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Child Psychology
Child Psychology
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINITION
THEMES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
FACTORS AFFECTING PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILDRENS
IMPORTANCE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
CLINICAL IMPLICATION
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
Children are not small adults but developing individuals during childhood, little attention
was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage and physical
growth.
Psychologic growth and development generally proceed in a relatively predictable,
logical, step-like sequential order.
These processes are influenced by genetic, familial-cultural, inter-personal and intra-
sychic factors
HISTORY
In late 1700, Frans Tesmer, an Austrian Physician, practiced Mesmerism later modified
and renamed as Hypnosis
G. Stanley Hall (1890) is often referred to as "The father of child study movement“.
19th Century – Darwin proposed the concept of psychological adjustment
Later , Mendel’s work on genetics promoted study of children theory
Eugen Blueler (1857 -1939), a Swiss psychiatrist further studied and renamed dementia
as Schizophrenia
The 20th century was influenced by "Sir Sigmund Freud", who is the founder of modern
psychiatry. He practiced of psychoanalysis and formulated theories in Psychoanalysis.
1905 - Freud influenced the concepts of psychology
Carl Song, Alfred Adler, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson, Anna Freud and Karen Homey, Jean
Piaget, John Bowley are other psychoanalysts who became influential in the history of
psychology and psychotherapy
Later Harry Stack Sullivan, an American founded a school of psycholoanalytic
psychology, focusing more on interpersonal stimulus.
1913 - Watson’s Behaviorism - Watson’s treatise on emotional conditioning in infant’s
influenced early child care and training
1927 – Russian psychologist , Ivan petrivich Pavlov developed experimental techniques
for studying learning, reflexes experimental in dogs
1933 – Mahler’s theory of personality development
1938 – Extension of classical conditioning – operant conditioning by skinner.
(Reinforcement or extinction of previous responses)
1950 - Piaget defined intelligence as a basic life process that helps an organism adapt to
its environment.(Cognitive theory)
1954 –Maslow Hierarchy of needs – self actualization theory
1963 – Erik erikson – Entire span of life from infancy to childhood
1979 - Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts for Development (The microsystem refers to relations
between the child and the immediate environment, the mesosystem to connections among
the child’s immediate settings, the exosystem to social settings that affect but do not
contain the child, and the macrosystem to the overarching ideology of the culture.
DEFINITION
PSYCHOLOGY -Science dealing with human nature, function,and phenomenon of his soul in
main
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY - Science or study of child’s mind and how it functions. It is also the
science that deals with mental power or an interaction between the conscious and subconscious
elements in a child. Child psychology is the scientific study of children’s behaviour and
development.
According to J B Watson (1949) “Psychology is a science of human behavior". Later he
modified and stated Psychology is a science of human and animal behavior".
According to Clifford T. Morgan “Psychology is a science of human and animal behavior. It
includes the application of this science to human problems".
EMOTION - An effective state of consciousness in which joy, sorrow, fear, hate likes are
expressed
BEHAVIOR - Any change observed in functioning of organism.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHILD’S PSYCHOLOGY
PARENT-CHILD It combination of behaviors, feelings, and expectations that
RELATIONSHIPS are unique to a particular parent and a particular child
PARENT-INFANT One of the most important aspects of infant psychosocial
ATTACHMENT development is the infant's attachment to parent. It based on a
strong foundation of attachment
CHARACTERISTICS Parental self-confidence , Parental age and Previous experience
OF THE PARENT - Older mothers tend to be more responsive to their infants than
younger mothers.
CHARACTERISTICS Child's physical appearance, sex, and temperament. At birth, the
OF THE CHILD infant's physical appearance may not meet the parent's
expectations, or the infant may resemble a disliked relative. As a
result, the parent may subconsciously reject the child. If the
parents wanted a baby of a particular sex, they may be
disappointed if the baby is the opposite sex.
Erogenous zone
At different ages of life ,human beings feel tension most intensly in different areas of
body.
These areas require pleasure producing stimulation to reduce or eliminate tension.
Concept of fixation
Failure of development in which the individual continues to seek a particular kind of
gratification even after he or she has passed through the stage in which that kind of
pleasure is normally sought.
PSYCHIC STRUCTURE
Pleasure principle
ID Immediate gratification
Impulsive, primary,
inborn
Reality principle
EGO Acceptable way to satisfy
the Id
Deliberate, rational
Perfection principle
Internal censor
SUPER Judgmental,
EGO Internalized standard
ORAL ( BIRTH TO 18 ANAL (18month-3 to 4 yrs)
MONTHS)
Mouth is the most sensitive Locus of gratification shifts to anal
zone.(Erogenous zone – region,either from movement or withholding
where the we seek or gain movement of bowels.
pleasure) Retaining or elimination faeces.
Nursing-eating , biting, Discover their ability to control such
sucking,pacifier or keeping movements.
objects in mouth, by which
tension in and around mouth
is reduced
Insufficient feeding or forcefull Age of toilet training.
feeding result in fixation
Symptoms of oral fixation are Symptoms of anal fixation
chewing habits pencil, nailbiting, Anal expulsive personality shows
excessive eating , smoking excessivesloppiness,disorganized,reckless and
careless behaviour
Abundant oral stimulation If strict – Neat in adulthood ,Anal retentive
may result in oral passive personality shows obssesively cleanly and orderliness
individual.
