Lesson 7:

Critical Reading
At the end of the module the student is expected to:

1. Explain critical reading as looking for ways of thinking

What is Critical Reading?

Critical reading goes beyond recognition of the text's meaning and

restating it in your own words. A critical reader does not merely skim
the text at hand. According to criticalreading.com, critical reading
takes two steps further from simple reading. To reach a solid
interpretation of a text, the critical reader must dwell on what the text
does by making such remarks beyond what it says. From this, the
critical reader must identify what the text wholly means based on the
previous analysis.

Critical reading advances the understanding of the reader by not

taking the text by its face value. It studies the composition's every
nook and cranny until you find the author's inconsistencies, oversights,
limitations and other reasonable arguments that is often overlooked by
a normal reader.

The website enumerated the three steps of analysis reflecting the

three types of reading and discussion:
1. What a text says - restatement (wherein the reader merely
restates what is said in the original text)
2. What a text does - description (wherein the reader
discusses aspects of the discussion itself)
3. What a text means - interpretation (wherein the reader
analyzes the meaning of the text as a whole)

Critical reading does not simply ask what the text says but more of
how the topic is presented and why. Critical readers dwell on the
distinctive qualities of the text.

Readers normally read texts to obtain facts and knowledge. A critical

reader, on the other hand, mulls over the unique perspective of the
author on a particular text and how the facts the author presented
arrived at his/her conclusion

Goals of Critical Reading

Prentice Hall has enumerated the following critical reading skills:
1. The ability to distinguish between fact and opinion
 2. The ability to identify the author's purpose
3. The ability to make inferences
4. The ability to recognize the author's tone
5. The ability to recognize persuasive techniques

Critical reading ultimately examines the author's choice of content

language and structure. The basis of recognizing the purpose of an
author is their choice of content and language to use. The critical
reader analyzes the tone and persuasive elements of a text through
reviewing the choice of language used. In recognizing the bias of the
text the critical reader must identify the nature of patterns of choice of
content and language.

Critical reading teaches the reader how to not blindly accept all the
presented facts without further examination. This technique allows you
to confirm and present your own argument. The practical starting point
of every critical reader is to question everything you read.

Statement of Fact vs Statement of Opinion

One of the basic skills a critical reader must possess is to identify
which is a statement of fact and which is a statement of opinion.
Whatever the text's purpose, it can possibly contain one or both of the
statements. A statement of fact is characterized by its ability to be
verified through experimentation, personal observation or credible
sources. On the other hand, a statement of opinion needs further
evidence and other valid supporting details to be proven true.
Tone
Tone reflects the author's attitude in approaching the topic. According
to Forlini, "an author chooses words according to his/her attitude
toward the topic and how the author expects the reader to respond to
the material. The author's tone may be evident in his/her choice of
words either expressing its connotation or denotation.
Persuasive Techniques
The author uses various persuasive techniques to color the
presentation of facts and to appeal to the reader. Authors use jargons
and slanting to make the readers lean towards their position/argument
Jargons are "specialized vocabulary used by people in a particular
field." While often misused to conceal meaning jargons may prove
effective in solidifying an argument if defined and explained
appropriately.
Slanting "is the writing of a passage so that it leans toward one point of
view." Words with either positive or negative connotations may be
used as slanting Another example of slanting is purposefully leaving
out information of a different perspective on a similar issue.

Critical Reading Strategies

While people initially read for comprehension of the text critical
reading is the logical second step that requires the reader to analyze
the text thoroughly through questions that will eventually reveal the
author's purpose for writing the text and his/her ideas.
Previewing
Before starting to read a text, it is important for a critical reader to get
the initial understanding of the text Skimming the material enables the
reader to grasp the organization and the content of the text.
Contextualizing
The text is interpreted by the reader through his/her own
understanding of what it is all about. The words do not contain the
meaning by themselves. Since texts are all written in the past, it is
vital for the reader to consider putting the ideas in context by
acknowledging the differences between personal existing values and
attitude and the author's perspective.
Questioning to understand and remember
They say that the best way to learn is through asking questions
Questions can also become your guide and key to understanding the
author's point of view. It is recommended that a reader poses a
question in each paragraph that will focus on its main idea. This way,
newer knowledge may be obtained at the end of the analysis.
Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values
Every person has an existing bias or stand in a certain issue or topic
People have varying beliefs accumulated through years of experience
and marking the parts of the text where your personal beliefs are
tested is a strategy in critical reading. This is done so the reader can
track the pattern in the author's thoughts and presentation of his/her
own beliefs.
Outlining and summarizing
Applying skills in outlining and summarizing can also help a reader
think critically. This is to further examine the author's paragraph and
sentence structure as well as his/her organization of ideas. The key to
perfecting these skills is to properly identify the main ideas, the
supporting details of the text and the given examples. In outlining the
reader will find out the structure of the text's main ideas. Summarizing
on the other hand, restates these main ideas in a concise form. This
will show how well a reader has understood the text.
Evaluating an argument
A critical reader does not accept everything they read as each text
provides assertions on what a reader can consider true. An argument is
composed of two essential parts: the claim and the support the claim is
an idea, an opinion, a judgment or a point of view that the writer wants
you to accept The support consists of reasons and evidence that will
prove to the readers that the conclusion presented is worth accepting
 It is worth noting that both claim and support must be equally
consistent with each other for the argument to be deemed acceptable.

