ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

MODULE 1
3 MARK QUESTIONS:
1) What is leadership?

Ans : Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work for mutual
objectives. – Koontz & O’Donnell.

Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual

objectives – George R. Terry.

The characteristics of leadership are:

 Process of influence
 Function of simulation
 Related to situation
 Involves community of interest
 Involves distribution of authority.

2) What is trait theory of leadership?

Ans : Trait theory is a traditional approach to the theory of leadership .According to this
theory , it is thought that a leader has a specific trait of mind and intelligence. These
special qualities of head and heart are generally included mental capacities and morale
qualities. Trait theory holds the view that successful leader possess these basic
characteristics and these are inherited rather than acquired.

Some most popular trait theories are:

 Stogdills Trait Factors: Intelligence, Physical features, Inner motivation drive,

Maturity, Vision and fore sight, Acceptance of reality, Open minded and
adaptability, Self confidence, Human relations attitude, Fairness of objectivity.

 Ghisellis Personal Traits

3) What is behavioural theory of leadership?

Ans : The behavioural theory implies that leaders can be trained and that the
characteristics of a leader are not innate characteristics. It focuses more on different
types of leadership and on feed back received to different styles of leader ship.
Some of the approaches are:

 Lewins classic styles of leader behaviour

 Michigan and ohio state studies.

 Managerial grid of Blake and Mouton

4) Differentiate between management and leadership.

Ans :

Basis of difference Leadership Management

Scope Part of mgnt and not all of Mgnt is wider term and
it leadership is only part of it

Definition Process of influencing Process of managing group

behaviour of individual or for specific reason
group regardless of reason

Authority Leader exercises influence Manager makes use of

over followers through use formal authority to direct
informal authority or power the subordinates

Structure Operates both in organized Mgnt operates in a formal

and unorganized groups. structure of org. There is no
Formal and informal concept of informal
leaders can co exist manager

Function Leadership functions come Manager performs all 5

under directing through functions of mgnt.
which behaviour is directed
to get maximum use of
subordinates ability

5) Mention the different dimensions of leadership .

Ans : The dimension are :

 Competence: Technical skills, Cognitive skills, Interpersonal skills, Personality

skills.

 Intimacy: Effective mgnt, cooperative relationships, influencing, resolving

conflict.
  Passion : Enthusiasm, Hope, Aspirations

 Integrity: Honesty and trust, courage, Self discipline.

7 MARKS:
1) What are the common myths about leadership?

Ans : Myth 1 : Leaders are born not made /Leadership is a rare ability given to a few.

Myth 2 : Leaders are charismatic.

Myth 3 : Person with title , most ranked or the highest position is leader .

Myth 4 : Effective leadership is based on control, coercion and manipulation.

Myth 5 : Good leaders have more education than other people.

2) Explain the important functions and roles of leader.

Ans : The important functions are :

 Determination of goals

 Achieving coordination

 Providing Guidance

 Building employee morale

 Organization of activities

 Representation of workers

 Inspiration to employees

 Facilitating change

The roles are :

 Interpersonal roles : Figurehead, Leader, Liaison

 Informational role : Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesman

 Decisional roles: Entrepreneur, Disturbance handler, Resource allocator,

Negotiator.
 3) Explain the different level of analysis of leadership theory .

Ans : The levels of analysis lo leadership theory can be viewed as a hierarchy .

 Individual level of analysis : This approach has implicit assumption

that leadership effectiveness cannot be understood without
examining how the leader and followers influence each other over
time.

 Group level of analysis : Provide important insights about leadership

processes and relevant criteria for evaluating leadership effectiveness.

 Organizational level analysis : It describes leadership as a process

that occurs in larger open system in which groups are sub systems.

 The interrelationship among levels of analysis.

10 MARK QUESTIONS:
1) Explain in detail the different components of leadership :

Ans : The different components are :

 Leader : is a person who leads or guides or one who is in charge or

command others, who has influence or power , especially of political
nature.

The behaviour patterns of leader are :

 Supportive

 Directive

 Participative

 Leader reward and punishment behaviour

 Charismatic

 Others

 Follower :

Essential qualities of effective followers :

 Self management

 Commitment
  Competence and focus

 Courage

 Situation :

 Situational factors and leadership

 Situation and follower characteristic

 Situational factors that increase leadership effectiveness

 Situational factors that decrease leadership effectiveness

 Situational factors that substitute for leadership behaviours

 Interactional frame work of leadership

2) Explain the different leadership styles .

