Postharvest Physiology of Fruit and Vegetables

NT30303
POSTHARVEST HANDLING TECHNOLOGY
WEEK 2
Pn. Siti Faridah Bt. Mohd Amin

Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
faridah@ums.edu.my
019-9424073
Postharvest Quality
 quality = a combination of characteristics, attributes, or properties
that give the commodity value as a human food (Rahman, 1999)
 Specific quality requirements in terms of raw material vary with the
nature of the product and processing applied on it.
 Quality attributes normally used for raw materials are:
 physical (size, firmness, presence or absence of seeds, etc.),
 compositional (natural sugars and volatiles),
 nutritional (vitamins, antioxidants, and functional components)
 sensory (color, texture, taste, flavor, and odor).
 Quality evaluation consists of measurement of appearance, texture,

flavor, nutritive value, and safety of the produce.
 Safety aspects need to be considered first before all other quality
attributes.
Postharvest Quality
Factors affecting quality:
1. Preharvest Factors
3. Postharvest Factors
 Genetic (higher yield, disease resistance, seedless:
eggplant, cucumber, etc)
 Humidity (prob: water loss – can cause
shriveling, wilting, loss crispiness 
 Climatic (light, soil, rainfall)
unsaleable), so RH (85% - 90% = fruits,
 Cultural Practices (soil type, water supply, pest
90% - 98% = vege; low temp, etc)
control)
 Temperature (to avoid chilling and freezing
injuries)
2. Harvesting Factors
 Atmospheric Gas Composition
 Maturity at Harvest (fruits are usually picked
 Light (degradation of pigment)
mature, but not ripe – decrease mechanical injury)
– maturity indices (fully ripe tomatoes – sauce /  Mechanical Injury (cracks, cuts, bruise)
drying, but not for fresh marketing!  Postharvest Diseases or Infections (yeast and
 Harvesting Methods (manually and mechanically) mold – predominant mic in fruits)
Factors affecting postharvest quality
Physiological disorders caused by improper storage conditions:
- Chilling injuries
- Freezing injuries
- Heat damage
- Low humidity
- Low O2 injuries
- High CO2 injuries
Heat injury – exposure to

direct sunlight or high temp.
Symptoms: bleaching,
surface burning,
Freezing injury
Chilling injury
https://slideplayer.com/slide/6143555/
Water loss and shriveling
Water loss is a main cause of deterioration Ways to reduce water loss after harvest:
because it results in: • Low temperatures
● Direct loss of salable weight • High RH ((85% - 90% = fruits, 90% - 98% = vege
● Loss in appearance (wilting and • Prevent surface injuries
shriveling) • Application of waxes or other coatings
● Loss of textural quality (softening, • Wrapping with plastic films
crispness)
Apple Peach
Reduction of water loss and shrinkage using
plastic liners
Postharvest loss:
Is defined as any change in the quality or quantity of
the product after harvest that decreases its value.
The losses may range from slight defects to total loss

of the produce!
Small defects Total loss
(rind breakdown) (sour rot)
Postharvest Biology
 A practical science.
 Primarily deals with Perishable Commodities.
 Postharvest = After Harvest
 Concerned with the harvest of the crop
 (when & how to harvest; maturitystandards).
 Also in pre-harvest factors (seed source, rootstock, etc.)

 because they strongly influence postharvest quality.
 Thefruit quality is set during growth.
 Ultimately, the maximal product quality is determined at harvest.

The Postharvest Goals
 Harvest the product at its optimum maturity.

 Maintain the product’s internal and external quality throughout
packing, storage and distribution.
 It is Alive during this process!
 Deliver the fruit to consumersat the time and in a form (e.g. ripe, cut
up, etc.) that they will purchase it.
Historical background
Early postharvest practices:

 Dried fruits, vegetables, meats, pickles, etc.
 Fermentation of juices.
 Salting or smoking.
All these methods KILLthe product!
It is easier to transport and store the products.