With various resources and researches at the reader's disposal, it is

also suggested to consult related readings in order to learn how to
approach the same topic in a different way.

Analysis and Inference

Analyzing a Written Text

In analyzing a written text, it is important to take note of the following
elements as well as the guide questions that come with it:

 Purpose/Context - What does the text aim to do? Does it mean to

persuade or does it contribute to a discussion of an existing topic?
What content does the text cover? What purpose does it serve its
readers?
 Author/s-Who wrote the text? What are his qualifications for writing
about the topic? Audience - What is its target audience? Where is
the text found? What does the author expect the reader to get from
his/her composition? Are you a part of the author's audience?
 Topic and Position - Is the author's argument on the topic at hand
supported by valid evidence? Is the author's position clear? Is it
presented as objective? Is his/her stand based on other author's
position or simply from personal observation/experience?
Research/Sources - Do previous researches have a role in
supporting the author's argument? Which of the references elicits
further discussion?
 Proof/Evidence - What are the proofs/evidence presented by the
author throughout the text? Did they come from credible sources?
What type of proof is used by the author (eg. references to other
work, interpretations of other work, original research, personal
experience, author's opinions, critical analysis, etc.)? Do these
proofs validate the argument? Which of the evidence carries the
most weight?
 Organization - How are the information organized in the text? For
what particular reason are they arranged in this particular way?
Where did the author plainly states his/her stand on the topic? Is the
organization driven more by the content (the information that needs
to be presented), by the authors' argument by the needs of the
audience, or by some combination of the three?
 Style - What can you infer from the author's choice of words? From
what perspective did the author write the text? Was he/she
inclusive with his her choice of words? Did they use jargons or
slanted meanings? If there are, were they properly defined for the
 reader's convenience and understanding? What other writing
techniques did the author apply in writing the text? Analyze each
sentence structure, figurative language and rhetorical questions
existing in the text
 Drawing Conclusions - What does the author want to highlight?
Compare and contrast the text with other similar ones. Identify the
similarities and differences in their approach of the same topic
Making Inferences
The text, by itself, does not contain meaning. It is up to the reader to
interpret the meaning of the words, their usage and structure in the
text. The reader infers an interpretation of the text through prior
knowledge, social conventions, shared experience or shared values.
Inferences are essential in both written and spoken communication. A
single sentence may contain a variety of assertions. Reading is an
active, reflective, problem-solving process." Readers do not simply
read the words, but ideas from a collection of assertions.
Some examples of inferences are the following .
A boy is wearing a Led Zeppelin T-shirt, glasses, and his
shoes have mud on them. One can infer he likes Led
Zeppelin his eyesight is poor and he walked through mud.
You adopt a puppy from the shelter and he seems nervous
and scared. He hides from loud noises and had some
noticeable scars. You can infer that he was abused by his
former owner.
 Lesson 8:
Claims made in a written text
At the end of the module, the student is expected to:
1. Identify claims explicitly or implicitly made in a written text:
a. Claim of fact
b. Claim of policy
c. Claim of value

What is a claim?

Critical reading enables you to distinguish the explicit and implicit

nation provided by the author. Explicit information is information that
is clearly stated in the text. Implicit, on the other hand, are ideas
suggested in the text but not directly stated. This is where the ability
to make inferences based on clues within the text is applied.

Through proper identification of explicit and implicit information, the

critical reader can properly evaluate the claim/s made by an author.
Claims state the point or position of an author regarding a certain
topic. The claim statement is further proven by supporting details from
various resources and reliable evidence. This is the most important
part of a written text as it does not only limit the scope of the topic but
it also gives a concise summary of the writer's thoughts and argument.