Ans : The different styles are :

 Style based on authority retained

 Autocratic leader

 Participative leader

 Style based on Task Versus People emphasis :

 High task or low relationship

 High task or high relationship

 High relationship and low task

 Low relationship and low task

 Styles based on assumptions about people

 Likerts four styles :

 Exploitative authoritative

 Benevolent authoritarian

 Consultative

 Participative
  Entrepreneurship Leadership style

3) Explain the different leadership theory paradigms.

Ans : Leadership theories explain the concept and practices adopted to become the
leader. It gives precise information on the leadership qualities and attributes one must
have to become leader

Leadership paradigm is a shared mindset that represents a fundamental way of thinking

about , perceiving , studying , researching and understanding leadership .

The leadership theory paradigms are :

 Trait theory paradigm : It is thought that a leader has specific trait of mind
and intelligence. These special qualities of head and heart generally include
mental capacities and morale qualities.

The most popular trait theories are :

(i) Stodgills trait factors

(ii) Ghisellis personal traits

 Behavioural theory paradigm : Focuses more on the different types of

leadership and on feed back received to the different styles of leadership.

 Contingency leadership theory paradigm : Assumes that effective leadership

depends on particular situation and involves a fit between personality, task,
power, attitude and perception. The theories are : Fielders contingency
theory, Leadership continuum theory, Path goal leadership theory,
Normative decision theory, Leadership substitutes theory.

 Integrative leadership theory paradigm

 From Management to leadership theory paradigm.

 MODULE 2 : LEADERSHIP TRAITS AND ETHICS

1) Define the terms personality and traits .

Ans : An individuals personality is the total picture of his organized behaviour especially
as it can be characterized by his fellow men in consistent way - Dashiell.

Trait is a way of understanding the nature of leadership. A trait is a construct based

on consistent individual differences between people. Traits refer to recurring regularities
or trends in persons behaviour .The various types of traits are :

 Cognitive traits: These traits involve task competence and problem solving
abilities.

 Social competency traits: These traits include social intelligence , assertiveness,

cooperativeness and the ability to enlist cooperation.

 Emotional competency traits: These traits include emotional intelligence,

emotional maturity, self confidence, self esteem, self efficacy, hardiness and
optimism.

 Biophysical traits: These traits of consequence to leadership include fitness and

stature.

2) What is attitude ?

Ans : An attitude is an evaluation – either positive or negative about people or things. It

can also be defined as a tendency to react positively or negatively with regard to an
object. The components of attitude are :

 Cognitive component : includes idea and knowledge a person has about the
object of an attitude.

 Affective component : how individual feels about the object of component.

 Behavioural component : Predisposes how a person to act in a certain way.

3) What is self concept ?

Ans : Self concept considers the leaders attitude about themselves. It is an organization of
qualities the individual attributes to himself. It is a system of central meaning he has
about himself and his relation to world about him .

The kinds of self concept are :

 Basic self concept : It is persons concept of what he really is.

  Transitory self concept : This means that a person has a self concept which he
holds for a time and then relinquishes.

 Social self concept : It is based on the way the individual believes others perceive
him depending on their speech and actions.

 Ideal self concept : It is made up of perceptions of what a person aspires to be

and what he believes he ought to be.

4) Define ethical leadership and ethical behaviour.

Ans : Ethical leadership is leadership that is involved in leading in a manner that

respects the rights and dignity of others .

Ethical behaviour is acting in ways that are consistent with ones personal values and the
commonly held vales of organization and society .

Factors affecting ethical behaviour are

 Personality traits and attitudes

 Moral development

 Pre conventional

 Conventional

 Principled

5) Define unethical behaviour .Highlight the ways people justify unethical

behaviour.

Ans : Unethical means not conforming to standards of social or professional behaviour. It

may lead to catastrophic influences on subordinate managers

The ways of justifying are :

 Displacement of responsibility

 Diffusion of responsibility

 Advantageous comparison

 Distortion of consequences

 Attribution of blame

 Euphemistic blaming
 6) Mention the dark side personality traits of leaders.

Ans : The dark side personality traits are :

 Excitable

 Sceptical

 Cautious

 Reserved

 Leisurely

 Bold

 Mischievous

 Colourful

 Imaginative

 Diligent

 Dutiful

7 MARKS :
1) Explain the reason for failure of leaders .

Ans : The reasons for failure of leaders are :

 Confusing commanding with leading

 Failure to listen

 Refusal to change

 Behaving inconsistently

 Failure to teach and develop others

 Failure to delegate

 Failure to focus on future

 Hiding or denying mistakes rather than learning from them

 2) Explain the Big 5 personality model. Also mention its advantages and
disadvantages.

