Concept of Rural Development in India

Dr. Radhika Kapur

Department of Adult Education and Continuing Extension

Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Delhi
Delhi – 110007
India
January 2019

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 Table of Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………...........3
Chapter 1 – Introduction……………………………………………………….........5
Chapter 2 – Historical Background of Rural Development…………………………18
Chapter 3- The System of Education in Rural Areas………………………………...32
Chapter 4- Science and Technology in Rural Areas…………………………………46
Chapter 5- Health Care Facilities in Rural Areas…………………………………….59
Chapter 6- Employment Opportunities in Rural Areas………………………………76
Chapter 7- Livelihood Opportunities in Rural Areas………………………………...91
Chapter 8- Status of Women in Rural Areas………………………………………..107
Chapter 9- Rural Social Framework………………………………………………...122
Chapter 10- Governance and Administration in Rural Areas………………………138
Chapter 11- Significance of Agriculture Sector in Rural Areas…………………….154
Chapter 12- Rural Industrialization…………………………………………………168
Chapter 13- Skills Development among Rural Individuals…………………………185
Chapter 14- Problems and Challenges in Rural Areas……………………………...203
Chapter 15- Rural Development Approaches and Strategies……………………….224
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………...244

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 Abstract

India is a country of villages and the development of the country is synonymous with
the development of rural communities. India is a vast and second most populous country in
the world. According to 1991 census, 74.28 percent of the population resides within the
countryside. It is unfortunate and is regarded as a major impediment within the course of
progression of the country that a major part of the population is leading an uncertain
economic life. This is primarily due to non-synchronization of employment opportunities in
the agricultural sector. The main reason being, there has been an increase in population in
rural areas. In rural areas, individuals are primarily involved in the agricultural sector and
farming practices. But they are overwhelmed by the conditions of poverty and backwardness.
In addition, the problems of malnutrition, illiteracy, unemployment etc. are imposing
detrimental effects upon the lives of the individuals. Hence, for leading to progression, it is
vital to formulate measures that would eradicate these problems and enhance their living
conditions.

In the Indian framework, rural development has been receiving attention and special
significance for two important reasons. These are, more than 70 percent of the population in
rural areas still lives in villages and the country would not be able to move towards the path
of progress, until there are adequate developments brought about within rural communities.
Second reason is, backwardness of the rural communities is regarded as the major barrier
towards leading to effective growth and development of the country. The rural areas
experience backwardness in terms of methods of production, social organization and political
mobilization. In the present existence, there have been introduction of modern and innovative
strategies and methods that would bring about effective growth and development of the
agricultural sector. Moreover, the technical developments in the field of agriculture have led
to an increase in the differences between wealthy and poverty stricken. The wealthy farmers
and agricultural labourers adopt modern and innovative methods and enhance production and
profitability as compared to small farmers and agricultural labourers.

The main purpose of this research project is to acquire an efficient understanding of

the factors that facilitate the understanding of the concept of rural development. The chapters
include, historical background of rural development, the system of education in rural areas,
science and technology in rural areas, health care facilities in rural areas, employment

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opportunities in rural areas, livelihood opportunities in rural areas, status of women in rural
areas, rural social framework, governance and administration in rural areas, significance of
agriculture sector in rural areas, rural industrialization, skills development among rural
individuals, problems and challenges in rural areas, and rural development approaches and
strategies. There have been implementation of policies and programs by the Government of
India that have the main objective of bringing about improvements in the livelihoods
opportunities of rural individuals.

Chapter 1. Introduction
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 Rural development involves the building of human life, which includes social,
cultural, religious, political and economic conditions. In India, more than 70 percent of the
population resides in rural communities. When the concept of development of the country is
taken into consideration, then two main areas need to be emphasised upon, urban and rural.
The development of both the areas is necessary in order to lead to effective growth and
development of the country. Therefore, the government is putting into operation the measures
that would lead to development of rural areas. There has been recognition of the needs of the
rural communities by the government of India and has adopted the development planning
measures, which have been implemented through the Five Year Plans. The initiation of
schemes and programs have enabled the rural communities to bring about improvements in
their living conditions. The development of the country is correlated with the development of
rural communities (Agarwal, n.d.).

The basic objective of rural development is to organize, develop and utilize the
available resources of land, water and human resources in such a manner that an entire
population is dependent upon these resources and have an equitable opportunity to fulfil basic
needs. Rural development takes into account, both the economic development and a greater
transformation of the individuals. With the purpose of enhancing the livelihoods of the rural
individuals, there is a need to increase the participation of the individuals in rural
development programs, decentralization of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and
larger access to credit. Working on these aspects will abridge the gap between rural and urban
divide and upgrade the standards of living of rural communities. The rural development
involves the development of number of aspects, these include, irrigation facilities, expansion
of electricity, improvements in the techniques of cultivation, enhancements in the system of
education, health care and medical centres and so forth (Agarwal, n.d.).

The individuals belonging to rural communities lead a simple lifestyle. They are less
aware of modern and innovative methods and approaches and are less communicative in
nature, as compared to individuals, belonging to urban communities. The rural communities,
normally lead their lives in accordance to the traditions, customs, values and norms. In the
past decade, large amount of efforts and resources have been spent upon projects and
programs that are put into operation, with the main purpose of development of rural
communities. Although improving the quality of living conditions is regarded as an

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acceptable strategy to achieve the goal. There is a difference between bringing about
improvements in the quality of life and living conditions of the individuals. It is vital to focus
upon the problems that are experienced by the rural individuals and the various measures that
are formulated to eliminate these problems (Agarwal, n.d.).

Concept of Rural Development

The concept of rural development is a comprehensive aspect, which takes into

consideration, number of factors. This term is used to mean organizing things, which bring
about changes in the existing conditions in favour of a better state. For several decades, the
concept of rural development focused solely upon economic change. But at a later stage, the
concept got extended to take into account, economic, political, social, cultural, technological
and psychological frame of the society (Chapter 1, n.d.). In other words, when focusing upon
rural development, it not just takes into consideration, the development of rural infrastructure,
individuals and their overall living conditions, but it focuses upon the development of social,
economic, political, cultural, technical and religious aspects as well. In promoting
development of these aspects, it is vital to put into operation, modern and innovative
strategies, methods and approaches that are considered essential in augmenting progress in
the overall quality of life of the individuals. In addition, individuals should be trained in
terms of usage of technology to bring about technical progress.

The term ‘rural development’ is of major concern, particularly when one is focused
upon promoting effective growth and development of the country. In India, rural areas are
still in a backward state and number of programs and schemes need to be formulated to bring
about improvements. The term ‘rural development’ can be used in a divergent state. As a
concept, it can promote overall development of rural areas. It has been acknowledged on a
comprehensive basis that improvements in the overall quality of life of the rural individuals
can lead to augmentation of rural communities. Apart from enhancing the overall quality of
lives of the individuals, the other areas that need to be taken into consideration are,
agriculture, farming practices, industries, factories, craftsmanship, skills and abilities of the
artisans, health care facilities, medical centres, socio-economic infrastructure, and financial
and human resources. Development primarily takes place, when there is interaction between
various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. It is
necessary for rural individuals to generate awareness and put into practice the measures that
would promote effective growth and development.

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 Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of individuals to acquire
opportunities for themselves for the purpose of sustaining better livelihoods for themselves
and their families. The poverty stricken and underprivileged sections of the society cannot
accomplish their desired goals and objectives on their own. They do need help and support
from other individuals, organizations, agencies and programs. Hence, making provision of
assistance to rural individuals to bring about improvements in their living conditions and in
the promotion of welfare and goodwill is regarded as rural development. When
improvements need to be made in rural areas, it is essential to develop and utilize natural and
human resources, technologies, infrastructural facilities, institutions and organizations, and
government policies and programs. These aspects are wholeheartedly dedicated towards
promoting economic growth, employment opportunities, education, technical knowledge,
participation in social, economic, political, cultural and religious activities and bringing about
transformations in the overall quality of life (Chapter 1, n.d.). Alleviation of the conditions of
poverty is an important concern. For this purpose, it is essential for the farmers and
agricultural labourers to possess adequate knowledge and information in terms of usage of
modern and innovative strategies and methods in agricultural and farming practices.