Tiongson gave the following characteristics of good claims:

1. A claim should be argumentative and debatable. It is expected for a

written text to yield objections and opposite perspectives to appear for
readers of a text that supports a certain stand on a topic. Completely
factual texts are not considered debatable.
2. A claim should be specific and focused. With the statement of claim
limiting the scope of the written text, it must be noted that claims
must be focused on a single topic alone to arrive at an equally concise
and specific result or conclusion.
3. A claim should be interesting and engaging. It should capture the
interest of readers at first glance and encourage a healthy discussion
on the topic, whether or not they're from different points of view.
4. A claim should be logical. The evidence supporting the claim must
be reasonable at its best.
Claims of Fact
As discussed in the previous chapter, one of the essential parts of
an argument is the claim, or the idea that the author wants you
to perceive as true. In line with this are three types of claims:

This type of claim states the existence of something a definition

or classification, as well as facts or inferences of a certain topic.
This type of claim asserts something that exists, has existed or
will exist based on data.

There are three types of factual claims that are generally referred
to as objective.
1. Factual/historical
2. Relational
3. Predictive

Along with this claim are the support requiring the following:
1. Sufficient and appropriate grounds. This evidence may be in
the form of reliable authority, recent data, accurate and typical data
as well as clearly defined terms.
2. A clear distinction between fact and inference.

One example of a claim of fact is the following statement:

Excessive consumption of alcohol can lead to many illnesses.

The reader may assume that due to previous researches done on the
topic of alcoholism, it has brought about numerous cases of illnesses
from people who excessively consume alcohol Supporting evidence
may come from doctors or experts who have handled such cases,
patients who have suffered from illnesses due to excessive alcohol
intake, and even other researches on the effects of alcoholism.

Claims of Value

Claim of Value, on the other hand, refers to statements that appeal to

a person's taste and morals or the sense of what's good and what's
bad. This type of claim weighs the values according to which is more
desirable. Claim of value deals with topics concerning moral,
philosophical, or aesthetic aspects.
 Proof of this claim requires the following:
1. Establishing standards of evaluation (i.e. a warrant that defines
what constitutes instances of the relevant value)
2. The priority of the value in this instance.
3. Establish the practical or moral advantage of your standards.
4. Use of examples to clarify abstract values
5. Use of credible authorities for support.

The famous saying honesty is the best policy, is one good example of a claim
of value. To prove the statements validity, the author may elaborate on the
examples that shows how honesty holds advantage over other policies and
how it has been proven to be effective.

Claims of Policy
Lastly, the Claim of Policy calls for some form of action. It states what
the reader should or ought to do about a particular situation/topic. This
type of claim usually involves sub-claims of fact and value.
Proof of this claim requires the following:
1. Making proposed action clear
2. Justification of need
3. A workable plan
4. Advantages or benefits of the action
5. Consider opposition or counter arguments

To attract more nontraditional students, this college must review and

revise its course offerings.

The given statement above is an example of a claim of policy. It calls

on action for the college referred to regarding its course offerings to
arrive at a workable conclusion which is to attract more nontraditional
students. The author may choose to elaborate on this course of action
to prove that this claim can work for the college.
 Lesson 9
Contexts of Written Text
At the end of the module, the student is expected to:
1. Identify the context in which a text was developed
a. Hypertext
b. Intertext
What is Context?
Context, according to Moxley, refers to the occasion, or situation that informs
the reader about why a document was written and how it was written. The
structure, organization and purpose of a written text is heavily influenced by
its context.

Context is important as a foundation for the author in constructing his/her

written text. This includes how the writer has researched the topic and how
he/she organized the content.

Moxley posed the following questions on the analysis of context:

1. What is going on in the world of readers that will influence the
reader's thoughts and feelings about the document?
2. Does the intellectual content of the document rest on the shoulders
of other authors? Will readers expect the author to mention particular
scholars or researchers who did the original, ground-breaking work on
the subject you are exploring?
 3. What background information can you assume your reader is
already familiar with?

There are two types of context in which a text was developed the hypertext
and the intertext.

Intertext
Intertextuality, as defined by Tiongson (2016), is the modeling of a
text's meaning by another text. Intertext is the relationship between
texts and how culture and other writers influence a text. This is often
seen on works wherein the author borrows and transforms an existing
text or when one references a text on his own written work. The text
will then contain a wide accumulation of cultural, historical and social
knowledge.

Intertext excludes irrelevant data. It underscores the main points of

the text by making explicit those data that are only implied or
presupposed in the text, thus defining their relevance. Spurred by this
context, a healthy dialogue among different texts and interpretations,
audience, is born.