Ans : The five traits are :

 Extroversion

 Agreeableness

 Conscientiousness

 Emotional stability

 Openness to experience

The advantages are:

 Explanation of leader an follower tendencies

 Successfully works in environments

 Useful categorization scheme for discussions

 Good profiting for corporate and occupational functions

The disadvantages are:

 Poor predictors of job performance

 To broad to be applied

 Rely on self made questionnaires which may biased.

 It is not based on any underlying theory.

 The five factors are not independent.

3) Explain achievement motivation theory .

Ans : Mc Clelland contends that individuals acquire certain needs from the culture of a
society by learning from the events that they experience particularly in early life .The
needs that people may learn are :

 Need for achievement (n Ach) : Four characteristics of people are :

 Assume personal responsibility

 Set moderately difficult goals

 Concrete performance feedback

 Task accomplishment

 Need for Power (n Pow) : The characteristics are :

 Direct and control some one

 Maintaining leader follower relation

 Need for affiliation (n Aff) : The characteristics are :

 Desire for approval and reassurance

 Conform to wishes and norms of others

 Sincere interest in feelings of others

4) What are the traits of effective leaders ?

Ans : The traits of effective leaders are :

 Ability to inspire others

 Motivation

 Positive attitude

 Communication skills

 Problem solving skills

 Ability to understand human behaviour

 Emotional intelligence

 Willingness to take risks

 Dedication to organizational goals

 Intelligence
  Sound physique

 Fore sight and vision

 Responsibility

 Self confidence

 Empathy

 Objectivity

 Decisiveness

 Ability to establish proper priorities

5) Distinguish between Theory X and Theory Y .

Ans :

Basis of Distinction X Theory Y Theory

Attitude towards work Most people have an Given proper environment ,

inherent dislike for work most people will take to
work as naturally as play.

Acceptance of Most people are averse to With proper motivation

responsibility accepting responsibility and most people would
prefer to be directed by willingly accept
others. responsibility and go for
self direction

Creativity People lack creativity in Creativity is not the

resolving organizational monopoly of a few and in a
problems right environment people
can be made to display this
trait on a wide scale.

Motivation Only satisfaction of Only satisfaction of

physiological and safety
needs will motivate
workers.
physiological and safety
needs will not motivate
them which occurs at
social , esteem and self
actualization needs.

Control Close often coercive control With proper motivation

is the only means to attain people will be self directed
organizational objectives. and creative.

Centralization and Theory X emphasizes scalar Theory Y emphasizes

 decentralization chain system and decentralization of authority
centralization of authority and greater participation in
in the organization. decision making in the
organization

Leadership Autocratic leadership Supportive and democratic

leadership.

6) Explain how you can develop a positive attitude and self concept. What are
discrepancies between self concepts?

Ans : The way the attitudes can be changed are :

 Change ideas and beliefs

 Change feelings or emotions

 Change in situation

 Change in behaviour.

The discrepancies between self concepts are :

 Discrepancies between basic self concepts and mirror images

 Discrepancies between Basic and ideal self concepts

 Discrepancies between Social and ideal self concepts.

7) Briefly describe Pygmalion effect .

8) Explain Leadership Motive Profile theory.

10 MARKS :
1) What are the principles of ethical leadership? Explain the ways in which leaders
practice ethical leadership.

Ans : The principles of ethical leadership are :

 Principle of respect

 Principle of service

 Principle of justice

 Principle of honesty
 Principle of community

The ways in which leaders practice ethical leadership are :

 Value sharing

 Quality orientation

 Openness

 Participation

2) Explain the 4V model of Ethical leadership .Also highlight the issues for ethical
leadership.

Ans : Please refer to figure 2.1 on page 61 of hand book.

The 4V model of ethical leadership is frame work the beliefs and values with the
behaviours and actions for the purpose of advancing common good.

The elements are :

 Values

 Vision

 Voice

 Virtue

The additional elements are :

 Service

 Polis

 Renewal

The ethical issues of leadership are:

 Power

 Moral standards

 Moral consistency

 Ethics and effectiveness

 Moral mistakes
 MODULE 3: LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

3 MARKS:
1) Define the term leadership behaviour.

Ans : It is the behaviour associated with the exercise authority. Effective leadership authority
is characterised by the ability of leader to influence the activities of the group by initiating
structures which enable group to successfully overcome mutual problems and to achieve their
group goals.