Historical Background
Postharvest issuesbecame important when citiesdeveloped:

 TheIndustrial Revolution (18th century).
 The Problem:
 How to deliver fresh fruits and vegetables from areas of production
to areas of consumption and keeping their quality?
All fresh produce is alive
↓
The Challenge is to Keep Healthy Until Consumed!
Estimated Postharvest Losses
very rough estimates are available:

 5 to 25% in developed countries.
 20 to 50% in developing countries.
 In the US,a large portion of lossoccursat theconsumer.
Loss of product is much more than just the cost of the commodity
The other losses
 Energy & labor loss (e.g. During packing house operations)

- loss of materials (e.g. packaging)
- cost of waste disposal
 Loss of food value (e.g. nutrients)

- loss of organoleptic quality:
- Color changes
- Water loss
- Carbohydrate changes
- Volatile changes
- Breakdown of proteins, cell wall components, softening
Causes of Postharvest Loss
1. Internal Factors:
 Respiration.
 Compositional changes.
 Morphological changes.
 Physiological disorders.
 General senescence.
2. Environmental Factors:
 Temperature  Light
 Physical damage  Gravity
 Pathogens  Rodentsand other animals
 Relative humidity  Contamination
 Atmospheric composition
Postharvest Morphological Changes
 Horticultural commodities are living products and sometimes are still

growing. Therefore, they often continue development in ways that
sometimesreduce quality.
 Changes include:
- Sprouting (onions, tubers, root crops)
- Rooting (onions, root crops)
- Elongation & Curvature (asparagus, gladiolus)
- Seed Germination (lemon, tomato, pepper)
Postharvest compositional changes
Cont.
 Water loss
 Nutrients
 Vitamins
 Antioxidants
 Starch to Sugar to Starch
Physical Damage
 Causesthe greatest amount of lossto fresh horticultural products.
Physical Damage Affects:

 Respiration, ethylene production, ripening, and other
metabolic processes.
 Pathogen growth and ability to invade tissue.
 Tissue discoloration.
Pathology (decay)
 Fungi (major), bacteria and viruses.

 Preharvest (latent) and postharvest infections.
 Most postharvest infections are a result of rupturing the epidermis
of the commodity.
Relative Humidity
 Higher relative humidity slows water loss from the commodity.

 High relative humidities (95 to 100%)might weaken the cartons.
 Free moisture stimulates pathogen development.
10% 15%
5%
Atmospheric Composition
 Modified or Controlled Atmospheres:
1. Modified Atmospheres (MA):

 Altering the normal gas composition surrounding a commodity (e.g.
raising or lowering O2 or CO2 concentrations).
 Passive. Thecommodity is placed in a gas impermeable container and the
crop’s respiration consumes(lowers) O2 and gives off (increases) CO2.
2. Controlled Atmospheres (CA):

 Sameas MA, except gas concentrations are actively
regulated using special equipment.
Modified Atmospheres - Advantages
 Slows down respiration and other metabolic processes

(ripening & senescence).
 Reducessensitivity to ethylene (at < 8% O2 or >1%
CO2.
 Reducesdevelopment of some physiological
disorders (chilling injury).
 May inhibit pathogen development.
 Can be used to kill insects.
Modified Atmospheres - Disadvantages
 Can cause or exacerbate somephysiological disorders (black heart in

potatoes).
 Can cause irregular ripening
 Can result in off-flavors or odors if anaerobic respiration occurs.
 Any MA or CA related injuries stimulate pathogen development.
 May delay periderm development and stimulate sprouting in root or
tuber crops.
Environmental Factors:
 Light- Color and morphological changes (potato greening).
 Gravity- Morphological changes (bending).
 Rodentsand other animals.
 Contamination (food safety).
Postharvest Commercial Considerations
Preharvest factors:
 Cultivars.
 Nutrition and Water effects.
 Weather conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity)
 Field sanitation (both for decay & human pathogens).
Harvesting:
 Besttime to harvest for fresh, processing, storage?
Preliminary grading in the field:
 Removeunmarketable produce ASAP.
Postharvest Quality
 Knowledge of postharvest physiology is therefore
fundamental to understand the process of deterioration of
quality before reaching the processor.
NT30303
POSTHARVEST HANDLING TECHNOLOGY
WEEK 3
Pn. Siti Faridah Bt. Mohd Amin

Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
faridah@ums.edu.my
019-9424073
Postharvest Physiological Processes
1. Ontogeny
2. Respiration
3. Transpiration and Water Stress
4. Ripening and Senescence
5. Phytohormone Effects
6. Physiological Disorders and Breakdowns
• Disorders due to Mineral Deficiencies
• Disorders due to Environmental Factors
7. Other Biochemical Changes
1. Ontogeny
 The origin and development (ontogeny) of plants influences various

physiological aspects of fruits and vegetables.
 Fruits and vegetables pass through five distinct developmental phases
from initiation to:
1. development (morphological and chemical completion of tissue),
2. young or premature (developmental period before the onset of
maturation),
3. mature (completion or fullness of growth and edible quality, most
of the maturation processes must be completed while the produce is
still attached to the plant),
4. ripe (maximum esthetic and edible quality), and
5. senescence (leading to death and set the produce worthless and
inedible).
 The duration and the rate of these stages vary with type and variety
of the product and stage of development
1. Ontogeny
2. Respiration
 All living organisms convert matter into energy through a

fundamental process of life called respiration, which primarily constitutes
enzymatic oxidation of substrates such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
organic acids, etc. in the presence of atmospheric oxygen to carbon dioxide
and water, and accompanied by a release of energy as follows:
Perishable Commodities are still alive!
They consumeoxygen and produce carbon dioxide
Sugar+ O2
↓
Energy+ CO2+ Water + Heat
2. Respiration cont..
 Respiration is an indicator of metabolic activity of all living produce

and plays a significant role in the postharvest physiology and
deterioration of quality of plant foods.
 The rate of deterioration is generally proportional to their
respiration rate, which is often a good index to the storage potential
of a crop.
 Higher the respiration rate, shorter the shelf life and vice
versa.
 Respiration rate can be used as a criterion to compare
perishability of fruits and vegetables.
2. Respiration
 The respiration increases significantly as the storage temperature increases.

2. Respiration cont.
 The respiration rate depends on a host of internal and external

factors.
 The internal factors include:
1. the quantity of substrate (predominantly sugars); size,

shape, cell morphology, and maturity; structure of peel;
2. volume of intercellular spaces
3. chemical composition of tissue that affects solubility of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
 The external factors are
1. temperature;
2. availability of ethylene, oxygen, and carbon dioxide; light;
3. water stress;
4. biological activity, and
5. growth regulators.
 Out of these external factors, temperature, atmospheric
composition, and physical stress have the most profound effect on
respiratory activity, and postharvest management of respiration
involves controlling these factors to reduce the deterioration of
quality.
Respiration and Shelf Life
Respiration rate and shelf life are inversely related.
Higher respiration
↓
Shorter Shelf Life
2. Respiration
 Reduction in the O2 concentration and increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere

surrounding fresh fruits and vegetables reduce the rate of respiration.
 The extent of the effect depends on factors suchas temperature, produce, cultivar, age, and level
of maturity at the harvest.
Temperature & Respiration
 Temperature is the most important factor influencing the postharvest life

of the given commodity.
 Temperature dictates the speed of chemical reactions including
respiration.
 Typically, for every increase of 10oC, the respiration increases between 2
and 4 fold.
 As the temperature increases Q10 values decrease
 The relationship between temperature and respiration rate can be
expressed in the form of Q10 values
10
R1=Respiration at Temperature 1 (T1) T2-T1
R2=Respiration at Temperature 2 (T2)
Q10= R2
R1
Temperature & Respiration
high
moderate
low
low
• most vegetables and immature fruits have high respiration rates.

effect of temperature
The effect of temperature on broccoli after 48 hr of storage at

either room temperature or in cold storage
24oC 4oC
Fruits show two distinctive respiratory patterns during ripening and
are grouped into :
1) Climacteric fruits
 Climacteric fruits showa dramatic increase in the rate of respiration during ripening.
 The climacteric peak can be prolonged or delayed by reducing the rate of

respiration to increase the shelf life.
 Climacteric fruits can be harvested mature and ripened off the plant.
 These produce much larger quantities of ethylene in association with their ripening,
and exposure to ethylene treatment will result in faster and more uniform ripening.
 Examples: Apple, pear, quince, persimmon, apricots/peach, plum, kiwi, avocado,

banana, mango, papaya
2) Non-climacteric fruits
 The non-climacteric fruits ripen on the tree and are not capable of
continuing their ripening process once removed from the plant.
 These produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to

ethylene treatment for ripening, except in terms of degreening
(degradation of chlorophyll) in citrus fruits and pineapples.
 Examples: Berries (cherry, strawberry, blueberry, cranberry), citrus

fruits (orange, grapefruit, lemon), pineapple, lychee
• do not respond to ethylene treatment • exposure to ethylene treatment will result
for ripening in faster and more uniform ripening
 Transpiration is mainly responsible for water loss, which leads to a