Hypertext
Hypertext in reading, according to the Merriam Website Dictionary, "is
text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with
references (hyperlinks) to other text which the reader can immediately
access or where text can be revealed progressively at multiple levels
of detail."
Hypertext is a new way of reading a text online. It collects every
available data but this exhaustive inclusion exposes the reader to a
wealth of irrelevant material. While intertextuality banks on its text-
generated constraints on the reader's perceptions, hypertextuality is a
reader generated loose web of free association.
Information directly/indirectly related to the topic written may be
referenced through hyperlinks in which the reader can access the
direct source or reference through a single click.
Hypertextuality, although opens up to a wide variety of mostly
irrelevant information, gives the reader the free will to personalize his
or her analysis of the text. The reader may choose to focus only on the
information that is related to his/her background, thus creating a
personal meaning out of the given material.
 Lesson 10:
Formulating assertions and counterclaims

At the end of the module, the student is expected to:

1. Explain critical reading as reasoning 
2. Formulates evaluative statements about a text read
a. Formulate assertions about the content and properties of a
text read b. Formulate meaningful counterclaims in response to
claims made in a text read
3. Determine textual evidence to validate assertions
and counterclaims made about a text read

Assertions

A way to convince a critical reader to accept the writer's claim is to

formulate assertions. Assertions, as defined by Tiongson (2016), are
declarative sentences that claim something is true about something
else." These sentences may either be statements of truths or opinions.
There are four common types of assertion enumerated by Tiongson.
These are the following:
1. Fact - a claim or statement which can produce objective
proof/evidence through direct experience, testimonies of witnesses,
 verified observations or results of research. Since this type of assertion
can be easily checked through consulting various sources, people
usually agree on the truth it provides
2. Convention - this is referred to as a way in which something is
done similar to traditions or norms. These assertions solely rely on
existing laws, rules, usage, customs and historical precedent available.
Unlike facts, there are differing interpretations on varying beliefs, thus
verifying the truth convention assertions can be crucial Often, these
statements are said to sound "factual primarily because the truth of it
depends on what is socially accepted
3. Opinion - statements such as this one are based on facts. While
facts can be proven to be objective, opinions are hard to prove as this
would have to rely on reliable and sound proofs. Tiongson said. The
more ambiguous an opinion is, the more difficult it is to verify. These
statements commonly leave room for discussion and disputes.
4. Preference - while opinion is based on facts, preference relies on
personal choice. These are completely subjective assertions that
cannot be objectively proven.

In writing believable assertions you must need to take note of the

following tips .
Be knowledgeable. Instinct alone does not yield effective
evidence and support to the claim. In order to make the
reader believe in what you're trying to stand up for,
examine the topic thoroughly. Explore both sides of the
topic, research as much information as you can.
-Back it all up. To make your assertion stable and solid, it
must have strong foundations in the form of research
findings. Be careful and leave out any irrelevant evidence
referenced in the text to avoid confusion for the readers
-Be clear and concise. Get straight to the facts. Let them
know what you want them to know and present them
complete with supporting details to your claims
Counterclaims

A critical reader does not only focus on claim after claim of a written
text Analyzing an argument must also involve the understanding of the
evidence presented by the writer as well as its counterclaims.

Counterclaims, as defined by Tiongson (2016), are "claims made to

rebut a previous claim." This point of view is in contrast to previous
claims made by the author.

According to the same writer, it takes familiarity of the topic being

discussed in the text as one of the ways to spot the counterclaims of
 the writer. In order to present objectivity, the writer must be aware of
the counterclaims to his/her claims. Considering the other side of the
argument may help you identify the weaknesses and strengths of your
claim, giving you the leeway to open more details to make the reader
believe.

The counterclaims in the text are usually presented in a

straightforward way. After spotting these statements, you, as a reader
or writer, can clearly define your position in a particular topic.

Tiongson gave the following questions that can help one formulate a
counterclaim:
What are the major points on which you and the author can
disagree?
What is their strongest argument?
What did they say to defend their position What are the merits of
their view?
What are the weaknesses or shortcomings in their argument?
Are there any hidden assumptions?
Which lines form the text best support the counterclaim you
have formulated?