Approaches to Rural Development

There are not any universally accepted approaches to rural development. It is a choice
that is influenced by time, space and culture. Rural development is a comprehensive and a
multi-dimensional concept. In rural areas, there are number of aspects, which need to be
improved. These include, agriculture, small-scale industries, village and cottage industries,
community resources and facilities and above all the living conditions of the rural individuals
(Chapter 5, n.d.). In the Indian framework, the development of rural areas promotes the
production of the agricultural sector. Research has indicated that farmers and agricultural
labourers are in a deprived state and experiencing problems in the adequate sustenance of
their living conditions. Hence, number of programs and schemes need to be introduced to
generate awareness among them in terms of modern and innovative strategies and methods
that would augment productivity and profitability.

The main purpose of approaches to rural development are to acquire information in

terms of the programs and schemes that have been initiated. Since 1951, there have been
formulation of approaches, with the main purpose of bringing about development of rural
areas. The main areas that have been taken into account, are, rural prosperity, equality and

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employment of rural individuals. The approaches have been stated as follows: (Chapter II,
Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Multi-purpose Approach

The major purpose of the multi-purpose approach is to lead to all round development
of the villages, based on self-help and self-reliance. It is regarded as a significant approach,
which laid the foundation for the up-liftment of rural India. During the early 1950s, rural
development efforts began with the multi-purpose approach, which include the activities
related to agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation, irrigation, village and small-scale
industries, health care and sanitation, housing, transport and communication, welfare of
women and children and rural employment. The Community Development Programs (CDPs)
and National Extension Service (NES) launched in 1952, came under this approach.

Sectorial Approach

The main purpose of this approach was to promote intensive development of the
selected sectors, namely, age, and culture with concentration in the areas of comparative
advantage. By 1960s, the situation was rather critical on the food front. The need for the
greater concentration for the production of food led to the strategy for locating the potential
sectors and well-endowed districts and areas, capable for yielding higher agricultural
production. Attention was paid towards enhancing productivity per acre than on the extension
of the acreage. Therefore, the Intensive Agriculture Development Program (IADP) in 1960
and Intensive Agriculture Area Program (IAAP) in 1963 were initiated. Both IADP and
IAAP were benchmarks in the development of agriculture. The programs put emphasis upon
agriculture on a qualitatively different footing with a wide ranging repercussions on rural
scenario. With the advent of these programs, there were augmentation in the agricultural
sector.

Target Group Approach

The main purpose of this approach is to augment growth with social justice among the
socio-economically backward sections of the society. In order to accommodate the lagging
sectors or regions, the development of rural areas was re-conceptualized to highlight the
improvements in the social and economic lives of the individuals. These individuals mainly
included, marginal and small farmers, agricultural labourers, for whom, special programs,
such as, Small Farmer Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers Development

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Agency (MFALDA) were initiated. It was observed that the target group approach showed
better results, where information facilities were satisfactory and adequate. Furthermore,
administrative and organizational facilities were also well-developed.

Area Development Approach

The main purpose of this approach is to promote spatial planning and reduction of
regional imbalance. In order to bring about correction in the regional imbalance, area
development approach was put into operation. The programs that were initiated include,
Tribal Area Development Program (TADP, 1972), Hill Area Development Program (HADP,
1974-1975), Drought Prone Area Program (DPAP, 1970), Desert Development Program
(DDP, 1977-1978) and Command Area Development Program (CADP, 1975). These
programs were successful in implementation.

Basic Needs Approach

The basic needs approach gives primacy to the needs for a minimum standard of
living of the poverty stricken individuals, as a major concern for development planning. It
aims at the equalization of social consumption. It therefore renders a significant contribution
in the formulation of the development strategy, which aims at leading to a decline in poverty
and inequality, promoting growth of employment opportunities and distributive justice. The
other areas that have been included in this approach include, personal and social
consumption, human rights, people’s participation and employment and growth with justice.

The Minimum Needs Program (MNP) within the country was introduced in 1974,
during the first year of the fifth plan period. The fifth plan proposed MNP with the objective
of establishing the network of basic services and facilities of social consumption in the areas
of up to the nationally accepted norms within the specified time frame. It is a program of
investment in human resource development and seeks to upgrade the consumption of those,
living below the poverty line. Bringing about improvements in the productive efficiency of
people and their quality of life is regarded as one of the significant aspects. The major
components of MNP are, rural health, rural education, rural roads, rural drinking water, rural
electrification, house sites for landless, environmental improvement in slums and nutrition.

Employment-Oriented Integrated Approach to Rural Development

The main objective of this approach was focused upon the removal of unemployment,
and poverty, through sectorial and area integration. With the purpose of overcoming the

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limitations of earlier approaches and to bring about improvements in the overall quality of
lives of the rural individuals, a multi-sector, multi-level, with the multi-section concept of the
integrated rural development was initiated in 1978-1979. Different programs were initiated
under Integrated Rural Development Programs (IRDP). It aimed at ensuring accelerated well-
being and progression of the deprived, based on the Gandhian concept of Antyodaya. Several
programs that aimed at making provision of employment opportunities to the rural poor
included, rural works program, rural employment guarantee program IRDP, Training Rural
Youth for Self-employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural
Areas (DWCRA) and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY).

Problems Experienced by Rural Individuals

The individuals residing in rural communities are experiencing number of problems

and challenges that are proving to be impediments within the course of bringing about
improvements in their living conditions. India was under the British rule for more than two
centuries. The policies formulated by the British aimed at collection of revenue and they were
not concerned with the development of rural communities (Agarwal, n.d.). Furthermore, the
major problems that have been experienced by rural individuals have been stated as follows:

Zamindari System – By the introduction of the zamindari system, the Britishers

collected as much revenue as they could from the farmers. This system enabled the peasants
to remain in a deprived condition. The zamindars did less to augment the conditions of the
farmers and rural communities. The Britishers extracted minerals from rural land to make use
of in their country Britain. They compelled the farmers to grow indigo for their own benefit.
One of the most critical problems was, they did not put into operation any strategies or
resources to bring about improvements in rural areas, but exploited the resources. With the
prevalence of this system, the conditions of the farmers led to further deterioration and there
was augmentation of poverty among them (Agarwal, n.d.).

Lack of Infrastructure – In rural communities, still there is lack of infrastructure and

other facilities. Individuals are experiencing shortage of electricity, poor communication,
improper roads and other infrastructural facilities. Within homes, shortage of electricity and
water are regarded as major problems that are imposing detrimental effects upon the lives of
rural individuals. In order to facilitate ones living conditions, individuals need lighting,
heating and cooling equipment in accordance to the weather conditions, restrooms, clean
drinking water and so forth. Improvements in roads and communication is necessary for the

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individuals to transfer and form links with the wider community. Agricultural infrastructure
has the potential to bring about changes in the traditional agriculture or subsistence farming
into advance, innovative, and dynamic farming system within the country (Patel, n.d.).
Hence, when there is lack of infrastructure, the individuals certainly encounter major
impediments within the course of bringing about improvements in their living conditions and
overall quality of life.

Use of Traditional Cooking Methods – The rural individuals, particularly belonging to

remote areas, have developed their own traditional methods of cooking and food
preservation, primarily to survive in extreme weather conditions. The communication that
they have developed with other individuals and local authorities, has rendered a significant
contribution in leading to an increase in the utilization of better techniques to prepare and
store food (Krishnan, 2014). In the traditional cooking methods, they make use of mud
stoves. In mud stoves, wood is used to light the fire and meals are usually prepared in earthen
pots. The main reason behind the use of traditional cooking methods is, rural individuals
usually do not possess the resources to make use of modern methods. One of the major
disadvantages of the use of traditional cooking methods is, around 300000 deaths have taken
place, due to pollution (Agarwal, n.d.). But when these individuals cannot afford gases, then
they need to depend upon traditional methods.

Lack of Health Care Facilities – In rural communities, health care facilities too are
not in a well-developed state. When the individuals experience any health problems and
illnesses, then they are required to transfer to distance regions or cities to obtain medical
facilities. Due to lack of health care facilities, the rural individuals normally remain unaware
of the approaches and strategies that are necessary to take care of their health and well-being.
Furthermore, they also remain unaware of what essential nutrients, they need to consume to
facilitate physical and psychological growth and development in an effective manner. Hence,
this is one of the major problems that leads to deprived health conditions among rural
communities.