The two basic types of leadership behaviours are :

 Task leadership behaviour

 Social leadership behaviour

The other types of leadership behaviour are :

 Positive leadership behaviour

 Negative leadership behaviour

7 MARKS:
1) Explain the leadership grid.

Ans :

 Developed by R.R. Blake and Jane S Mouton

 They have two phrases :

 Concern for production – horizontal axis

 Concern for people – vertical axis

 Range is from 1 to 9 on each continuum

 The five styles are :

 The (9,1) managerial style , Task oriented

 The (1,9) managerial style, Country club

 The (1,1) managerial style, Impoverished

  The (5,5) managerial style, Middle of the road

 The (9,9) managerial style , (Team)

2) Explain the Universities of Iowa , Michigan and Ohio studies done on leadership
styles.

Ans :

University of Iowa research :

 Kurt Lewin and associates focussed on leadership style of manager . The studies
identified two styles of management which are as follows :

 Autocratic leadership style : gives decisions, gives orders to employees and

constantly supervises his subordinates.

 Democratic leadership style : promotes shared decisions, team work, does

nor supervise the subordinates closely.

 Please refer to fig 3.2

University of Michigan Studies :

 Job centered and employee centered behaviour

 Employee centered behaviour: It is like the consideration structure behaviour of

ohio studies, it focuses on people and relationships.
  Production centered behaviour: It is like initiating structure behaviour oh ohio
studies, it focuses on task.

 Refer to fig 3.3

Ohio state university studies :

 The main objective of the study was to identify major dimensions of
leadership and to investigate the effect of leader behaviour on employee
performance and satisfaction. The two leadership dimensions identified were :

 Initiating structure behaviour : It refers to leader behaviour that defines

and organizes the group tasks , assigns tasks to employees and supervises
activities.

 Consideration behaviour : It refers to leader behaviour that can be

characterized by friendliness , respect, supportiveness, openness, trust and
concern for welfare of employees.

3) Explain the term motivation. Also highlight the characteristics and types of
motivations.

Ans : The term motivation is derived from the term motive. Motive refers to the needs,
wants , drives, impulses within individuals.

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals,
conditioned by effort and ability to satisfy some individual need – S.P. Robbins

The concept motivation refers to the force within us that arouses, directs and sustains
our behaviour. The first part of the definition, arousal, is about the energy that drives our
behaviour. The second part of the definition is about the choices we make between
different behaviours to achieve our goal, the direction of our behaviour. The third part of
the definition is concerned with how long we are willing to persist at attempts to meet our
goals, to sustain our behaviour.

The characteristics of motivation are :

 Psychological phenomenon
 Dynamic and situational
 Not easily observed
 Influenced by social and cultural norms
 Goal oriented process
 Continuous process

The different types of motivation are :

 Positive versus negative motivation
 Rational versus emotional motivation
  Primary versus secondary motivation
 Financial versus non financial motivation

4) Explain the motivation process.

Ans :

The process of motivation consists of :

1) Development of needs and drives

2) Building up of tension to satisfy the needs and drives because of environment.

3) An effort is applied by individual to achieve to needs and also to reduce

tension.

4) The effort put in coupled with opportunity with proper goals gives rise to
performance.

5) Good performance gets rewards and satisfies the needs.

6) New needs are generated which needs to be satisfied.

5) Explain Maslows need hierarchy theory .

Ans :
 One of the best-known theories of motivation is the need hierarchy theory proposed
by Abraham Maslow. According to Maslow, human beings always want more and what they
want always depends on what they already have. He suggests that human needs can be
categorised in five broad areas (needs), arranged in a definite order according to their
importance for the person, or what is called a hierarchy.
These needs are:
1. Physiological needs – The lowest or most basic level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
is physiological needs. In the organisation these needs include needs such as pay,
company cafeteria and basic working conditions. According to Maslow’s theory,
behaviour will be directed towards satisfying these needs. As soon as these needs are
satisfied, they will no longer influence employee behaviour.
2. Safety needs - Once the employees’ basic physiological needs have been satisfied,
the needs on the next level of the hierarchy becomes important. Safety or security
needs in the organisation includes insurance needs such as medical aid, pension or
provident fund, safe working conditions as well as the stability of the organisation.
The presence of these types of employer benefits and reassurance will satisfy the
employee’s safety needs.
3. Social needs – Social needs includes needs such as the need for love, acceptance,
friendship, understanding by other fellow employees or groups within the
organisation. Through teams and work groups, managers can encourage sufficient
interaction among employees to ensure that employee social needs are stimulated and
met.
4. Esteem needs - The need for self-respect and recognition by others. Examples of
esteem needs include the need for success, recognition and appreciation of
achievement.
5. Self-actualisation needs - The highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the
need for self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is the full development of an
individual’s potential. This is the most difficult need to satisfy in an organisation
context.
Advantages :

 Presents an entire range of workers non economic needs

 Explain changing motivation of workers

 Help managers motivate employees

  Dynamic

Disadvantages :

 Not a theory of work motivation

 No existence of hierarchy of needs

 Hierarchy of needs differs across countries

6) Explain Hertzbergs motivation hygiene theory.