Lesson 11
Features of Useful Texts Across Disciplines
At the end of the module the student is expected to:
1. Explain how one's purpose is a crucial consideration in academic
and professional writing
2. Identify the unique features of and requirements in composing texts
that are useful across disciplines
a. Book Review or Article Critique
b. Literature Review
Writing a Book Review or Article Critique
One primary application of your critical reading skills can be applied in
writing an analytic or critical review of a book or any article. According to
Procter, a book review or article critique, more than providing a summary
of the text also "comments on and evaluates the work in the light of
specific issues and theoretical concerns in a course."
Procter recommended the following guide questions in reading and
analyzing a book/article with an intent to critique:
1. What is the specific topic of the book or article? What overall
purpose does it seem to have? For what readership is it written?
(The preface. acknowledgements, bibliography and index can be
helpful in answering these questions. Don't overlook facts about the
author's background and the circumstances of the book's creation
and publication.)
2. Does the author state an explicit thesis? Does he or she
noticeably have an axe to grind? What are the theoretical
assumptions? Are they discussed explicitly? (Again, look for
statements in the preface, etc. and follow them up in the rest of the
work.)
3. What exactly does the work contribute to the overall topic of your
course? What general problems and concepts in your discipline and
course does it engage with?
4. What kinds of material does the work present (e.g. primary
documents or secondary material literary analysis, personal
observation, quantitative data, biographical or historical accounts)?
5. How is this material used to demonstrate and argue the thesis?
(As well as indicating the overall structure of the work your review
could quote or summarize specific passages to show the
characteristics of the author's presentation, including writing style
and tone.)
6. Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material?
Does the author show awareness of them? In what respects does
the author agree or disagree?
7. What theoretical issues and topics for further discussion does the
work raise?
8. What are your own reactions and considered opinions regarding
the work?

In formulating the review or critique one may also try to include most if
not all of the following information:
1. A synopsis, abstract or summary of the written text containing
all the important details.
2. An in-depth analysis or discussion on the author's point of
view, theme, purpose and methods of development.
3. A brief biographical information on the author, induding his
other works.
 4. The contribution of the text at hand in the discussion of the
topic as a whole and how it relates to other similar works in the
field.
5. A dearly presented and well-supported evaluation of the work.
6. Some short quotations that represent the artide/book's theme
tone and style.

Assessing an article requires you:

• Identify the background purpose and the main idea of the
article. • Evaluate how convincing the argument is what the
argument assumes, how useful the article is, how it compares to
other related theories and researches.
• Respond by giving an assessment of the article determining
the issues it raises and avoids.

Literary Review/Analysis
Literary review/analysis gives an in-depth understanding of a work of
literature that aims to be read by people who have read the same
work. It interprets and analyzes the work and all its components.

The following is the basic format used in writing a literary review:

1. Title - a title that is catchy and can immediately capture a reader's
attention is a good one. This may initially suggest what the work or the
analysis is about.
2. Introduction - the introduction gives necessary information about the
work and the author identifies and defines what sort of work is to be
analyzed and discussed states the main point of the paper
3. Body-explores subtopics of the main point often using one
paragraph for each subtopic presents supporting information in a
logical onder explains and supports the point US relevant details
presents enough information to convince a reader that the main point
has been covered thoroughly
4. Conclusion-emphasizes the main point of the review and its
significance to the explanation of the work

Forlini (2004) gave the following guide questions for analyzing a work
of Literature:

Theme
1. Does one general idea seem to tie the whole work together?
2. Did the work make you see something in a different way?
Character
1. Which are your favorite and least favorite characters? Why?
2. Which character do you understand most thoroughly? How does the
work help you learn about this character?
3. Does the main character undergo any change during the story?
Dialogue
1. Does the way a character speaks help you to understand how that
character thinks and feels? If so, how?
2. Does a character's way of speaking change in different situations or
with different people? If so, how and why?
Conflict
1. Is the conflict within one character or between a character and some
outside force, such as nature, society or another character?
2. What happens in the story to bring this conflict to a head?
3. Is the conflict resolved at the end of the story? If so, how is it
resolved? If not, why do you think the author left it hanging?
Plot
1. What is the high point of the story? Why is this incident more
important than the others?
2. What does the author do to keep you interested in the story until the
end of the work?
3. Does the end of the story seem to follow naturally from what has
come before? Why or why not?
Setting
1. Where and when does the story take place? How would the story be
different if it took place in a different setting?
2. Does the setting change significantly?
Point of View
1. Who is telling the story?
2. How would the story be different if it were told from a different point
of view?

Out of all the given elements and suggested guide questions, you must
only select a few to focus on in the literature review.
 Lesson 12
Features of Useful Texts Across Disciplines
At the end of the module, the student is expected to:
1. Identifies the unique features of and requirements in
composing texts that are useful across disciplines
a. Research Report
b. Project Proposal

Writing Research Reports

Research focuses on a single thesis statement but unlike the
previously discussed written texts, research reports rely its details and
conclusions solely on any type of research.