Lack of Education – In rural communities, the system of education is not in a well-

developed state as compared to urban areas. There is prevalence of illiteracy among the rural
communities. Though these individuals recognize the significance of education, but due to
number of factors are unable to get enrolled in schools to acquire educational skills. The
number of factors that lead to prevalence of illiteracy among the individuals are, distance of

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schools from homes, lack of transportation facilities, lack of financial resources, shortage of
teachers in schools, inappropriate teaching-learning methods, lack of school infrastructure,
lack of facilities within homes, discriminatory treatment, particularly against the girls and
inadequate development of extra-curricular activities.

Lack of Technical Knowledge – In the present existence, technology has gained

prominence. The individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds are making use of
technology for the implementation of various tasks and activities. Among the rural
individuals, there is lack of technical knowledge. Still, rural entrepreneurs as well as the
individuals residing in rural communities do not possess adequate knowledge and
information in terms of usage of technology. Lack of technical knowledge has proved to be a
major impediment within the course of implementation of various tasks and activities. But
there have been establishment of training centres that are providing knowledge to the rural
individuals, regarding technology. After acquiring knowledge in terms of usage of
technology, they are making use of it for augmenting their overall quality of life. Modern
methods and technology is used in the agricultural sector, farming practices and so forth.
Furthermore, rural folks make use of it for communication and leisure and recreational
purposes as well.

Lack of Employment Opportunities – The rural individuals are in most cases

employed in the agricultural sector. The agricultural sector does not generate sufficient
income for the farmers, with the purpose of sustaining the living conditions of themselves
and their families. Apart from agricultural sector, the other areas, which they get engaged into
for the purpose of sustaining their living conditions are production of handicrafts, jewellery,
garments, food items, animal husbandry, marketing and selling, and so forth. When rural
individuals are involved in the production of these items, then they usually market their
products, especially at the time of festivals. But one of the unfortunate aspects is, there are
lack of employment opportunities among them to a major extent. This is also regarded as a
major cause of poverty.

Unawareness - As it has been stated that rural individuals put into practice the
traditional values and methods in the implementation of various tasks and activities. The
main reason being, they are unaware of modern and innovative methods, strategies and
approaches. Research has indicated that individuals in rural and tribal communities are
dependent upon the natural environmental conditions to a major extent. They even obtain

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herbs and medicinal plants from the forests to treat their wounds and illnesses. Therefore, it
can be stated that unawareness and lack of information enables them to adopt traditional
methods and practices in the implementation of daily life tasks and activities. Unawareness is
regarded as the major cause of their backwardness.

Malnutrition – Malnutrition is the condition, when the individuals do not obtain

proper diet and nutrition. In other words, when their intake of food is less than what is
required, then the individuals are experiencing malnutrition. There are two aspects of
malnutrition, i.e. over-nutrition and under-nutrition. Over-nutrition is the state, when an
individual consumes more diet, then what is required. Whereas, under-nutrition is the state,
when individuals consume less diet, then what is required. In rural communities, individuals
are mostly under-nourished. They experience problems and challenges within the course of
fulfilling their adequate diet and nutritional requirements. The major causes are poverty and
lack of financial resources. Due to malnutrition, these individuals, belonging to all age groups
experience severe health problems and illnesses.

Discriminatory Treatment against Girls – In some rural communities, the birth of the
girls is not appreciated and they are discriminated against. Strong preference is given to male
children and when there are male children within the family, then more attention is paid to
them. Male children are encouraged towards acquisition of education and are enrolled in
schools. Whereas, girls are compelled to remain confined within their homes and trained in
terms of the implementation of household responsibilities. It is usually believed by the
individuals that when the male members of the family will be educated, then they would be
able to enhance the status and bring about well-being of their families and communities.
Furthermore, more attention is paid towards the health care needs, and diet and nutrition of
males more as compared to girls. Girls in rural communities usually remain deprive of
number of aspects. Hence, it is vital to formulate measures to generate awareness among
them that girls should be provided equal treatment as boys.

Programs Initiated by the Government for Rural Development

The department of rural development has implemented number of programs in rural

communities through the State governments for causing reduction in poverty, generation of
employment opportunities, development of rural infrastructure, and provision of basic
minimum services. The policy makers have recognized the significance of rural development.
The programs and measures formulated have the major objective of bringing about

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progression of rural areas. The community development program was the first organized
attempt for rural development. The program was launched on 2nd October, 1952. It was
focused upon the overall development of rural areas, including, agriculture, animal
husbandry, roads, communication facilities, health care, education, housing, employment and
nutrition (Agarwal, n.d.). The programs initiated by the Government for rural development
have been stated as follows:

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadhak Yojana (PMGSY)

The roads are considered vital in any region. The development of roads enables the
individuals to promote economic growth and alleviate poverty. Government has launched a
centrally sponsored scheme, which is known as the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadhak Yojana.
The main objective of this program is to provide connectivity to all the unconnected
habitations in rural areas, through the construction of roads by the end of the tenth plan
period. The rural areas usually have the population of more than 500 individuals. PMGSY is
a special central intervention as part of the poverty reduction strategy. Though rural roads is a
state subject, the central government is making provision of financial assistance as a centrally
sponsored program. The main objective of road connectivity is to ensure that essential
services, such as education, employment opportunities, health care and medical, markets etc.
are available to all citizens. State Government agencies and Panchayti Raj institutions will
ensure that all the related programs focus upon making provision of services to habitations,
connected under PMGSY (Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadhak Yojana, n.d.).

Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

This program is the single self-employment program for rural individuals, who are
poverty stricken and belong to underprivileged and marginalized groups. It came into effect
on 1st April, 1999. The main objective of this program is to cover all the aspects of self-
employment, like the organization of rural poor into self-help groups. In addition, the other
areas that have been taken into account are, capacity building, training, skills development,
infrastructural development, planning of tasks and functions, provision of financial assistance
through bank credit and subsidy, and marketing support.

Rural Housing (Indira Awaas Yojana)

For the survival of the individuals, housing is regarded as the basic requirement.
Therefore construction of housing is one of the major activities under the National Rural

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Employment Program, which began to get initiated in 1980. The Government of India in
1998, announced a National Housing and Habitat Policy, which aims at providing housing for
all and facilitating the construction of 20 lakh, additional housing units (13 lakhs in rural
areas and seven in urban areas) with emphasis put upon providing standing benefits to the
deprived. The action is being put into practice through the Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY),
Credit cum Subsidy Scheme for Rural Housing, Innovative Scheme for Rural Housing and
Habitat Development, Rural Building Centres, Equity Contribution to the Ministry of Rural
Development by HUDCO, and National Mission for Rural Housing and Development.

DRDA Schemes

DRDA administration has been introduced from 1st April, 1999. The primary
objective is to effectively manage the schemes and augment their professionalism. It is based
on the recommendations of the inter-ministerial committee, known as the Shankar
Committee. The scheme replaces the previous practice of allocating a percentage of program
funds to the administrative costs. Under this, the separate provision has been made to meet
the administrative expenses of the DRDA.

Training Schemes

In the rural development tasks, primarily concerning the alleviation of poverty,

training schemes have been acquiring significance. The National Institute of Rural
Development (NIRD) has been conducting training programs, seminars and workshops. In
addition, support is provided to a number of training and research institutions, with the main
objective of dealing with issues and problems, relating to rural development.

Integrated Rural Development Programs (IRDP)

The IRDP was launched by the government in March, 1976. It is regarded as the
major instrument of the government to alleviate the conditions of poverty. Its primary focus
is to enable the selected families to cross the poverty line within a given frame of time. It is
facilitated by taking up self-employment opportunities in various areas. These include,
agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, weaving, handicrafts, services and business
activities. Integrated development cannot get implemented in isolation, through the project
approach or the program approach. But it is integrated to take into account mutual
interactions and linkages that need to be created to achieve the desired objectives. Integrated
Rural Development is a multi-faceted framework involving a multi-disciplinary approach. It

15
implies spatial, functional and temporal integration of many parameters (Chapter - II.
Integrated Rural Development Program in India, n.d.).

