #2 switched out
Tx #2 A B C and ground overloads
Cottage Park Substation Relays in breaker cabinet
Cct 792 switched
out
79272 reclosing
Tx #1 switched out No relays – high side fuses
Relays in breaker cabinet
Ocean View Substation Cct 574 switched
out
57492 reclosing
Page 157
When an entire substation has been de- 1) Reeves Ave.

energized all relays are to be removed and 2) Sewells Point
stored in a dry area, all DC fuses pulled, 3) McLaughlin
batteries capped and the control house sand-
bagged. 4) Cove Street
Preparation plans are developed based on the expected magnitude of the storm. The greater the wind
speed the greater the expected flood height will be. A plan is developed for each substation and
organized for each operating area. Creating a task list before a storm event reduces preparation time
and improves safety for the field personnel. Dominion will stand down all preparation activities if winds
reach or exceed 48km/h (30mph). In the interest of space, an example for this case study follows
providing the detail for just one operating area:
Page 158
CATEGORY 2 – NORFOLK DISTRICT STORM SURGE
SWITCHING:
Switch out either Tx #4 or Tx #5 (169MVA,
230/115kV transformers)
Approximately 24 Reeves Ave.
Substation – Switch out 2 of the 3 distribution power
hours before expected
transformers Tx #2, Tx #3 or Tx #6 (84MVA
landfall of the
hurricane the following
115/34.5kV transformers)
switching is
recommended: Switch out either Tx #6 or Tx #8 (224MVA
Sewells Point 230/115kV transformers)
Substation – Switch out either Tx #7 or Tx #8 (168MVA
Once the power is turned off completely and the station is de-energized the following stations should
have their DC fuses pulled, batteries capped, and relays removed and stored in either the cable tray or
in a dry area.
At some point in time the distribution circuits should have reclosing turned “Off”
As the storm approaches and the decision is made to de-energize stations due to flooding the following
stations should be de-energized (stations listed in order of priority):
1) Reeves Ave.
The following 34.5kV distribution substations 2) Sewells Point
should expect high water levels 3) McLaughlin
4) Cove Street
1) Willoughby
2) Ocean View
The following 4.16kV distribution substations 3) Bollingbrook
should expect high water levels 4) Edgewater
5) East Ocean View
6) Lenox
7) Titustown
SUBSTATION:
Once the power is turned off completely and the 1) Reeves Ave.
station is de-energized the following stations 2) Sewells Point
should have their DC fuses pulled, batteries 3) McLaughlin
capped, and relays removed and stored in either
the cable tray or in a dry area: 4) Cove Street
Page 159
CATEGORY 3 – NORFOLK DISTRICT STORM SURGE
SWITCHING:
Switch out either Tx #4 or Tx #5 (169MVA
Reeves Ave.
Approximately 24 Substation – Switch out 2 of the 3 distribution power
hours before expected transformers Tx #2, Tx #3 or Tx #6 84MVA
landfall of the 115/34.5kV transformers)
hurricane the following
switching is Switch out either Tx #6 or Tx #8 (224MVA
recommended: 230/115kV transformers)
Sewells Point
Substation –
Note: Once the above equipment is de-energized and removed from service the DC fuses should be
pulled and Relays removed and either stored in the cable tray or in a dry area. All makeup
boxes cabinets and motor operators will be sealed with water tight RTV or duct seal.
As the storm approaches and the decision is made to de-energize stations due flooding the following
1) Reeves Ave.
The following 34.5kV distribution substations 2) Sewells Point
should expect high water levels 3) McLaughlin
4) Cove Street
At some point in time the distribution circuits should be put on “one-shot”.
1) Willoughby
2) Ocean View
The following 4.16kV distribution substations 3) Bollingbrook
should expect high water levels 4) Edgewater
5) East Ocean View
6) Lenox
SUBSTATION:
Once the power is turned off completely and the 1) Reeves Ave.
station is de-energized the following stations 2) Sewells Point
should have their DC fuses pulled, batteries 3) McLaughlin
capped, and relays removed and stored in either
the cable tray or in a dry area: 4) Cove Street
Page 160
CATEGORY 4– NORFOLK DISTRICT STORM SURGE
SWITCHING:
Reeves Ave.
Substation – Switch out 2 of the 3 distribution power
Approximately 24 transformers Tx #2, Tx #3 or Tx #6 84MVA
hours before expected 115/34.5kV transformers)
landfall of the
hurricane the following Switch out either Tx #6 or Tx #8 (224MVA
switching is 230/115kV transformers)
recommended:
Sewells Point
Substation –