Ans : Psychologist Frederick Herzberg who proposed the two-factor theory, also called
the motivational-hygiene theory, used the critical incident technique to identify factors
that made employees feel exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs.

Figure 2.3 illustrates Hertzberg's finding which implies that the opposite of “job
satisfaction” is “no job satisfaction” and that the opposite of “job dissatisfaction” is “no
job dissatisfaction”. Someone, for example, who indicated “low pay” as a source of
dissatisfaction did not necessarily indicate “high pay” as a source of satisfaction or
motivation.

Figure 2.3 The two factor theory model

 Hertzberg termed the sources of work satisfaction “motivator factors”. Motivators
are also known as “growth factors” and are closely related to the nature and content
of work done. Examples of these include the work itself, achievements, recognition,
responsibility, and opportunities (what people actually do in their work) and are
associated with positive feelings about their work.
When present in a job, these factors could apparently cause satisfaction and
motivation; when they were absent, the result was feelings of no satisfaction rather
than dissatisfaction. Hertzberg termed the sources of work dissatisfaction as “hygiene
factors” and are factors in the job context that includes salary, interpersonal relations
(supervisor and subordinates), company policies and administration, status and job
security. If these factors are adequately provided for, there will be no dissatisfaction.
The hygiene factors are associated with individuals’ negative feelings about their
work and these factors do not contribute to employee motivation. Feelings of
dissatisfaction may exist among employees if these factors are considered inadequate,
when these factors were considered acceptable however, the employees were still not
necessarily satisfied, rather, they were simply not dissatisfied .The motivator factors
are internal to the employee (intrinsic) whereas hygiene factors are external to the
employee (extrinsic).

7) Compare Maslows and Hertzbergs two factor theory .

Ans :
 8) Explain Alfreders ERG Theory .
Ans : The ERG theory is another important need theory of motivation that was developed by
Clayton Alderfer, a Yale psychologist, and is regarded as an extension and refinement of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory with several important differences between the two .
The E, R, and G stands for three basic need categories: existence, relatedness, and growth.
These needs can be summarised as follows:
1. Existence needs – is concerned with providing the human’s basic material existence
requirements; the items Maslow considered as physiological and safety needs.
2. Relatedness needs – is concerned with the human’s desire to maintain important
interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with
others if they are to be satisfied; they align with Maslow’s social needs and the
external components of Maslow’s esteem needs.
3. Growth needs – is concerned with the human’s intrinsic desire for personal
development which aligns with the external components of Maslow’s esteem needs
and self-actualisation needs.
Application :
 Creating healthy work force
  Providing financial security
 Providing opportunities to socialize
 Recognizing employees accomplishments

9) Explain Acquired Needs theory.

Ans : The acquired needs theory, developed by David McClelland, proposes that certain
types of needs are acquired during the individual’s lifetime. In other words people are not
born with these needs but may learn them through life experiences. McClelland’s theory
considers three needs, namely a need for affiliation (nAff), a need for power (nPow) and a
need for achievement (nAch).
The theory proposes that when a need is strong, it will motivate the individual to engage in
behaviours to satisfy that need.
 People with a strong need for affiliation will direct their behaviour at friendships and
close interpersonal relationships, while people with a strong need for power try to
influence the behaviours of others.
 McClelland distinguishes between two different ways in which people with a high
need for power, can express their need for power. They are social power and
personalised power. Social power is aimed at inspiring and influencing employees to
achieve goals, while personalised power involves the use of aggressive, exploitative
and dominating behaviour over other people, socialised power is necessary for
success as a senior manager in any organisation.
  It is McClelland’s achievement motivation theory that is of interest and attracts the
most attention and research. Top performers in organisations are often those people
with a high need for achievement. They can be characterised by the following
characteristics:
· They set challenging yet attainable goals.
· They require regular and immediate feedback.
· The take moderate, calculated risks.
· They prefer situations where they have personal responsibility.
· They are problem solvers.
· They perceive money as the result of their success, rather than for its material value.
People with a need for achievement tend to enjoy work that is entrepreneurial and
innovative. People who have a high need for affiliation are successful “integrators”,
whose job is to coordinate the work of people and departments. Integrators include brand
managers and project managers, positions that require excellent people skills. A high need
for power is often associated with successful attainment of top levels in the organisational
hierarchy.

10) Explain the equity theory .