Lack of oral stimulation
result in an oral aggressive
individual
PHALLIC(3 to 4yrs to 6 yrs)
Age 3 to 4 years ,during which genitals become the most sensitive area and child derives
pleasure by manipulating them.
Most challenging stage,
children develop feeling of attraction toward parent of opposite sex and related wish to
eliminate parent of same sex. Boys feels that father will punish them for these sexual feelings
Symptoms of phallic fixation
Weak or confused sexual identity
Root cause of homosexuality
Afraid or incapable of close love or intimacy For males anxiety, guilty about sex Females
sense of inferiority and envy
Least complicated stage , children focus their energies on Satisfy genital potency and
their as well as forming friendship bonds with other realizes the goals for
children reproduction and survival.
This stage also cause fixation ,
results in fetishes and
pedophiles.
If people experience difficulties
in this stage, its due to their
damage from earlier stages
DENTAL APPLICATION
Child drive for industry and accomplishment, cooperation with treatment can be
obtained.
Cooperation at this stage depends upon whether child understands what is needed to
please dentist and parents.
Orthodontic treatment often begins during this stage of development.
They can be motivated by improved acceptance or status from the peer group.
Adolescence stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 20 years)
Corresponds to genital stage of Freud
Maturation is seen mentally as well as physiologically
Plan for future
Experience new ways of looking at and thinking about world.
Capable of constructing theories and philosophies.
Authority of parents is usually rejected in this stage for establishing own identity.
DENTAL IMPLICATION
Behavior management of adolescents challenging.
Orthodontic treatment should be carried out if child wants it and not parents as this
stage ,parental authority is rejected.
INTIMACY VERSUS ISOLATION (LOVE)
Succesful young adult ,for the first time ,can experience true intimacy-that makes
possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.
DENTAL IMPLICATION
Young adults seek orthodontic treatment to correct their dental appearances and this is
characterized as internal motivation.
GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION(CARE)
In adulthood ,the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in sense of marriage and
parenthood, and in sense of working productively and creatively.
INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR(WISDOM)
If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved ,the mature adult
develop peak of adjustment : integrity.
He trusts, independent and dares new has found well defined role in life.
MERITS OF ERIK ERIKSONS THEORY
Based on age wise classification of individual
Simple and comprehensive to understand
DEMERITS
Based on extreme ends of personality.
Freud’s Psychosocial conflict Mode
AGE psychodynamic theory- Erik
theory Erikson
0-1 Oral stage Oral sensory stage Trust vs Hope
years mistrust
2-3 Anal stage Muscular Anal Autonomy vs Will
years stage shame
4-5 Phallic stage Locomotor genital Initiative vs Purpose
years stage guilt
6-12 Latency stage Latency stage Industry vs competence
years inferiority
13-18 Genital stage Adolescence stage Identity vs role Fidelity
years confusion
18- Intimacy vs love
40years isolation
30- Generativity vs care
60years stagnation
50 years Integrity vs wisdom
despair
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT [1952)
The Theory of Cognitive Development, by Jean Piaget, proposes that there are four
distinct, increasingly sophisticated stages of mental representation that children pass
through on their way to an adult level of intelligence.
Sensorimotor period (years 0 to 2)
Preoperational period (years 2 to 7)
Concrete operational period (years 7 to 12)
Formal operational period (years 12 and up)
Environment does not shape child behavior – child and adult actively seek to understand
environment.
Cognitive refers to knowing and understanding ,it involves following key concepts.
Schemas- Categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
According to Piaget schema includes both a category of knowledge and process of
obtaining that knowledge.
Assimilation –process of taking new information into previously existing schemas.
Accommodation-altering existing schemas or ideas as a result of new information.
Equilibration- children try to balance between assimilation and accommodation.
SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD(0-2YEARS)
"In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as looking, sucking, listening hearing) with physical, motoric actions.“
Knowledge of the world is limited to sensory perception and motor activities.
Stage of practical intelligence.
Object Premanence, symbolic thoughts and Animism are hallmark of this stage.
PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE(2-7)YRS
Children can remember past events, engage in imaginary play.
Child uses symbols in language and play.
He learns to classify things
Child is unaware of others perspective.
Egocentrism, irreversibility, lack of conservation are hallmarks of this stage.
Dental Implication
Child surveys the dental chair, airway syringe.
In the early stage, child’s world is egocentred or has the limited ability to share another
persons veiwpoint-Egocentrism
His view of world is artificialistic and cannot distinguish what is real and what is not real-
Animism
When a child is shown equal amount of water in two beakers and each one is poured into
two different glasses, one is short and wide ,the other is narrow and taller ,the
preoperational child thinks that taller glass contains more water.
They are influenced by what they see- Lack of conservation.
Irreversibility - which is inability to envision reversing an action.
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD(7 YEAR -11YEARS)
Thinking process becomes logical.