Industrial Park 115/13.2kV transformers)
Note: Once the above equipment is de-energized and removed from service the DC fuses should be
pulled and relays removed and either stored in the cable tray or in a dry area.
As the storm approaches and the decision is made to de-energized stations due flooding the following
1) Reeves Ave.
2) Sewells Point
The following 34.5kV distribution substations 3) McLaughlin
should expect high water levels 4) Cove Street
5) Oakwood
6) Taussig
7) Thole Street
At some point in time all distribution circuits should have reclosing turned “Off”
SUBSTATION:
1) Reeves Ave.
Once the power is turned off completely and the 2) Sewells Point
station is de-energized the following stations 3) McLaughlin
should have their DC fuses pulled, batteries 4) Cove Street
capped, and relays removed and stored in either 5) Oakwood
the cable tray or in a dry area: 6) Taussig
7) Thole Street
Page 161
WIND MITIGATION PLAN
This Plan should be developed as a collaboration of System Planning, Transmission Engineering and
System Operations. The collective knowledge of this approach allows for protection of the transmission
assets. The focus of this plan is to limit faults on line wires making restoration easier and preventing
damaging large amounts of lines that might have to be replaced otherwise. Hurricanes typically track
through Dominion system in a northern or north-western direction from the southern border of North
Carolina to Washington DC.
10. REFERENCES
1 IEC 60529 Ed 2.2 2008-13 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code).
2 CIGRE TB N°304 Use of Surge Arresters for Lightni ng Protection of Transmission Lines,
December 2010
3 IEC 60099-5 Ed 2.0: Surge arresters - Part 5: Selection and application recommendations
4 IEEE 81 Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface
Potentials of a Ground System
5 IEC 60071 Insulation co-ordination
6 CIGRE TB N° 158 polluted insulators a review of c urrent knowledge, June 2000
7 WG 33-07, “Guidelines for the evaluation of the dielectric strength of external insulation”
CIGRE - Brochure 72.
8 CIGRE TB N°324 Sag-tension calculation, methods f or overhead lines, June 2007
9 IEC 60943 Edition 2.1 2009-03 Guidance concerning the permissible temperature rise of
parts of electrical equipment in particular of terminals
10 CIGRE TB 227, “Life Management Techniques for Power Transformers”, 2003
11 Costică Vlad - Technical solutions for restoring the power supply to the consumers
through severe weather incidents - WEC Central & Eastern Europe Energy Forum –
FOREN 2012 Neptun-Olimp, Romania, 17-21 June 2012
Page 162
12 IEC 62271-102: 2003 - High voltage switchgear and control gear. Part 102: High voltage
alternating current disconnectors and earthing switches.
13 (Chisholm et al., 1996 and Cherney, 1980), the United States (Cherney, 1980), Japan
(Matsuda et al., 1991), Norway (Fikke et al., 1992), China (Su & Hu, 1998), and England
(Forrest, 1969).
14 J. Farzaneh-Dehkordi, J. Zhang, and M. Farzaneh - Experimental Study and