loss of: salable weight; appearance (wilting and shriveling); textural
quality (softening, flaccidity, limpness, crispness, and juiciness);
and nutritional quality.
 In most fruits and vegetables, 5%–10% loss in moisture content

produces visible symptoms of shriveling and wilting due to cellular
plasmolysis, and the signs become objectionable when weight loss
reaches about 5% of the harvested weight.
 Transpiration is a process of mass transfer in which the water

vapors move from the surface of the produce to the
surrounding atmosphere.
 The rate is directly proportional to the partial pressure

gradient across the transfer surface and surface area and
inversely proportional to the sum of the resistances such as
the type of the surface and presence of waxes on the surface.
 It may be possible to group fruits and vegetables into three broad ranges
of transpiration rates under refrigerated storage conditions:
 high (500–850 mg/kg hmmHg; carrots and parsnips);
 intermediate (100–250; cabbage and rutabagas);
 low (10–80; potatoes and onions)
 The rate of transpiration depends on both product and environmental
factors. Thesefactors include :
 skin structure (number of stomata , type of surface, thickness of wax coating )
 size, shape, and surface area (e.g. ratio of surface area to volume)
 water vapor pressure difference;
 air movement;
 heat of respiration;
 the level of maturity (immature fruit)
 endothermic effects of evaporation; and
 amount of solutes present in the produce ( solutes, water loss)
 The outer protective coverings (dermal system) govern the regulation of water
loss. The main sites of transpiration in plants are the hydathodes, stomata,
epidermal cells, lenticels, trichomes (hairs), and cuticle.
 The number of stomata in the
epidermis, type of surface, tissues
under the skin, and structure and
thickness of wax coating on the
surface (cuticle) determine the
https://www.easybiologyclass.com/hydathode-or-
loss of water. hydathodes water-stomata-structure-and-functions-short-notes/
 The cuticle is composed of surface wax, cutin embedded in wax, and

carbohydrate polymers.
 The type of product and the stage of physiological development

influence the thickness, structure, and chemical composition of the
cuticle.
 In case of leafy vegetables, small openings located at intervals in the

epidermis called stomata allow water loss and gas exchange.
 Transpiration is faster in plants with greater number of hairs and very

fine hairs may not modify the transpiring potential of a plant
surface.
 The higher the ratio of surface area to volume, the greater the
loss of water by evaporation.
 Thus,at the same conditions the expected rate of transpiration will be

in the order:
leaf (spinach) fruit (tomato) a root or a tuber (potato).
 Immature fruits tend to encounter higher transpiration rates than
mature fruits due to permeability of the skin to water vapors.
 Since the solute depresses the water activity of solutions, higher

solute concentration in the tissue binds water and reduces water loss.
 The temperature, RH, and air movement are the three most
significant environmental factors that affect water loss by
transpiration. In general, high surface temperature and low RH
increase the rate of transpiration.
Water Loss
Water loss resulting a direct loss of saleable weight as well as

quality loss:
 Appearance quality - wilting, shriveling, and accelerated
development of injuries.
 Textural quality – lossof crispness, juiciness, etc.
 Nutritional quality – e.g. vitamins A & C.
Rate of water lossinfluenced by:

 Environmental factors – e.g. relative humidity.
 Anatomical factors – stomates, hairs, etc.
Chilling tolerant: Chilling sensitive:
1. Apple 1. Banana
2. Pear 2. Avocado
3. Broccoli 3. Papaya
4. Carrot 4. Pineapple
5. spinach 5. Eggplant
6. okra
 Chilling injury: < 10°C

Chillingsensitive
sensitive
Chilling
 Freezing injury : < 0°C commoditiesare
commodities are
storedatat8-13C
8-13°C
stored
Non-chilling
Non-chilling
sensitive
sensitive
commodities are
commodities are
stored at 0-3C
stored at 0-3°C
(Postharvest Technology, 2002)