In writing a research report, there are steps to take in preparing one:

1. Choosing a topic. The topic must have a realistic scope and
equally interesting for potential readers. General topics may be the
starting point of coming up with a specific one. With a variety of
information at the tips of our fingers, it is easy to list down possible
topics to do a research on. It is best to keep it at its most specific but
since this is just the preliminary brainstorming for a topic, as it may
change over the course of the research, it is okay to keep the most
interesting and feasible to work on.
2. Planning the research. Once you have identified the topic of your
research, it is time to start creating guide questions related to your
topic and will help you in formulating your thesis statement The
questions will enable you to narrow the main point you're aiming for.
These questions will also serve as your guide in looking for supporting
details to your topic.
3. Making reference cards. Do a preliminary research of your own
regarding your topic and note on the references that could possibly
strengthen your evidence for the thesis statement. This list of collated
references will also help you in arranging your bibliography at the end
of the research.
4. Taking notes. Remember to take as accurate as possible notes
that will aid you in outlining your research. Read the relevant
resources scan all possible related materials and keep the notes
organized.
5. Writing a precise thesis statement. The thesis statement, if
solid, can convince the reader of your daim. It must contain all the
necessary information related to the research and what you want your
audience to learn from it.
6. Preparing an outline. After deciding on the topic and gathering all
possible sources, it is time to construct an outline that will guide you in
organizing your thoughts on the research topic.

The given sample below is a sample structure of a research report:

Section 1: Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.

Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample,
treatment, design, results, and implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if
required.
Section 3: Introduction (1-3 paragraphs)
• Basic introduction
• Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals)
• Statement of Purpose
• Statement of Significance
Section 4: Research question(s) or hypotheses
• An overall research question (optional)
• A quantitate-based (hypotheses)
• A qualitative-based (research questions)
Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using
hypotheses.
Section 5: Review of Literature
• Should be organized by subheadings
• Should adequately support your study using supporting related,
and/or refuting evidence
• Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries
Section 6: Methods
• Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment,
including IRB approval
• Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic
demographics
• Setting: Describe the setting if applicable (generally only in
qualitative designs) • Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail,
how you implemented the treatment
 • Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the
instrument;
Describe the reliability and validity associated with the instrument
• Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.)
and software (if used)
Section 7: Results
• Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative)
• Describe results
• Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative)
• Describe results
Section 8: Discussion
• Restate Overall Research Question
• Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall
question
• ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you
reviewed
Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to
practice)
Section 10: Limitations
• Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study
• Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each
separately)
• Sample
• Instrument/s
• Other limitations
Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary)
Section 12: References (APA format)

Writing a Project Proposal

A project proposal gives the recipient a description of something the
writer wants to accomplish the significance of the objectives of the
project that can contribute to the community, if not the society, and
the suggested ways of achieving them.
A good proposal is said to contain the following:
1. Goals and objectives - a project proposal may not sound
convincing enough to the recipient/reader if the goals and objectives of
the project is not clearly stated. A project cannot start without a clear
image of what it is trying to accomplish.
 2. Significance - How will the project help the people involved? Who
will benefit from the project the most?
3. Project plan - a structure of the project will further help in
persuading the reader to consider the plan for execution. You can
explain the expected results of the project the projected timeline for
completion, and how will the project design and method lead to the
goal you have been envisioning.
4. Resources - sources of funding and other related information on
where to get the supplies, equipment and the like to carry out the
project.
5. Preparation - the skill set required to accomplish the project must
be elaborated as well as the skill set of the people involved in bringing
the project to fruition. What preparations have been done to bring the
project to life?
6. Budget-a discussion of monetary resolutions that will give
estimations on how much budget the project needs and what it will be
used for.

It also helps the project proposal to contain risk management plans to

ensure that the organizers are ready for whatever may happen over
the course of the project.

The following outline gives some suggested sections for your project
proposal.
1. Introduction (1 or 2 paragraphs)
Motivation Sentence
Summarize the problem (1 or 2 sentences)
Summarize the solution (1 or 2 sentences)
Describe format of rest of proposal (sections, etc.)
2. Motivation (1 to 3 paragraphs)
What is the history of the problem?
Why is this problem interesting?
When and why does the problem occur?
Is the problem already solved? What is done now?
Are there any similar systems or solutions to the one you
propose? If so, reference and very briefly explain them.
Are there possible improvements to current solutions?
3. Project Summary (1 paragraph)
What in general will this project achieve? (Do not delve into
details or timelines.)
4. Project Details
 Architecture and Environment (2-3 paragraphs + figures)
o Describe the project environment (software,
hardware, languages, organizations, etc.)
o Diagrams and figures are useful here if appropriate.
o What software hardware, or tools will you use?
Implementation Issues and Challenges (2-3 paragraphs)
o What will be the most difficult issues and challenges
in the implementation?
o How are you using or extending current
tools/systems for your problem?
o What makes your project unique?