Mathematical Modelling of Flashover on EHV Insulators Covered with Ice 61st Eastern
Snow Conference - Portland, Maine, USA 2004
15 R. Lanoie, D. Bouchard, M. Lessard, Y. Turcotte, M. Roy – Using steam to de-ice

energized substation disconnectors - Canada - CIGRE Session 2004 – B3.103
16 Antero R. Farias - Using Ice Melting and Ice Rolling Technologies to remove Ice from
Sub-transmission and transmission Lines at Manitoba Hydro - Electricity Today
no11/1999
17 William A. Chisholm and Masoud Farzaneh – Insulators for Icing and Polluted
Environments, IEEE/Wiley 2009
18 IEC 60815-1 (2008) Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions
19 IEEE1313.2, 1999 - Guide for the Application of Insulation Coordination
20 Based on the experience of Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc , the Japanese electric utility
21 ANSI/NEMA C29.9-1983 - American National Standard for Wet-Process Porcelain

Insulators - Apparatus, Post Type
Page 163

614 Air Insulated Substation Design For Severe Climate Conditions

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614 Air Insulated Substation Design For Severe Climate Conditions

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614

Air Insulated Substation Design for Severe

Mark McVey, Convenor (US), John Nixon, Secretary (UK)

“Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only

Air Insulated Substation Design

1. DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS ............................................................................. 5

2. THE QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................... 7

3. DESIGN FOR SEVERE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ........................................................... 11

4. EXPERIENCE BASED RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 67

4.4. Severe Cold, Snow and Ice ...................................................................................................... 92

5. IMPLEMENTATION APPROACH (RISK/COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS) ........................... 104

6. SAFETY AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE .................................................................... 106

7. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ..................................................... 109

8. CONCLUSION AND CLOSING................................................................................... 113

9. CASE STUDIES ........................................................................................................... 116

10. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 162

Where Do You Build A New Substation?

Long Term Strategy and Short Term Mitigation

1. DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS

AIS Air Insulated Substation

ATH Aluminium Trihydroxide (a Nano composite polymer for housings of products)

BIL Basic Impulse Level

CVT Capacitive Voltage Transformer

EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Rubber (polymer housings of products)

GIB Gas Insulated Busbar or Bus duct

GIS Gas Insulated Switchgear

GRP Glass Reinforced Plastic

HTV High Temperature Vulcanisation (polymer housings of products)

IP International Protection (degree of protection) [1]

LSR Liquid Silicone Rubber (polymer housings of products)

OHL Overhead Line

NOAA National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, USA Government Department of

RTV Room Temperature Vulcanizing

RG Resistive Glaze (Insulator)

SCD, USCD Specific creepage distance, unified specific creepage distance

Severe Climate condition includes "extreme" and "abnormal"

VT, EMVT Voltage transformer (Electro Magnetic or Capacitor)

[X] Refer to reference information located in Section 10

Figure 1: Countries That Completed the Questionnaire

Figure 2: Percentage Completion of Questionnaire Split by Organisation and Sector

In the questionnaire the WG asked:

Table 1: Substation equipment impacted by a particular weather condition

The WG was interested in written answers to the following:

- Severe rain and flooding (International Standard or once in xxx years)

The questionnaire focused on five specific areas:

Severe heat, drought and dust

3. DESIGN FOR SEVERE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

3.1. Severe Heat, Drought and Dust

Transformer temperature increases

Some other solutions to reduce the effects of severe heat are:

Some of the solutions to reduce the effects of severe drought are:

Providing fire-extinguishing systems

Some of the solutions to reduce the effects of dust are:

Upgrading the IP protection to IP5X or IP6X [1]

3.1.1. Outdoor - Substation Impact

3.1.1.1. Insulation, Dust, Light Rain Causing Flashovers [2]

3.1.1.2. Insulation Coordination and Surge Arrester De-Rating

3.1.1.3. Ground Drying Affecting Earth Grid Performance

The ground electrical resistivity is

Figure 3: Earth Electrical Resistivity versus Temperature [4]

The main impact is coming from moisture variation

Figure 4: Earth Resistivity versus Moisture Extract [4]

3.1.1.4. Lightning Performance during Severe Heat Conditions