List of fruit and vegetables tolerant or sensitive to chilling
 Water losscan be minimizedby

 maintaining higher pressure than atmosphere,
 maintaining low temperature and humidity during storage,
 choice of suitable packaging material, and
 loading density and depth,
 application of waxes and other water-resistant coatings to the

surface
 by appropriate packaging with plastic films.
 Ripening refers to a stage in tissue development when a fruit reaches

an optimal eating quality as evidenced by favorable change in
composition, color, texture, and other sensory attributes.
 Many fruits (climacteric) require ripening to be carried out by the

processor as fruits have been shipped to processors in immature stage
to avoid tissue injury during transportation and handling.
 Ripening in fruits follows the physiological maturity and

precedes senescence,which leads to the death of the tissue.
 Senescenceis genetically programmed and can be induced by common

stressors, suchas tissue injury, deficiency of nutrients and water during
production, exposure to insects,pests and diseases, and adverse
environmental conditions.
 Senescencemay manifest into ripening of fruits, abscission and yellowing

of leaves, and softening of tissues.
 An understanding of the biochemistry of senescence, therefore, provides

clues to delay the lossof postharvest quality of fruits and vegetables.
 Ripening induceschanges that are structural, physical, chemical, nutritional, biochemical,

or enzymatic.
 These changes are:

1. Degradative
- Chlorophyll degradation (loss of green color)
- starch hydrolysis
- cell wall degradation (fruits soften as they ripen)
2. Synthetic
- formation of carotenoids (yellow and orange colors)
- anthocyanins (red and blue colors)
- aroma volatiles (giving the fruit its characteristic aroma and flavor)
- ethylene formation
 Figure 2.5 shows changes in starch, sugars concentrations, and a ratio of starch and
sugar as a function of stages of maturity in banana.
 At the onset of maturity there was little sugar in the fruit, and as maturity increased
sweetness of the fruit progressively increased due to hydrolysis of starch into sugars,
particularly after stage 2, and starch practically disappears at stage 6.
 Phytohormones play an important role in plant metabolism by controlling the

growth and development processes of plant organs used as food or raw
material for processing. Physiological processes influenced by hormones are
ripening, rest, dormancy, rooting, sprouting, abscission, and floral induction.
 Besides ethylene, the key hormones responsible for these processes are auxins,
gibberellin, cytokinins, and abscisin (Table 2.10). Ethylene has been studied most
by postharvest physiologists.
 Ethylene is a natural product of plant metabolism and is produced by all tissues
of higher plants and by some microorganisms and is also present in the
atmosphere as a pollutant.
 Ethylene regulates many aspects of growth and development even at
concentrations 0.1 ppm.
 Climacteric fruits, generally, produce a higher amount of ethylene than
non-climacteric fruits.
 Ethylene stimulates ripening of climacteric and some nonclimacteric fruits,

synthesis of anthocyanins, degradation of chlorophyll (degreening), germination
of seeds, formation of adventitious roots, abscission and senescence, flower
initiation, and respiratory and phenyl propanoid metabolism.
 It is also known to accelerate its own synthesis in ripening climacteric fruits.

Ethylene is commercially used as a “ripening hormone” for climacteric fruits such
as banana and mango and as a “degreening hormone” for citrus fruits.
 The beneficial and adverse effects of ethylene depend on several factors such as
type of produce, cultivar, maturity at the time of harvest, temperature, and
activity of other hormones.
 Controlling the action of ethylene is of great commercial significance in fruits

and vegetables as the adverse effects can lead to serious economic losses.
 Ethylene production rates by fresh fruits can be reduced by storage at low

temperature, by reduced oxygen (less than 8%, and elevated carbon
dioxide above 1%); by avoiding stressors such as fruit injury, diseases
incidence, and water stress; and cooling to reduce rate of respiration.
 Ethylene response by plant can be reduced by reduction in temperature,

controlled or modified atmosphere storage, using genetic engineering
techniques or chemicals to inhibit enzymes, and to change the protein
synthesis.
 Physiological disorders result from metabolic disturbances cause

by a host of internal (nutritional imbalance) and external
(temperature and surrounding atmosphere) factors.
 Besides inducing serious loss of quality in terms of color, flavor,

texture, and appearance, physiological disorders can predispose
produce to deterioration by enzymes and decay microorganisms.
 When only superficial tissues are affected by the disorder, fruits

may still be able to be processed without seriously impacting the
quality of processed products.
Postharvest Physiological Disorders
A tissue damage or breakdown which not relatedto pathogens, insectsor

mechanicaldamage.
Temperatures
• chilling injury, freezing injury or High temperature injury.
Altered atmospheric gas concentrations.