Food for Work Program (FWP)

The FWP program was introduced in 1977 by the Janta government with the objective
to make provision of employment opportunities to the rural individuals. These individuals are
particularly, unemployed and underemployed. The wages paid to the workers were in kind,
i.e. food and grains.

National Rural Employment Program (NREP)

NREP is a redesigned program for the FWP. It has been initiated with the objective of
creating additional employment opportunities for the rural individuals, mainly with the help
of surplus food grains. This program was primarily meant for those rural individuals, who are
dependent upon wage employment to a major extent. During the lean agricultural period, they
did not have any income. This program was merged with the Jawaharlal Rozgar Yojana
(JRY).

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Program (RLEGP)

Some of the states, such as, Maharashtra and Gujarat formulated schemes with the
main objective of making provision of employment opportunities for the rural individuals,
especially the landless. When the individuals, in rural communities are landless, they would
be unable to get engaged in agricultural and farming practices. Thus, they would encounter
major barriers in augmenting their living conditions. Hence, this program puts emphasis upon
creating employment opportunities for them.

Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY)

JRY came into existence in April 1989 with the amalgamation of NREP and RLEGP.
Under this scheme, it was expected to provide at least one member of each poor family (BPL
family) an employment of 50 to 100 days in a year at a work near his or her residence. About
30 percent of the jobs, under this scheme were reserved for women. This scheme was
implemented through the village panchayats.

Antyodaya Yojana

Antyodaya is a term that is formed by the combination of two words, ant means
bottom or end and udaya means development. Therefore, it is referred to the development of

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the individuals, belonging to poverty stricken, deprived, marginalized, underprivileged and
economically backward sections of the society. These individuals, primarily belong to rural
communities and it is vital to formulate measures, focusing upon their development and well-
being.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS)

Research has indicated that 70 percent of the individuals, belonging to rural

communities are experiencing problems in fulfilling their daily needs and requirements. The
new scheme was launched with the purpose of initiating benefits to rural individuals. A new
scheme was launched and a legislation was enacted under the name of the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). It guarantees 100 days of employment in a financial
year to any rural household, whose adult members are willing to perform unskilled manual
tasks. The act came into operation in 200 districts and was extended gradually to the other
districts as well as notified by the government.

Chapter 2. Historical Background of Rural Development

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 The development of rural areas in India is regarded to be a significant aspect in both
economic and social spheres. In 1901, there were 212.6 million individuals living within rural
communities. Whereas, in 2001, the rural population increased to 721.17 million. This
depicted the increase in the density of the population. Furthermore, there was a decline in the
land under agriculture. Rural development is a complicated area, despite the advancements
taking place in technology and the availability of resources. Rural development has a long
history in India. There are various approaches, strategies and philosophies, policies,
programs, enactments, efforts, experiments and methodologies, which need to studied and
analysed (Chapter II, Historical Background of Rural Development in India, n.d.). This
concept is not novice, particularly within the developing countries. The reason being, many
developing countries have been practicing and promoting rural development for decades.
Most of them have achieved success in the fields of education, health care, family welfare,
poverty eradication, generation of self-employment, farm management and production, rural
technologies and so forth (Chapter-V, n.d.).

The historical background of any activity or program provides its genesis, which may
direct the authorities for the effective implementation in future. Many programs of rural
development were put into operation with the main purpose of bringing about development of
rural communities. It has been unfortunate to find out that most of them were not successful.
This has been the result of ineffective and inappropriate implementation. These programs
could not make provision of complete benefits to the society. Therefore, the changing theme
of rural development and the associated schemes, which have been implemented by the
central government for the up-gradation of socio-economic conditions of the individuals need
to be implemented in an appropriate manner (Chapter-V, n.d.). In order to enhance socio-
economic conditions of the individuals, it is vital to eradicate poverty and unemployment.
Furthermore, improvements need to be brought about in the system of education and
employment opportunities.

Emergence of Rural Development

In India, as well as in other developing countries, when emphasis is put upon the
concept of development, then the development of rural areas is given utmost attention. There
were misinterpretations in the aggregate figures, in terms of the practice of identifying growth
and development. Economic growth had only the selective impact, which benefitted the

18
relatively developed areas and the moderately better-off individuals. The theory of growth
has not been able to generate the desired outcomes. If development is not only viewed as
economic growth, then the development of employment opportunities and measures were
needed to accomplish the desired objectives. Development should cover the larger
dimensions of the overall livelihoods opportunities of the vast majority of individuals. The
realization that the traditional methods of agriculture within the developing countries could
be transformed through modern technology and innovative farming practices. These were
regarded as other aspects on rethinking on development. A major consequence of all these
facts on the development experience is the current concern on rural development. It occupied
the central space in the development dialogue on the World Bank, which is regarded as the
supporter of the cause (Chapter II, Historical Background of Rural Development in India,
n.d.).

Rural Development in the Pre-Independence Period

Rural development has never been a new concept within the country. It has acquired
significance and is interwoven in the heritage of the country. When history of mankind
began, since then, the concept of rural development has acquired prominence. In the famous
epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, rural communities are observed (Chapter II,
Historical Background of Rural Development in India, n.d.). Since then, the rulers and the
administrators are paying adequate attention towards enabling the rural individuals to sustain
their living conditions in a well-organized manner. Furthermore, attention was paid towards
areas such as, education, employment opportunities, agriculture and farming practices,
administration, health care and medical and so forth.

Before the country achieved its independence, rural development within the country
can be analysed under the influence of the British Empire. During the British rule, they did
not have a major concern towards socio-economic development of the country. As a
consequence, rural communities experienced deterioration and backwardness. The primary
concern of the administration was the maintenance of law and order and the collection of
revenue. Thus, fulfilment of the colonial interests was the primary objective and rural
development was regarded as secondary. It was the famine of 1899, which compelled the
British government to take into consideration the rural individuals, as they were undergoing
detrimental effects (Agarwal, n.d.).

19
 The rural development functions in India were assumed by the government within the
framework of recurrent famines. But in the beginning, they did not have any legal sanctions
behind them. In the first few decades, after 1858, some of the district officers seized in the
middle of the famine, the food grain stocks and controlled the market. Their main objective is
to ensure that these are distributed sufficiently among the poverty stricken and needy
individuals. These strategies were put into practice without any formal legal sanction. The
action was initiated, behind the determination to control profiteering and alleviate the
problems and challenges, experienced by rural individuals (Chapter II, Historical Background
of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

The recurrent famines compelled the state administrators to seize the food grains and
distribute them among the individuals and communities, who have been effected by famine.
This task was implemented without any apparent legal sanction, motivated as the action was
by the determination to control profiteering and alleviate unfavourable effects. There was
removal of the barter system. The traditional barter system received a set-back, during the
British period. Cash economy was introduced by the British, which enabled the farmers to
adopt commercial crops. In this way, agricultural subsistence gave rise to commercial crops.
Several measures were adopted to combat agricultural crisis, such as, provision of irrigation
facilities, co-operative societies and so forth. In addition, efforts were made by voluntary
organizations (Agarwal, n.d.). The various programs initiated have been stated as follows:
(Agarwal, n.d.).

Sriniketan Experiment

Early efforts, putting emphasis upon rural development were initiated by Shri
Rabindranath Tagore in 1908. These efforts were initiated through the establishment of youth
organization in the Kaligram Progana of his zamindari. He made an attempt to form a class of
workers, who could identify themselves with the rural individuals. This was a comprehensive
program, which took into consideration aspects, such as, culture, health care, education,
norms, values, and economic conditions.

The Martandam Experiment

The main objective of this program is to augment the quality of life of the rural
individuals. It was intended to symbolize the three-fold development, these include, social,
cultural, economic, political and religious. The important technique of the centre was ‘self-
help with intimate expert counsel’. From the demonstration centre at the Martandam, the

20
villages that were covered were hundred in number, through the location of YMCA centres in
villages.

The Gurgaon Experiment

The Gurgaon experiment was initiated by Mr. F.L. Brayne, Deputy Commissioner in
the Gurgaon district of the Punjab state, as he was influenced by the prevalence of the
conditions of poverty, backwardness and misery of the individuals. Introduction of this
program has led to improvements in seeds, methods of cultivation, agricultural practices and
so forth. This project could not develop leadership in villages that would continue working,
when the village guides have left the village.