Deliverables (3-5 paragraphs - point-form may be used for

some of the description)
o What will the project produce? (program, report etc.)
o Describe in relative detail the features of each of the
project's products .
o You may wish to separate deliverables into phases
and indicate optional components given time.
o Emphasize what your project contributes or
achieves!
Timeline (1 paragraph -point-form is suitable)
o Provide an estimated timeline of project deliverables
and important dates.
5. Conclusion (1 paragraph)
o Summarize the project including the problem,
motivation, and proposed solution, and re-state
important (planned) contributions.
6. References
o List references used to compile proposal and
references that will be used for project (if already
known).

Features of Professional Correspondence

At the end of the module the student is expected to: 1. Identify the unique
features of and requirements in composing professional correspondence
a. Resume b. Application for Employment
Resume
One of the most important requirements for applying for a job is a resume
How well you've written and arranged your resume will determine
whether or not you ll get the job you want According to Youth Central,
these are the important elements that a resume must demonstrate:
• You are employable • You meet the job and the
institution/organization's requirements • You have the qualifications and
right skills for the job
• You have the right level of professionalism for the job Traditionally, the
ideal resume contains the following information about you 1. Contact
details - which includes your full name, address, mobile
number. 2. Opening statement - this is your personal summary of your
skills,
objectives, your qualifications for the job, and your experience. It is
suggested that six lines for this part is long enough and is often
written in first person. 3. List of key skills - Emphasize the skills you have
that correspond to
the skills that the job you're applying for requires. You may include your
previous work experiences, your educational attainment and other
relevant experience in the field that will help convince the
employer that the job suits you. 4. List of technical software skills -
knowledge in technology is
considered essential nowadays and your specific technical and
software skills you have may help you land a job, as well. 5. Personal
attributes/career overview - for those particularly new to
applying for jobs, an alternative to work experience may be pitching your
personal attributes that can potentially contribute to your
targeted organization. 6. Educational qualifications - for this part you only
have to highlight
your highest level of education. You may also list your academic
achievements here

Employment history/volunteering/work placements - work

experiences from which you have gained during school or shortly after
school. Any relevant experience may up your chances for
grabbing a job you're targeting for. 8. References - these are at least two
people who have experienced
working with you that will recommend you as an employee But a recent
Time article talked about the look of the modern resume. The sample
template is below:
Pay attention to format. You must always keep in mind that this
gives
the company/organization the first impression of you. According to Dana
Leavy-Detrick referenced in Bahler's article, an additional pop of color can
spice up your resume. You must carefully choose the font to use and the
colors to include that will give a good impression of your intentions
You must aim to achieve balance and something that stands out 2. Make
the top count. Career coaches claim that recruiters read only a
third part of your resume Capture their attention by providing links to
your samples of work product such as a personal website or Linkedin
and your contact details 3. Promote your brand. Sam Nolan, a professional
resume writer said that
this is where you should appeal all of the things you can do for an
employer. This part gives the highlight of your qualifications such as
particular academicwork achievements and notable personal attributes 4.
Emphasize key skills. This part should display all your relevant skills to
anchor the job you are aiming for. Avoid overused phrases for this part
such as "hard worker," "quick learner" and "great attitude." Nolan
suggests that you search for unique, noteworthy and specific skills to grab
the attention of your recruiter. 5. Highlight performance. It is
suggested that you give a stand-alone
summary of what you have accomplished so far and not lay it all out. This
will give worth to your experience and will make you stand out among
other applicants. Show key work metrics. A simple bulleted list of your
work experience will not cut it out most of the time. Provide a short
summary of your tasks in your previous position. As a proof to these
tasks, add a bulleted list of
accomplishments you have made while in your previous job. 7. Control
your timeline. Exclude from your resume experiences from over
10 years ago. But if you're a first time applicant it helps to include your
most relevant internships, if any, and other work experience prior to your
application. You may opt to leave out the dates or duration of your
experience but focus on highlighting the skills you have acquired through
them
Application for Employment
You are not only required to furnish a copy of your resume, but you may
also be required by the recruiter to provide a letter of application An
application letter is one of the vital requirements to acquire a job.
According to Jobstreet an application letter's main purpose is to describe
your skills, market your abilities and summarize your experiences This
serves as a formal introduction of yourself to your employer. You express
your intent of applying for the job and your motivation for doing so. In the
letter, you summarize all of your achievements, educational background,
knowledge and experiences related to the job and what makes