• LowO2 or ElevatedCO2.
Nutrition
• Ascalcium deficiency or boron toxicity.
Disorders due to Mineral Deficiencies

 Plants require a balanced mineral intake from soil and favorable environment
for proper development, which leads to desired quality attributes.
 Bitter pit in apples, characterized by brown lesions
in flesh, dark, and corky tissue below the skin and
slight bitter taste, develops due to preharvest low
fruit Calcium (Ca) and high levels of Potassium and
Magnesium.
 Pre- and postharvest application of Ca controls this disorder. Calcium

nutrition together with maturity influences the early development of water
core in apples.
Disorders due to Environmental Factors

1. Low-Temperature Injuriesor Disorders
 Chilling and freezing injuries result from exposure of plant tissues to low
temperature. Both types of defects are prevalent in fruits and vegetables of
tropical and subtropical origin, which lack the ability to adapt to low-
temperature environments.
 The susceptible produce tend to have low storage potential as very
low temperatures cannot be used during storage, transport, and
handling.
 Lowest safe storage temperature has to be well above the chilling injury (CI)
threshold of susceptible product.
 The severity of the symptoms depends on the type of the produce, and time and
temperature of the exposure.
Chilling injury of fruits
(chilling temperatures below 10°C–15°C)
1. The CI manifests into symptoms such as pitting, browning, discoloration , scald

appearance, darkening of the skin, changes in the flavor and texture, and the loss
of ripening ability.
2.The temperature of storage by refrigeration is a critical parameter in pineapple

postharvest for maintaining the freshness of the fruit for export as pineapple is a
non-climacteric fruit
2. must be harvested ripe since the ripening process discontinues after harvest.
3. Common postharvest physiological disorder of pineapple due to low temperature

is chilling injury (CI): Dull green when ripened, internal discoloration
4. Banana (climacteric fruit) : chilling injury : Dull color when ripened, surface
discoloration
Disorders due to environment factors

1. Low-Temperature Injuries Disorders
 Most tropical and subtropical produce show CI upon exposure
to chilling temperatures below 10°C–15°C.
Chilling Injury
 Physiological injury to somecommodities held at temperatures above

freezing.
 Susceptible crops include:
Avocado Mango Sapote

Banana Olive Papaya Cucumber
Cherimoya Passion fruit Eggplant Okra
Citrus Pineapple Pepper
Feijoa Plantain Sweet Potato
Guava Pomegranate Tomato
Jujube
Chilling Injury
 Occurs mainly in commodities from subtropical & tropical origins.

 Injury caused by exposing fruit to low temperatures above freezing,
between about (5 to 15 oC).
 Injury becomes more noticeable after transferring to non-chilling
temperatures (shelf life).
Chilling Injury
Symptoms:
 Surface pitting
 Discoloration (external/internal)
 Water-soaked areas
 Necrotic areas
 uneven ripening or failure to ripen
 Greater susceptibility to decay
 More…
Disorders due to Environmental Factors:

1. Low-Temperature Injuries or Disorders
 Freezing injury (FI) results from exposure of plant tissues to freezing
temperatures (0°C) and formation of ice crystals, which damages the cells,
mostly irreversibly.
 The injury initiates osmotic stress and damage to the cell membrane
responsible for water loss and death of cells.
 The factors that affect FI are type of produce, variety, nature of solutes, and
field temperature.
 Warm-season crops are highly susceptible to FI than those that are grown in
the cold season.
 The symptoms of the FI include discoloration of the tissue, water-soaking
appearance, blistering, and pitting.
 The damaged tissues are prone to further decay by microorganisms and
mechanical injuries, particularly bruising.

2. High-Temperature Injuries or Disorders
 Exposure of tissues to high temperature during production or postharvest
results in injuries or disorders, which may cause the loss of ability to ripen
normally, burnt or scorched peel, and darkening of the pulp.
 Examples of such disorders are scald in apples and tomatoes and blossom
drop in tomatoes.
 Avoiding long exposure to sun, superficial scald in apples can be

controlled by postharvest spray with ethoxyquin or diphenylamine.