Gandhian Constructive Program Sewagram

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi had the main aim to see the rural areas of the country
as, self-contained and self-sufficient. The problem of the rural individuals, which he was
aware of was to completely eradicate those problems without any kind of interference from
the outside agencies. He wanted to make provision of solutions to those problems with the
help of local individuals and local resources. Therefore, for the betterment of the individuals,
he formulated 18 programs. These include, the promotion of village industries, basic and
adult education in terms of rural sanitation, upliftment of backward tribes, women and
underprivileged sections of the society, education in public health and hygiene, propagation
of the natural language, organization of labour unions, students and so forth. In addition,
special attention was paid upon crafts, traditional oil press, leather works and grain
processing. Gandhian rural work activities were based upon the principles of truth and non-
violence. His ideas and perspectives in terms of rural reconstruction were adopted officially
and resulted in the adoption of khadi and village industries program, the principle of village
self-sufficiency and faith in the panchayati raj and Sahakari Samaj Movement.

Rural Reconstruction Programs in Baroda

The Baroda experiment was launched in 1932 by the Maharaja of Baroda. The
Maharaja of Baroda, had the main objective of leading to progression. Hence, he generated
awareness in terms of the areas, which needed to be improved and formulated measures. The
major objective of this program was to develop the will to improve ones living conditions and
capacity for self-help and self-reliance.

The Firka Development Scheme

21
 The Firka Development Scheme of Madras was a government sponsored scheme,
which was developed in 1946. The main objective of this scheme was to organize the rural
communities in such a manner that would enable the individuals to lead more prosperous and
fulfilling lives. Through this scheme, opportunities were made available to the rural
individuals, not only bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives, but also
develop both as individuals and as units of well-integrated society.

Rural Development in the Post-Independence Period

In the post-independence era, adequate consideration was given to the development of

rural areas. This has taken place in an effective manner, through the initiation of programs
and schemes. The country adopted the planned development. The first five year plan put
emphasis upon the development of the agricultural sector. It formulated number of measures
to bring more land under irrigation. Major irrigation dams, such as the Bakhra Nangal Dam,
Hirakud, Nagarjunasagar and Tungabhadra were constructed, which generated power for
augmenting industrialization within the country and water for irrigation. As a result of the
construction of these dams, the Indian farmers were not exclusively dependent upon the
monsoon season (Agarwal, n.d.).

Intensive cultivation of the land is made possible through farm mechanization. There
has been an increase in the production of tractors within the country and they are being made
use of by the farmers, throughout the country. The other techniques that the farmers are
making use of are, threshing machines, deep boring and irrigation pumps, which lead to
improvements in high yielding improved seeds, fertilizers and other inputs. To enable the
farmers to make purchases of the inputs, the rural credit system has been invigorated with the
co-operatives. Furthermore, Regional Rural Banks and Rural Branches of Commercial Banks
were established with the main objective of making provision of financial assistance to the
rural individuals and augment their economic conditions. The initiation of the micro-finance
system has been a recent measure that has proved to be advantageous to rural individuals to a
large extent (Agarwal, n.d.).

After the country attained its independence, there were introduction of the land reform
legislation. The main areas that have been taken into consideration are, abolition of the
zamindari system, abolition of the bonded labour system, land ceiling and so forth. It was all
introduced to relieve rural indebtedness and the money lenders could no longer collect the
money, which is more than the reasonable interest. Untouchability was abolished and special

22
legislation was enacted for the up-liftment of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. There
was commitment on the part of the Government of India to bring about rapid and sustainable
development of rural communities, through the initiation of programs and schemes. The
major aim of these programs is to bring about improvements in all facets of rural life. These
include, agriculture, farming practices, animal husbandry, roads, infrastructure,
communication facilities, health care and medical, employment opportunities, education,
skills development, diet and nutrition and housing (Agarwal, n.d.).

The three important programs that were formulated with the main aim of rural
construction have been stated as follows: (Agarwal, n.d.).

The Etawah Pilot Project

The Etawah Pilot project was established in 1948 by Albert Mayor for the
development of rural areas in Uttar Pradesh. The main objective of this program to observe
the degree of social and productive improvement. In addition, it also makes an attempt to
develop initiative, self-confidence and co-operation.

The Nilokheri Experiment

The Nilokheri experiment was initiated in 1948 by K. Dey, the former Minister of
Community Development and Co-operation. The introduction of this experiment took place,
when nearly, 7000 displaced persons were rehabilitated in the Nilokheri town, after
independence. The scheme was also known as ‘mazdoor manzil’. This principle highlights
the fact that one who will not work will not eat either. Under this program, the main activities
were the vocational training centre, functioning on the co-operative lines and the colony had
its own dairy, poultry, piggery, printing press, engineering workshops, tannery and bone meal
factory. The vocational training was provided to the individuals in accordance to their
interests. They functioned to operate the Co-operative Enterprises Rights of Education and
medical and health care were also guaranteed to the needy and the underprivileged.

The Bhoodan Movement

The objective of the Bhoodan campaign was to prevent the emergence of the
revolution. It ensured that in case of occurrence of any conflicting situations or disputations,
peaceful resolution methods should be put into practice. The real intention was to create a
right atmosphere, so progressive land reforms can be implemented. Therefore, it was noted in
the first five year plan that the experience of early rural reconstruction schemes, which forced

23
the rural individuals and there was not any keenness among them. Lack of initiatives for the
individuals was considered vital for the success of the schemes.

The rural concern of the government is by no means entirely absent under the colonial
rule. But it was only after the country attained its independence that rural development was
given priority. The dominant philosophy of the constitution is justice, in the social, economic
and political walks of life. Rural development received attention and acquired a high level
priority in the five year plans. The various programs of rural development were stated in the
five year plans. Many of these programs were planned and implemented, due to the necessity
of the situation that has arose within the country. At the same time, many programs were
launched, due to the political interest of the ruling parties (Chapter-V, n.d.).

Plan Period Rural Development Programs

The rural development of programs in accordance to the plan period have been stated
as follows: (Chapter-V, n.d.).

First Five Year Plan – Community Development Program (1952) and National
Extension Service (1953).

Second Five Year Plan – Khadi and Village Industries Program (1957), Village
Housing Project Scheme (1957), Multi-purpose Tribal Development Blocks Programme
(1959), Package Programme (1960) and Intensive Agricultural District Programme (1960).
Third Five Year Plan - Applied Nutrition Programme (1962), Rural Industries Project
(1962), Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (1964) and High Yielding Variety Programme
(1966).
Annual Plan, 1967 - Farmer's Training and Education Programme (1966).
Annual Plan, 1968 - Well-Construction Programme (1966), Rural Work Programme
(RWP) (1967), Tribal Development Block (1968).
Annual Plan, 1968 - Rural Manpower Programme (1969), Composite Program for
women and Pre-School Children (1969).
Fourth Five Year Plan - Drought Prone Area Programme (1970), Crash Scheme for
Rural Employment (1971), Small Farmer Development Agency (1971), Tribal Area
Development Programme (1972) Pilot Projects for Tribal Development (1972), Pilot
Intensive Rural Employment Programme (1972), Minimum Needs Programme (1972) and
Command Area Development Programme (1974).

24
 Fifth Five Year Plan - Hill Area Development Programme (1975), Special Livestock
Production Programme (1975), Food for Work Programme (1977), Desert Development
Programme (1977), Whole Village Development Programme (1979), Training of Rural
Youth for Self Employment (1979), and Integrated Rural Development Programme (1979).
Sixth Five Year Plan - National Rural Employment Programme (1980), Prime
Minister's New 20-Points Programme (1980), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Programme (1983) (RLEGP) and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
(1983).
Seventh Five Year Plan – Integrated Rural Energy Planning Program (1985) and
Special Livestock Breeding Program (1986).
Eighth Five Year Plan – Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (1989), Prime Minister’s Rozgar
Yojana (PMRY) (1993) and Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) (1993).
Ninth Five Year Plan - Basic Minimum Service (BMS) (1996), Swamjayanti Gram
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) (1998), Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) (1998),
Swajaldhara (Rural Sanitation & Drinking Water) (2002).