Ans : ‘Defined generally, equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people
strive for fairness and justice in social exchange or give-and-take relationships. Equity theory
is based on cognitive dissonance theory, developed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in
the 1950’s’ .It was psychologist J.S. Adams who pioneered the application of the equity
theory to the workplace.
The equity theory is the only theory of motivation that includes a social component. It
discusses the social comparison that people make when they compare their inputs (which
includes anything which the individual views as his personal ‘investment’ in his organisation
e.g. their effort, hours worked, quality of their work, training/education etc.) with the
outcomes (that includes any return resulting from their job e.g. salary, more responsibility,
benefits, recognition etc.) they receive equity theory is essentially a social comparison theory,
which emphasises that people always judge themselves on the basis of comparison with
others. People perform these evaluations by comparing the perceived fairness of their
employment exchange (input-outcome ratio) to that of other employees’ employment
exchange (input-outcome ratio). If people perceive their input-outcome ratio to be equal to
that of relevant others with whom they compare themselves, a state of equity is said to exist.
When they perceive the ratio as unequal, they experience equity tension. It is important to
note the use of the word perceived rather than actual input or outcome.
The Adams identified six broad types of possible behavioural consequences of inequity. They
are:
1. Changes to inputs – by increasing/decreasing the levels of input by improving the
quality of work, working extra hours or increasing absenteeism.
2. Changes to outcomes – by attempting to improve the outcome without changing the
input by requesting for increment or extra benefits from his/her manager.
3. Modification of perception of self – by distorting the perception of individual’s
inputs or outputs to adjust to realities.
4. Modifying the perception of others – by changing the original perception of others
with whom the comparison was made.
5. Changing the object of comparison – by changing the person with whom the
comparison was made with someone who is considered more appropriate.
6. Leaving the field – by attempting to find a new situation with a more favourable
balance, for example, by absenteeism, resigning from the job and joining a new
organisation.
The equity theory is unfortunately not capable of predicting which of these alternatives an
employee will select when they experience equity tension, but it can assist managers to
understand the reason why employees act in a certain way, by presenting a limited set of
alternatives.
 11) Explain Vrooms Expectancy theory.
Ans : The expectancy theory is based on the assumption that people are motivated by the
attractiveness (both in a positive and a negative sense) of the consequences (outcomes) of
their efforts. In other words, people are motivated by the attractiveness of the expected results
of their efforts or actions. The expectancy model suggests that an individual’s work
motivation is determined by the following elements –expectancy, instrumentality, and
valence.

The elements are:

1. Expectancy (Effort - performance relationship)
The expectancy, according to Vroom’s terminology, represents an individual’s belief that
a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance.
2. Instrumentality (Performance outcome (rewards) relationship)
Instrumentality refers to the degree to which an individual believes that a certain level of
performance will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
3. Valence (Rewards personal goals relationship)
Valence is the value or importance that an individual attaches to various work
outcomes. Each outcome has an associated valence or value.
Key variables in the expectancy theory model
 Effort
 Performance
 Outcome/Rewards
Motivational force = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence
 12) Explain the goal setting theory .
Ans :

Edwin Locke, a leading authority on goal setting, and his colleagues define a goal as “what
an individual” is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action. Locke proposed
that intentions to work towards a goal are a major source of work motivation. That is, goals
inform employees what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. Any
idea that is not translated into specific goals will stay an idea only. Objectives and goals
dictate our purpose and direction.
An instructive model was formulated by Locke and his associates that postulate that goal-
setting influences behaviour in four different ways:
1. Goals acceptance
2. Goals specificity
3. Goals challenge
4. Goals Feedback

13) Explain reinforcement theory .