Child is able to understand others point of veiw.
Develops ability to use complex mental operations such as additions and substraction.
Childs thinking is more stable and reasonable and he can understand relationships with
cause and effect.
Dental Implications
Child has achieved the level of understanding and gets involved in treatment.eg-holds
suction tip by himself.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD(11YRS-BEYOND)
Child is a teenager now ,able to think abstractly.
Imagine possibilities inherent in a problem.
Skills such as logical thoughts, deductive reasoning and systemic planning also emerge
during this stage.
The adolescents feel that they are constantly “in stage” being observed and criticized by
those around them. This phenomenon is called imaginary audience by David Elkind.
The imaginary audience has powerful influence, making them self-conscious and
susceptible to peer influences.
The notion that ‘others care about my appearance and feelings as much as I do” leads
adolescents to think that they are unique ,special individuals.
As a result of this thought a second phenomenon emerges - personal fable is a powerful
motivator that allows us to cope in a dangerous world.
Both this factors can also result in dysfunctional behavior .
a) Attention process
b) Retention process
c) Reproduction process
d) Motivational process
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention
The ability to store information is an important part of the learning process.(store a
mental representation )
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behaviour you observed
In order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
FACTORS AFFECTING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Acquisition versus performance- Bandura distinguishes between acquisition of a
learned response and performance of that response.
Characteristic of role model- if they are liked and respected ,they are more likely
imitated.eg-cartoon character, sibling,parents,film stars etc
Expected consequences of behavior- children observing other people getting rewarded
for positive behavior are likely to behave positively.
Children observing older sibling defying and being punished are less likely to defy. This
is known as vicarious learning.
Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where in the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response.
Catherine Do et al(2004) social learning theory is not only a preventive approach but
also easy and effective interventions that can be used with children ,with age 4-9 years
of age.
Although studies have shown successful results with live modelling, this viable approach
is not widely used.
It is identified that, problems with the technique is that vast majority of pediatric dentists
have not been formally trained in the usefulness and implementation of coping
techniques.
Others consider live modeling a time-consuming and expensive procedure.
MERITS OF SOCIAL LEARNING
Encompasses broader range of phenomena.
Provides more explanatory concepts
DEMERITS
Based only on observation of behavior of a person with overemphasis on the role of
environment.
Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov(1927)
Dental Implication
Parental psychology and attitudes ,according to Maslow is based on hierachy and their
socioeconomical status might have influence on childs oral and dental health.
The higher needs in this hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the
pyramid are met. Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the
lower level will no longer be prioritized.
MERITS
Based on totality of personality development.
DEMERIT
Theory is difficult and impractical to apply in children in dental situation as child has
ever changing personality
SEPERATION –INDIVIDUATION THEORY BY MARGRET S MAHLER(1933)
Margaret Mahler assumed that the “psychological birth is not simultaneous to the
biological birth
3 stages
Normal autistic phase(birth to 4 weeks)
Infant is obvious to everything
State of half asleep
Achieve homeostatic equilibrium with environment
Normal symbiotic phase(4 weeks to 5 months)
Recognize others not separate beings ,but as extension to him
Social smile chacteristic(2 to 4 months)
Separation –individuation phase
Consist of 4 sub phases ,that overlap over the next 5 to 36 months.
Critical sub phase that psyche is shaped and lays foundation how the individual
interprets and responds
first 3 years of life are critical in determining personality and mental health, The sub
phases are-
1.Differentiation(5 to 10 months) –
Process of hatching from autistic shell ,developing alertness, sensorium that reflects
cognitive and emotional maturation
"Rupture of the shell". Increased alertness and interest for the outside world. Using the
mother as a point of orientation
Become alert as cognitive and neurological maturation occurs.
comparing mother with the others-beginning of comparative scanning
stranger anxiety which involves fear and curiosity(characteristic anxiety)
2.Practising(10-16 months)
Marked by upright locomotion
Learns to separate himself from mother by crawling
Seperation anxiety present as child still requires mother for safety.
3)Rapprochement(16-24 months)
Infant is toddler ,more aware of physical separateness
Child tries overcome this by shows mother his newly acquired skills
Mothers effort to help toddler not successful resulting in temper trantrums.
Childs skill improve and able to get gratification from doing things himself.
4) Object constancy(24-36 months)-
Child achieves a definite sense of individuality and is able to cope with mothers
absence.
Does not feel uncomfortable on being separated from mother since he knows that she will return.
Develops improved sense of time and can tolerate delay.
Merits of mahlers theory
Can be applied to children
Demerit
Not a very comprehensive theory.
CONCLUSION
The collabration between psychology and dentistry offers both fields a better
understanding of dental anxiety and further improves the resources available to
those children that suffer with dental anxiety.
To communicate successfully with a child, it is necessary to understand his/her
intellectual level and the way in which thought process work at the various
stages. Thus by knowing this a proper management and treatment can be done on
a pediatric patient.
REFERENCES
David R.Shaffer, Child psychology; 8th edition; Cengage Learning Customer & Sales
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Shobha Tandon,textbook of Pedodontics ;2nd edition, PARAS medical publisher
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