Mahatma Gandhi and Rural Development

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the father of Indian nation has rendered a significant
contribution in leading to progression of rural communities. The main areas that have been
taken into consideration have been stated as follows:

Sarvodaya – One of the ideal concepts of Mahatma Gandhi is sarvodaya. Gandhi

believed in putting into practice the traits of truth and non-violence in promoting social
welfare. The methods and strategies that were put into practice by Gandhi were different
from the other leaders and social reformers. Individual was regarded as the major constituent
of the society. He believed that well-being of the individuals is regarded as an essential area
towards promoting well-being of the society. Social welfare meant the conscious submission
of the individuals and the voluntary contribution to ones possession within the society. For
the effective development of the individuals and the society, the principles of truth and non-
violence are regarded to be of utmost significance (Chapter II, Historical Background of
Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Village Development – The idea of village development is regarded as the complete

republic, independent of its neighbours, for its own basic needs and interdependent upon
many others for which dependence is necessary. The major concern in the case of village

25
development is to put emphasis upon agricultural production. When the individuals will have
sufficient productivity to fulfil their nutritional requirements, then they would be able to get
engaged in the implementation of other tasks and activities. In addition to agricultural
production, the other areas that need to be taken into consideration are, education,
employment opportunities, health care and medical facilities, animal husbandry,
administration, leadership and so forth.

All-round Village Service – Gandhi was of the viewpoint that India lives in 700,000
villages. If the Indian civilization is to make its complete contribution to the building up of
the stable world order, then it has to ensure that there is generation of awareness among the
rural individuals to live their lives adequately. These areas include, cleanliness, hygiene and
sanitation, alleviating various forms of pollution and preservation of the environment. Water
is regarded as the basic necessity of the individuals, hence, rural individuals need to ensure
that they keep the water bodies free from pollution. One of the vital areas is, waste materials
should not be thrown into them. On the other hand, preservation of the environment is carried
out by rural individuals by planting more trees and keeping the natural environmental
conditions clean.

Samagra Gramseva – The approaches and strategies formulated by Mohandas

Karamchand Gandhi, in terms of rural development gets reflected in the initiative of samagra
gramseva. According to him, samagra gramseva must know everybody living in the village
and render him such service as he can. This does not mean that the workers will be able to
carry out various tasks and activities by themselves. Through this scheme, ways will be
shown to the workers of helping themselves and procure for them, such help and materials as
they will require. He would also provide training to his own helpers and win over the villages
that he will seek and follow his guidance (Chapter II, Historical Background of Rural
Development in India, n.d.).

Arts and Crafts – The strategies have been formulated for rural entrepreneurship and
rural marketing. The rural individuals, both men and women are involved in the production
and manufacturing of artworks and various forms of handicrafts. For this purpose, it is vital
for them to possess adequate skills and abilities that would facilitate the enhancement of
production. In addition, they also need to generate awareness in terms of marketing strategies
to market their products. He possessed the viewpoint that when rural communities would be
completely developed, then the individuals, belonging to these communities will possess a

26
high degree of skill. The rural individuals will get engaged in various professions, such as,
poetry, architecture, artists, craftsmen, artisans, linguists, educationists, social workers and
research workers. These individuals would make use of their skills and abilities in bringing
about improvements in their overall quality of lives.

Economic Reorganization – Economic reorganization is regarded as one of the

aspects that is of utmost significance, especially concerning the development of rural areas.
The reason being, within rural communities, individuals are overwhelmed by the conditions
of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment. As a result of poverty and illiteracy, they remain in
a backward condition and are unable to adequately sustain their living conditions. Therefore,
the main objective of economic reorganization is to ensure that rural individuals do not
experience any financial problems. It is vital to put into operation the measures that are
necessary to alleviate the conditions of poverty and backwardness and enable them to
overcome problems and challenges.

Non-Violent Economy – In rural communities, there have been prevalence of criminal

and violent acts. Girls and women experienced discriminatory treatment and more preference
was given to the male children. Hence, there should be prevalence of the viewpoint among
the rural individuals and communities that girls should not be regarded as liabilities. They can
also bring about well-being of their families and communities, provided equal rights and
opportunities are given to them. Men and women should be given equal treatment and there
should not be any kind of discrimination on the basis of factors such as, caste, creed, race,
ethnicity, religion, gender and socio-economic background. The aspect of non-violent
economy puts emphasis upon implementation of programs and schemes in a peaceful
manner. When there are occurrence of any disputes or conflicting situations among the
individuals, then it is vital to ensure that the resolutions get put into practice in an appropriate
and peaceful manner.

Food Reform – Due to the prevalence of the conditions of poverty, rural individuals
are unable to meet their nutritional requirements. There has been prevalence of the problem
of malnutrition among them to a major extent. The aspect of food reform puts emphasis upon
the fact that proper diet and nutrition should be made available to the rural individuals. In
one’s diet, it is vital to ensure, there are essential nutrients available, including carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats and water. Scarcity of water has been a major problem of
rural individuals, hence, it is vital to ensure that they make provision of clean drinking water.

27
When the rural individuals will be able to obtain adequate diet, only then they will be able to
carry out their essential tasks and activities in an effective manner.

Power Machinery – Agriculture and farming are regarded as the major occupations of
the individuals residing in rural communities. When they are engaged in these occupations,
then their major objective is to enhance production and profitability. In order to augment
production and profitability, the use of modern and innovative methods and strategies are
regarded as indispensable. Power machinery puts emphasis upon the use of technology in the
development of rural areas. For instance, in the agricultural sector, there have been usage of
modern irrigation methods, modern methods of cultivation and so forth. The agricultural
labourers and farmers, who are wealthy are able to upgrade their knowledge in terms of
power machinery. On the other hand, small farmers make use of traditional methods and
practices.

Panchayat Raj – The directive principles of state policy and later in the form of 73rd
Constitution is referred to Gandhiji’s ideas on panchayat raj and gram swaraj. The
government within rural areas will be conducted by the panchayat of five persons, annually
elected by the adult villagers, males and females, possessing prescribed educational
qualifications. These will have all the authority and jurisdiction required. Since, there will not
be any system of punishments in the accepted sense. This panchayat will be legislature,
executive and judiciary. The outline of the rural government was presented. In this case, there
is a perfect democracy, based on the individual freedom. The other areas that were taken into
account are, policy formulation and execution, particularly in the administration and
management of rural development (Chapter II, Historical Background of Rural Development
in India, n.d.).

Significance of Rural Development Concepts and Policies

The rural community development program in India had a quite sectorial approach. Its
major objectives were to bring about improvements in food production at the local level and
provide help and support to the individuals to bring about their own developments. The
program encouraged the basic association as a basic tool to achieve the joint generating
wealth and awakening of the rural population to participate in the changing processes. These
are not only economic, but also institutional and political. During the last years of the
colonial era, there had already been attempts to perform training and organizational activities
for the development of rural communities. The individuals, organizations and agencies need

28
to work in co-operation and integration to bring about improvements in the system of
education in rural areas (Calatrava, 2016).

The policies and programs were initiated by the Government of India. Modernization
of agriculture was regarded as one of the important aspects of rural communities. The men
and women, are mostly employed in the agricultural sector. The ideas and strategies that were
put into operation in the agricultural sector need to be improved. Though improvements are
coming about and there have been establishment of training centres as well. The agricultural
labourers and farmers are getting enrolled in training centres with the purpose of generating
awareness in terms of modern and innovative methods and strategies that are necessary to
enhance production. Research has indicated that wealthy farmers are able to make use of
these strategies and methods. But small farmers, who do not possess adequate resources and
struggle to make ends meet, still make use of traditional methods and strategies.

Evaluation of Rural Development Policies and Programs

A critical appraisal of various welfare programs and projects have revealed various
types of constraints and limitations in the process of implementation. A comprehensive study
of various programs have been conducted in various blocks across the country and there have
been various constraints found in relation to IRDP (1980-1981 to 1983). It needs
improvement, such as proper identification of the beneficiaries need to be there, elimination
of scarcities in the infrastructure facilities that is involved in administration, involvements of
people’s representatives, and initiation of activities in support of the IRDP beneficiaries and
requirement of detailed evaluation. The review of various programs and projects that put
emphasis upon rural development have been conducted by various authors, researchers and
reviewers (Chapter 2, n.d.).