Ans : Reinforcement theory simply looks at the relationship between behaviour and its
consequences by changing or modifying followers’ on-the-job behaviour through the
appropriate use of immediate rewards or punishments. The theory suggests that behaviours
followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently and that behaviours followed
by negative consequences will occur less frequent. Due to the fact that the Reinforcement
theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a
person when he or she take some actions. We can identify the following approaches that can
be used to affect employee behaviour:
1. Positive reinforcement – is the application of a positive event as a result of desired
employee behaviour. The idea is to encourage the employee to repeat a particular
behaviour more frequently.
2. Negative reinforcement – behaviour is reinforced by the avoidance of undesirable
consequences.
3. Punishment – undesirable behaviour is discouraged by the application of
punishment. According to the reinforcement theory, the unpleasant consequences
(punishment) of any undesirable behaviour will discourage an individual from
repeating the behaviour.
4. Extinction – is the withdrawal of something that an employee considers positive in
order to weaken behaviour, especially behaviour that was previously rewarded. This
could be as a result of behaviour that was acceptable to a previous manager or,
manager in a different department e.g. a previous manager might have appreciated it
if the employee told tales about his/her co workers. The new manager can discourage
this behaviour by ignoring these tales.
The schedules of reinforcement are :
 Continuous
 Partial
 Fixed ratio
 Variable ratio
 Fixed interval
 Variable interval
14) Explain Fielders leadership contingency model.
Ans :
 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory shows the relationship between the leader’s orientation
or style and group performance under differing situational conditions. The theory is
based on determining the orientation of the leader (relationship or task), the elements
of the situation (leader-member relations, task structure, and leader position power),
and the leader orientation that was found to be most effective as the situation changed
from low to moderate to high control. Fiedler found that task oriented leaders were
more effective in low and moderate control situations and relationship oriented
managers were more effective in moderate control situations.
The 3 elements of model are :
1) Leadership Style :
 Task directed / Hard nosed
 Human relations/ lenient style
Two types of score to measure :
 Scores on least preferred co worker (LPC)
 Scores on assumed similarity between opposites (AS)
2) Situational variables
 Leaders position power
 Task structure
 Leader member relations
3) Relation between leadership style and situational variables

15) Explain Leadership continuum Theory and model .

Ans :
 
1. The Manager decides and announces the decision.
The manager reviews options in light of aims, issues, priorities, timescale, etc., then decides
the action and informs the team of the decision. The manager will probably have considered
how the team will react, but the team plays no active part in making the decision. The team
may well perceive that the manager has not considered the team's welfare at all. This is seen
by the team as a purely task-based decision, which is generally a characteristic of X-
Theory management style.
2. The manager decides and then 'sells' the decision to the group.
The manager makes the decision as in 1 above, and then explains reasons for the decision to
the team, particularly the positive benefits that the team will enjoy from the decision. In so
doing the manager is seen by the team to recognise the team's importance, and to have some
concern for the team.
3. The manager presents the decision with background ideas and invites questions.
The manager presents the decision along with some of the background which led to the
decision. The team is invited to ask questions and discuss with the manager the rationale
behind the decision, which enables the team to understand and accept or agree with the
decision more easily than in 1 and 2 above. This more participative and involving approach
enables the team to appreciate the issues and reasons for the decision, and the implications of
all the options. This will have a more motivational approach than 1 or 2 because of the higher
level of team involvement and discussion.
4. The manager suggests a provisional decision and invites discussion about it.
The manager discusses and reviews the provisional decision with the team on the basis that
the manager will take on board the views and then finally decide. This enables the team to
have some real influence over the shape of the manager's final decision. This also
acknowledges that the team has something to contribute to the decision-making process,
which is more involving and therefore motivating than the previous level.
5. The manager presents the situation or problem, gets suggestions, then decides.
The manager presents the situation, and maybe some options, to the team. The team is
encouraged and expected to offer ideas and additional options, and discuss implications of
each possible course of action. The manager then decides which option to take. This level is
one of high and specific involvement for the team, and is appropriate particularly when the
team has more detailed knowledge or experience of the issues than the manager. Being high-
involvement and high-influence for the team this level provides more motivation and freedom
than any previous level.
6. The manager explains the situation, defines the parameters and asks the team to
decide.
At this level the manager has effectively delegated responsibility for the decision to the team,
albeit within the manager's stated limits. The manager may or may not choose to be a part of
the team which decides. While this level appears to gives a huge responsibility to the team,
the manager can control the risk and outcomes to an extent, according to the constraints that
he stipulates. This level is more motivational than any previous, and requires a mature team
for any serious situation or problem. (Remember that the team must get the credit for all the
positive outcomes from the decision, while the manager remains accountable for any
resulting problems or disasters. This isn't strictly included in the original Tannenbaum and
Schmidt definitions, so it needs pointing out because it's such an important aspect of
delegating and motivating, and leadership.)
7. The manager allows the team to identify the problem, develop the options, and decide
on the action, within the manager's received limits.
This is obviously an extreme level of freedom, whereby the team is effectively doing what
the manager did in level 1. The team is given responsibility for identifying and analysing the
situation or problem; the process for resolving it; developing and assessing options;
evaluating implications, and then deciding on and implementing a course of action. The
manager also states in advance that he/she will support the decision and help the team
implement it. The manager may or may not be part of the team, and if so then he/she has no
more authority than anyone else in the team. The only constraints and parameters for the team
are the ones that the manager had imposed on him from above. (Again, the manager retains
accountability for any resulting disasters, while the team must get the credit for all successes.)
This level is potentially the most motivational of all, but also potentially the most disastrous.
Not surprisingly the team must be mature and competent, and capable of acting at what is a
genuinely strategic decision-making level.