you suitable for the job. Proper grammar and use of punctuation will
strengthen their impression of your communication skills The following
application letter printed hard copy) example is from Jobstreet This
application letter sample shows the correct format you should use when
sending out your application letter in print form. If you plan on submitting
your application letter via email refer to the second application letter
sample below. 22 H Venture St Diliman, Quezon City Philippines April 17,
2015 Mr. Vincent Chua Hiring Manager Bank of the Philippines Islands
(BPD) 12/F Ayala Life-FGU Center, Ayala Ave. Makati City 1226 Dear Mr.
Chua I am writing to express my interest for the position of Recruitment
Assistant in your esteemed company. Having recently obtained my
Bachelor's Degree in Business Administration major in Human Resource
Development Management (BSBA-HRDM) in the Polytechnic University of
the Philippines (PUP), I wish to bring my knowledge, skills and
commitment to excellence to your company's innovative environment As
a Business Administration student majoring in HR management. I've
become equipped with the necessary knowledge that come with the
position including manpower recruitment workforce organization,
personnel training and compensation as well as legal provisions and other
labor concerns. My internship at San Miguel Corporation also afforded me
with the crucial skills to work with some of the best professionals in the
recruitment and human resources industry. Being a trainee has developed
in me enthusiasm and a true passion for human resources and has
subsequently convinced me that human resource management is my true
calling For additional details regarding my qualification and expertise,
please review my attached resume Thank you for taking the time to
consider this application and I look forward to hearing from you. Sincerely,
(signature) Jessica Cenadoza

An example of an application letter in the form an email is also provided

by Jobstreet Application Letter Sample 2 (Email Copy) As previously
mentioned the format of your application letter may differ depending on
whether you are submitting a print copy or an email copy. The second
application letter sample below is a copy tailored specifically for emails.
Email Subject: Eric Tala, Marketing Associate Position Dear Ms. Castañeda
I would like to express my interest in applying for the position of
Marketing Associate as was recently made available in your company. I
believe that my degree in Business Administration (BSBA) major in
Marketing from the Philippine School of Business Administration (PSBA)
has prepared me for this position. As a student I was equipped with the
necessary knowledge and skills to help develop and drive effective
marketing strategies. During my internship at Uniliver Philippines
Marketing Department1 learned how companies determine what product
or service to sell, how to reach target demographics and how to respond
to the demands of competitors. More importantly, I had the opportunity to
work with seasoned professionals who taught me how to easily grasp
complex marketing concepts and at certain times, how to roll with the
punches in order to achieve various objectives I have also acquainted
myself with a wide range of skills that allow me to blend with the group or
team's culture and to continuously strive to reach common goals amidst
failures and setbacks. My active involvement in many academic and
extracurricular activities has done so well in developing my
communication and leadership skills, which are vital in finding success in
the corporate world With this application letter I attach herewith my
resume for your full consideration. Thank you for taking time to review my
application and I am looking forward to your reply so that we can further
discuss my application Yours sincerely, Alvin C. Marfal 7194 Marcelo Ave
Parañaque City, Metro Manila 1700 Mobile: +63 929 XXX XXX
In composing an email containing your application letter and resume,
make sure to put an appropriate subject for it, if the instructions for
application did not specify. In case of no specified instruction regarding
the subject of the

email, follow the usual format (name, position you are aiming for). In
place of a signature, you may include your contact details in the email for
them to know how to respond to your application A separate website gave
the recommended format of an application letter Your Street Address
City, State Zip Code Telephone Number Email Address Month Day, Year
Mr./Ms./Dr. FirstName LastName Title Name of Organization Street or P. O.
Box Address City, State Zip Code Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. LastName: Opening
paragraph: State what position or internship you are applying to how you
learned of the organization or position, and basic information or
qualifications about yourself 2nd paragraph: Tell why you are interested
in the employer or type of work the employer does (Simply stating that
you are interested does not tell why, and can sound like a form letter).
Demonstrate that you know enough about the employer or position to
relate your background to the employer or position. Mention specific
qualifications which make you a good fit for the employer's needs. This is
an opportunity to explain in more detail relevant items in your resume.
Refer to the fact that your resume is enclosed. Mention other enclosures if
such are required to apply for a position 3rd paragraph: Indicate that you
would like the opportunity to interview for a position or to talk with the
employer to learn more about their opportunities or hiring plans. Restate
briefly why you're so passionate about the opportunity you're applying
for. State that you would be glad to provide the employer with any
additional information needed. Thank the employer for her/his
consideration Sincerely, (Your handwritten signature) Your name typed
(Note: the contents of your letter might best be arranged into four
paragraphs. Consider what you need to say and use good writing style.
See the following examples for variations in organization and layout.)
What's important to note though, is to make sure that your application
stands out. The samples given are just templates and will only give you
an idea of what to include in your application letter but how you execute
it is up to you. Giving a unique application letter may improve your
chances of landing the job among others with uniform format