The major problems that were identified were, there was lack of interest in the
problems connected with rural community, followed by the lack of community feelings and
welfare, lack of co-ordination among village schools, village panchayats and village co-
operatives, caste, region and religion-based factionalism, lack of village plans, lack of co-
ordination from the centre to the block level, multiplicity of responsibilities from the
development functionaries, paying low wages to the rural poor and frequent transfer of
specialists and other officers, adversely affected the rural development programs. Rural
development has become one of the increasing goals of five year plans (Chapter 2, n.d.). But

29
one of the major problems that the country is experiencing is the prevalence of the conditions
of poverty. This is one of the major impediments within the course of rural development.

The public accounts committee of the Indian parliament in its 90th report (1980-1981)
has drawn attention to the implementation of the National Rural Employment Program meant
for rural people and rural youth (Chapter 2, n.d.). In addition, it is essential to put into
operation, the administrative functions in an appropriate manner. These should render a
significant contribution in eliminating various forms of criminal acts, such as, theft, robbery,
corruption, misappropriation and so forth. In the present existence, rural areas need to be
developed in an appropriate manner, primarily aiming at elimination of poverty. It is
necessary to ensure that within rural communities, individuals are able to sustain their living
conditions in an appropriate manner by putting into practice the measures, including,
obtaining two square meals a day, employment opportunities, income generation, education,
training, and awareness in terms of approaches and strategies that are essential to bring about
improvements in their livelihoods.

Conclusion

In India, the concept of rural development is turning out to be more complicated,

despite of the advancements taking place in technology, the availability of resources and the
continued efforts from the pre-independence period. Various programs were initiated to bring
about development of rural areas in the pre-independence period. These are, Sriniketan
Experiment, The Martandam Experiment, The Gurgaon Experiment, Gandhian Constructive
Program Sewagram, Rural Reconstruction Programs in Baroda and The Firka Development
Scheme. The three important programs that were formulated with the main aim of rural
construction in the post-independence period are, The Etawah Pilot Project, The Nilokheri
Experiment, and The Bhoodan Movement. After the country achieved its independence, there
were establishment of five year plans, which focused upon rural development. In all five year
plans, there were formulation of measures and programs that put emphasis upon development
of rural communities.

Another aspect that has been taken into account is Mahatma Gandhi and rural
development. The major areas that have been taken into consideration by Gandhi to bring
about development of the rural communities are, sarvodaya, village development, all-round
village service, samagra gramseva, arts and crafts, economic reorganization, non-violent
economy, food reform, power machinery and panchayat raj. The programs and projects that

30
are initiated to bring about development of rural communities are primarily focused upon
enhancement of the agricultural sector, improvements in farming practices, eradication of
poverty, backwardness, illiteracy and unemployment, bringing about development of the
education system, generating employment opportunities for rural individuals, promoting
health care and medical facilities, improvements in the administrative functions and
leadership abilities among the individuals, providing equal opportunities to all and
eliminating discriminatory treatment, particularly regarding women and girls. When the
individuals will be able to acquire an efficient understanding in terms of the measures and
strategies, then development of rural communities would take place in an efficient manner.

Chapter 3. The System of Education in Rural Areas

Right to education is the primary right of every citizen of India (Sreekanthachari, &
Nagaraja, 2013). All the citizens, irrespective of caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity, gender

31
and socio-economic background have the right to acquire education. The system of education
in rural areas is still in a developing stage. The conditions of schools in rural communities are
still in a deprived state. In rural areas, the schools do not make provision of adequate
infrastructure, amenities and facilities to the students, which are regarded essential to
facilitate the acquisition of education in an effective manner. Another major problem is, the
number of schools are less, they are located at a distance from homes and children are
required to travel to distant places. The teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies
that are utilized in making provision of education to the students need to be improved. The
students are usually unable to acquire an efficient understanding of the academic concepts
and generate better academic outcomes.

In bringing about developments in the system of education, teachers have an

important role to play. In rural schools, teachers are not much skilled and qualified. They
encouraged students to express their viewpoints, observations and experiences. The main
objectives of rural schools are, to ensure that every student receives good quality education,
provide assistance to the students to get enrolled in higher educational institutions, provide
guidance and support to the researchers to participate efficiently in educational development,
implementation of new teaching methodologies and assessment systems and promoting
schools towards a stress-free environment (Sreekanthachari, & Nagaraja, 2013).
Developments in the system of rural education mainly focuses upon creation of amiable
school environmental conditions and utilizing the practices and methods in such a manner
that would enhance the educational skills and abilities of the students. When recruitment of
teachers takes place, it needs to be ensured that they are well-qualified, experienced and
possess a pleasant personality and an approachable nature.

Problems in Rural Education

The various problems and challenges within the system of rural education have been
stated as follows:

Unsatisfactory Teaching-Learning Methods – The teaching-learning methods that are

put into practice in rural schools need to be improved. Research has indicated that due to
inefficiency in these methods, students are unable to enhance their academic skills. The
students studying the class five are unable to read class three textbooks. This shows that
teaching-learning methods that are made use of are not put into operation in a well-organized
manner. It is the job of the teachers to ensure that teaching-learning methods are efficiently

32
utilized. The teachers employed in rural schools normally do not possess the required
educational qualifications and skills that are needed to facilitate learning among students.
Hence, lack of skills and abilities on the part of the teachers is a major cause for the
implementation of unsatisfactory teaching-learning methods.

Lack of Transportation Facilities – The schools are located at a distance from homes
and lack of transportation facilities is regarded as a major impediment within the course of
acquisition of education. The rural schools do not make provision of any transportation
facilities for the students, particularly, those residing at a distance. Students, particularly,
enrolled in elementary and junior schools need to be dependent upon their family members to
take them to schools and bring them back. Whereas, students enrolled in secondary and
senior secondary schools, usually arrange transportation facilities for themselves on their
own. In some cases, students go to school and return home along with the fellow students and
this alleviates the concern on the part of their parents. But when they do not have fellow
students, travelling by the same distance, then they usually experience problems in
transporting to schools. Hence, lack of transportation facilities is a problem within the course
of getting enrolled in schools.

Lack of Infrastructure – Proper infrastructure enables the individuals to acquire

academic skills in an appropriate manner. It includes, furniture, machinery, heating and
cooling equipment in accordance to the weather conditions, amenities and facilities. In rural
schools, students sit on the floor, as there are not any chairs or desks within the classrooms.
When there is lack of furniture, then students may learn, while sitting on the floor. But when
there is lack of machinery, technology and equipment, then they are normally are unable to
acquire an understanding of the academic concepts in an efficient manner. In some cases,
when there are not proper construction of classrooms, then learning may take place in the
courtyard or underneath the trees. Hence, lack of infrastructure is regarded as one of the
major problems in rural schools.

Lack of Extra-Curricular Activities – Students belonging to all age-groups and

backgrounds take pleasure in the acquisition of education, especially, when there are
adequate provision of extra-curricular activities. These include, dance, music, singing, sports,
physical activities, role plays and so forth. When the students participate in these activities,
then they develop motivation and enthusiasm towards learning. In rural schools, there are
lack of extra-curricular activities, which is regarded as a hindrance in making provision of

33
good quality education to the students. In the curriculum and instructional systems, they are
only provided adequate information in terms of academic concepts. In other words, there is
not any provision of supplemental education.

Lack of Financial Resources – Financial resources are considered to be of utmost

significance within the course of development of the system of education. To make provision
of appropriate teaching-learning methods, learning materials, infrastructure, civic amenities
and facilities and to bring about improvements in the overall quality of education, it is
essential to possess sufficient financial resources. In rural schools, there are shortage of
funds, due to which, the individuals are able to make quality education available. In some
cases, the school environmental conditions are in a deprived state, as there are lack of
furniture, equipment, blackboards etc. Hence, it can be stated that due to lack of financial
resources, necessary equipment and materials are not available to the students in enhancing
their learning.