16) Explain Path Goal Leadership Theory .

Ans :
17) Explain Normative Decision model
Ans :
Discussion
Vroom and Yetton (1973) took the earlier generalized situational theories that noted how
situational factors cause almost unpredictable leader behavior and reduced this to a more
limited set of behaviors. The 'normative' aspect of the model is that it was defined more
by rational logic than by long observation. The model is most likely to work when there is
clear and accessible opinions about the decision quality importance and decision
acceptance factors. However these are not always known with any significant confidence.
Assumptions
Decision acceptance increases commitment and effectiveness of action.
Participation increases decision acceptance.
Description
Decision quality is the selection of the best alternative, and is particularly important
when there are many alternatives. It is also important when there are  serious implications
for selecting (or failing to select) the best alternative.
Decision acceptance is the degree to which a follower accepts a decision made by a
leader. Leaders focus more on decision acceptance when decision quality is more
important.
Vroom and Yetton defined five different decision procedures. Two are autocratic
(A1 and A2), two are consultative (C1 and C2) and one is Group based (G2).
A1: Leader takes known information and then decides alone.
A2: Leader gets information from followers, and then decides alone.
C1: Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to ideas and then decides
alone.
C2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas and then decides
alone.
G2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group and then seeks and accepts
consensus agreement. 
Situational factors that influence the method are relatively logical:
 When decision quality is important and followers possess useful information, then A1
and A2 are not the best method.
 When the leader sees decision quality as important but followers do not, then G2 is
inappropriate.
 When decision quality is important, when the problem is unstructured and the leader
lacks information / skill to make the decision alone, then G2 is best.
 When decision acceptance is important and followers are unlikely to accept an
autocratic decision, then A1 and A2 are inappropriate.
 when decision acceptance is important but followers are likely to disagree with one
another, then A1, A2 and C1 are not appropriate, because they do not give
opportunity for differences to be resolved.
 When decision quality is not important but decision acceptance is critical, then G2 is
the best method.
 When decision quality is important, all agree with this, and the decision is not likely
to result from an autocratic decision then G2 is best.

18) Explain Leadership substitutes theory.

Ans :
• Substitutes make leaders behavior unnecessary
– training
– computer modeling
– feedback mechanisms
• Distinguishes substitutes from neutralizers
• Neutralizers prevent a leader from acting in a specified way

Substitue or Supportive Instrumental

Neutralizer Leadership Leadership

A. Subordinate
Characteristics

Experience Substitute

Professional Substitute Substitute

Orientation

Indifference Neutralizer Neutralizer

to rewards
 Substitute or Supportive Instrumental
Neutralizer Leadership Leadership

B. Task Characteristics

Structured,
routine Substitute
tasks

Feedback Substitute
provided
by task

Instrinsically Substitute
satisfying
task

Substitues or Supportive Instrumental

Neutralizers Leadership Leadership

C. Organization
Characteristics

Cohesive work Substitute Substitute

group

Low Position Neutralizer Neutralizer

power

Formalization Substitute

Inflexiblity Neutralizer

Dispersed Neutralizer Neutralizer

Subordinate
work sites

10 MARKS :
1) Briefly explain the different theories of motivation .
Ans : Content (or static) theories of motivation focus on internal or intrapersonal factors
that energise, direct, sustain and or prohibit behaviour. These theories explain forces of
motivation by focusing on individuals’ needs.
In the attempt to identify the specific forces which motivate people, content theories focus on
both intrinsic (needs and motives) and extrinsic motivators (such as money and status) which
can motivate people .Some of the most popular and best known of these older content
theories of motivation includes Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Alderfer’s
ERG theory of motivation, Hertzberg’s two-factor theory and McClelland’s learned needs
theory.
The process-based perspectives are concerned with how motivation occurs. Rather than
attempting to identify motivational stimuli, process perspectives focus on why people choose
certain behavioural options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after
they have attained their goals.
According to process theories, each individual’s behaviour is a result of his or her own
assumptions, premises, expectations, values and other psychological processes. Motivated
behaviour is seen as the result of conscious, rational decisions between alternative choices
which each individual makes. Some of the most popular and best known process theories of
motivation include Adam’s Equity theory of motivation, Skinner’s Reinforcement theory,
Locke and Latham’s Goal-setting theory of motivation and Vroom’s Expectancy theory of
motivation.
Please explain the theories briefly one by one.

2) Briefly explain the different theories of leadership .

Ans : Explain each one of 7 mark questions one by one briefly.