3. Injuries/Disorders due to Exposure to Adverse Atmosphere
 Exposure to low levels of O2 and high levels of CO2 may lead to tissue
injuries such as internal browning in apples and pears when the tissue
tolerance is exceeded.
 The factors that influence the susceptibility are variety, low crop load,
exposure to higher concentration of CO2 at the time of harvest, and
presence of coatings that restrict the diffusion of gases
7. Other Biochemical Changes
 Chemical and enzymatic changes cause tissue softening, off flavors,

pigment loss and off colors, and overall decline in nutritional value
and taste.
 Softening of the tissues can be due to hydrolysis of starch and

cellulose by amylases and cellulose enzymes, respectively,
degradation of pectin by pectinases.
MCQs
1. Relative humidity generally recommended for the storage of fruits is

a) 70-80%
b) 90-100%
c) 85-95%
d) less than 70%
2. “Internal discoloration” is a common symptom of chilling injury in

a) Apple
b) Pineapple
c) Citrus
d) Banana
3. Storage life of fruits and vegetables is extended by keeping them in an

atmosphere
a) High in CO2 & low in oxygen
b) High in oxygen & low in CO2
c) At low temperature
d) At high relative humidity
4. The main environmental factor in determining the rate of transpiration is
a) Temperature
b) Oxygen
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Relative humidity
5. “Bitter pit” a storage disorder of apple is caused by any one of the following
deficiency of the tissue
a) Iron
b) Calcium
c) Nitrogen
d) Potassium
6. “Surface pitting” is a characteristic chilling injury in

a) apple
b) pineapple
c) citrus
d) banana
References
1. Rahman, M.S. 1999. Handbook of food presentation. Marcel Dekker, Inc.
New York.

Postharvest Physiology of Fruit and Vegetables

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NT30303

POSTHARVEST HANDLING TECHNOLOGY

Pn. Siti Faridah Bt. Mohd Amin

 Quality evaluation consists of measurement of appearance, texture,

Heat injury – exposure to

The losses may range from slight defects to total loss

 Also in pre-harvest factors (seed source, rootstock, etc.)

 Ultimately, the maximal product quality is determined at harvest.

 Harvest the product at its optimum maturity.

Early postharvest practices:

All these methods KILLthe product!

It is easier to transport and store the products.

Postharvest issuesbecame important when citiesdeveloped:

very rough estimates are available:

 Energy & labor loss (e.g. During packing house operations)

 Loss of food value (e.g. nutrients)

 Horticultural commodities are living products and sometimes are still

 Causesthe greatest amount of lossto fresh horticultural products.

Physical Damage Affects:

 Fungi (major), bacteria and viruses.

 Higher relative humidity slows water loss from the commodity.

 Modified or Controlled Atmospheres:

1. Modified Atmospheres (MA):

2. Controlled Atmospheres (CA):

 Slows down respiration and other metabolic processes

 Can cause or exacerbate somephysiological disorders (black heart in

Pn. Siti Faridah Bt. Mohd Amin

 The origin and development (ontogeny) of plants influences various

 All living organisms convert matter into energy through a

They consumeoxygen and produce carbon dioxide

 Respiration is an indicator of metabolic activity of all living produce

 The respiration increases significantly as the storage temperature increases.

 The respiration rate depends on a host of internal and external

1. the quantity of substrate (predominantly sugars); size,

 Reduction in the O2 concentration and increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere

 Temperature is the most important factor influencing the postharvest life

• most vegetables and immature fruits have high respiration rates.

The effect of temperature on broccoli after 48 hr of storage at

 The climacteric peak can be prolonged or delayed by reducing the rate of

 Examples: Apple, pear, quince, persimmon, apricots/peach, plum, kiwi, avocado,

 These produce very small quantities of ethylene and do not respond to

 Examples: Berries (cherry, strawberry, blueberry, cranberry), citrus

 Transpiration is mainly responsible for water loss, which leads to a

 In most fruits and vegetables, 5%–10% loss in moisture content

 Transpiration is a process of mass transfer in which the water

 The rate is directly proportional to the partial pressure

 The cuticle is composed of surface wax, cutin embedded in wax, and

 The type of product and the stage of physiological development

 In case of leafy vegetables, small openings located at intervals in the

 Transpiration is faster in plants with greater number of hairs and very

 Thus,at the same conditions the expected rate of transpiration will be

 Since the solute depresses the water activity of solutions, higher

Water loss resulting a direct loss of saleable weight as well as

Rate of water lossinfluenced by:

 Chilling injury: < 10°C

(Postharvest Technology, 2002)

 Water losscan be minimizedby

 maintaining low temperature and humidity during storage,

 choice of suitable packaging material, and

 loading density and depth,

 application of waxes and other water-resistant coatings to the

 Ripening refers to a stage in tissue development when a fruit reaches

4. Ripening and Senescence

 Many fruits (climacteric) require ripening to be carried out by the