Absence of Competitions and Events – Competitions and events are considered an

integral part of education. The competitions are organized with regards to various areas, such
as, academics, sports, physical activities, dance, music, singing, role plays, poetry and so
forth. Participation in competitions augment the skills and abilities among the students and
stimulate their mind-sets towards learning. Furthermore, students are able to develop
effective communication skills and put in more confidence among themselves to improve. In
rural schools, there are absence of competitions and events. When these are to be organized,
then it is vital for the teachers as well as the staff members to possess adequate skills and
knowledge. The absence of competitions and events is regarded as the major barrier within
the course of acquisition of education.

Shortage of Teachers – In order to facilitate education, it is essential to recruit

qualified and capable teachers. The teachers are vested with the responsibility to provide
educational knowledge and concepts to the students to promote their growth and development
in an effective manner. In nursery schools, normally all subjects are taught to the students by
a single teacher, but in elementary, junior, secondary and senior secondary schools, the
teachers are usually specialised in terms of one subject area. The shortage of teachers in rural
schools is a major barrier within the course of development of the system of education. It is
apparent, when well-qualified, skilled and experienced teachers are not present, then the
students would certainly experience problems in the acquisition of education.

34
 Low Income – The teachers in rural schools do not get paid much for their job duties.
In other words, their income is insufficient to meet their livelihoods requirements. It has been
comprehensively understood that individuals get engaged in employment opportunities to
acquire income to sustain their living conditions in a well-organized manner. When the
teachers work hard in the implementation of job duties and do not get paid much, then they
usually lose interest. They tend to leave their jobs and look for other well-paid employment
opportunities. It has been found that individuals do not possess interest and enthusiasm in
obtaining teaching positions in rural schools. When they develop interest in teaching, then
they usually migrate to urban areas, as schools in urban communities are well-developed,
have an improved system of education and teachers are paid well.

Conflicts and Disputes – Research has indicated that in rural schools, there are
occurrence of conflicting situations and disputes among the students as well as teachers and
students. Teachers normally depict strictness and stringent behaviour upon students for
various reasons, such as, not completing their home-work assignments, low grades in tests
and exams, high rate of absenteeism, and so forth. When students experience conflicts and
disputes in schools or harsh treatment on the part of the teachers, then they normally drop out
of schools, even before their educational skills are honed. On the other hand, when
unfavourable situations are observed on the part of the fellow students, then too, students,
particularly girls feel vulnerable in attending schools and the ultimate outcome is school
drop-out.

Discriminatory Treatment – The girls are the ones, who experience discriminatory
treatment within schools in rural areas. When teachers are teaching a lesson plan and there
are organization of any activities, related to it, then boys are given preference. Equal
opportunities are not provided to the girls, as they are provided to the boys. Hence, mainly
due to this factor, girls are being discriminated against. When there are organization of class
tests or assignments, then normally grading takes place on the basis of one’s performance.
But apart from enhancement of academic skills, students also need to augment their
cognitive, intellectual and communicative skills. For this purpose, it is vital for them to
participate in various activities and programs that are organized within schools. When girls
are not provided with opportunities, then they feel, they are being discriminated against.

Measures to Improve Rural Education

35
 The measures which are required to be initiated to bring about improvements in the
system of education have been stated as follows:

Up-gradation of Teaching-Learning Methods – The teaching-learning methods need

to be implemented in accordance to the needs and requirements of the students. The different
types of teaching-learning methods are, giving notes regarding lesson plans, making the
students read and then provide verbal explanations, providing explanations of the concepts on
the blackboards, making the students play the role of characters within the lesson plans,
giving practice exercises, organizing tests and so forth. When the teachers make use of
different teaching-learning methods, they need to possess efficient skills and ensure students
learn adequately. Up-gradation of teaching-learning methods is one of the essential aspects to
improve rural system of education. But on the part of the students also, it is vital to pay
adequate attention, particularly when they are learning academic concepts.

Use of Technology – In the present existence, technology has gained prominence in

the implementation of various tasks and activities. In education also at all levels, use of
technology is rendering a significant contribution in augmenting learning and understanding
among students. It is comprehensively used in urban educational institutions, but in rural
schools, there is still lack of technology. Therefore, making use of technology in the system
of education is regarded important. The various types of technologies, such as, computers,
lap-tops, projectors, smartphones, mobile apps and so forth would facilitate understanding of
the concepts. The students as well as the teachers make use of internet to enhance knowledge
in terms of various concepts. Both central and state governments and non-government
organizations are allocating a great amount for the development of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) and rural education (Roy, 2012). The staff members also
make use of technology to carry out the administrative functions. This is common in
educational institutions in urban areas. When one has to prepare a document, letter, notice or
send messages or information, then technology is made use of to a major extent. Due to lack
of technology, the education system in rural areas is experiencing set-backs.

Organization of Workshops – Workshops are normally organized in urban schools

and higher educational institutions on a large scale. They are organized in terms of a
particular topic or concept, which students normally find complicated. The main objective of
organization of workshop is to make provision of knowledge to the students to enrich their
understanding. In rural schools, it is vital to organize workshops to facilitate understanding of

36
the concepts among the students, which they find difficult. In workshops, usually
professionals are invited from other educational institutions. They deliver speeches, provide
information and generate awareness, which enables the students to understand better.
Assignments too are provided to the students, with the aim of finding out how much they
have learned and understood. Therefore, it can be stated that organization of workshops is
regarded as one of the essential aspects to improve the system of rural education.

Implementation of Extra-Curricular Activities – In schools, apart from appropriate

teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies, particularly regarding the academic
concepts, it is necessary to implement extra-curricular activities. The provision of extra-
curricular activities stimulates the mind-sets of the students and motivate them towards
learning and attending schools. The various forms of extra-curricular activities that are
considered an integral part of education are, artworks, handicrafts, music, singing, dance,
sports, physical activities, role plays and so forth. When students, belonging to rural
communities for instance, learn making of artworks, handicrafts, or participate in sports,
physical activities or dance and music, then they feel pleasurable and contented. In rural
communities, individuals also develop interest in usually any one of extra-curricular
activities, and make it a career. They put into practice the activities to even supplement their
income.

Implementing Proper Evaluation Procedures – Evaluation is regarded as one of the

essential aspects to find out how much the students have learned and understood. Evaluation
procedures help in identifying the flaws and inconsistencies and making improvements. The
most common forms of evaluation procedures are giving class and home-work assignments,
conducting tests, exams, competitions and so forth. In rural schools, exams are conducted, but
the system of examinations is not well-developed. It is essential to put into operation, proper
evaluation procedures. The teachers need to ensure that when they complete the lesson plan
of any subject, they give class as well as home-work assignments to the students. When the
students perform well, then it is understood that they are making use of teaching-learning
methods in an appropriate manner. On the other hand, when students experience set-backs,
then it is essential to bring about improvements in teaching-learning methods. Hence,
implementation of proper evaluation methods would not only facilitate improvements in the
performance of the students, but also in the teaching methods.

37
 Rewarding Students – Rewarding students, particularly when they perform well
academically is regarded as an important aspect to improve the system of education. The
main objective of education is to lead to effective growth and development of the students.
When they get enrolled in schools and work diligently and enthusiastically to enhance their
academic performance, then it is vital for the teachers to reward them. Rewards may be in the
form of sweets, stationary items, writing appreciative statements on the notebooks and so
forth. When the students are given rewards, then they feel pleasurable and motivated towards
learning. Research has indicated that through rewards, students feel encouraged towards
attending schools on a regular basis and this leads to a decline in the rate of absenteeism as
well.

Providing Adequate Infrastructure – Making provision of adequate infrastructure

would render an effective contribution in facilitating not only acquisition of education among
the students, but also assisting teachers as well as the staff members to carry out their job
duties appropriately. In schools, availability of proper furniture, desks and chairs, heating and
cooling equipment in accordance to the weather conditions, machinery, technology, learning
materials, such as, blackboards, books, stationary and so forth, would not only augment
understanding of academic concepts among the students, but also enable them to feel
pleasurable and contented within the school environment. The infrastructural facilities in
schools contribute in making the school environmental conditions pleasant and amiable.

Financial Assistance – Individuals normally feel hesitant in getting enrolled in

schools due to financial problems. Therefore, making provision of financial assistance is
regarded to be of utmost significance that would encourage enrolment of students in schools.
This is made available in the form of scholarships and grants. Scholarships are made
available to the students, usually on the basis of their merit. When they perform well in class,
achieve good grades, then they are made available scholarships and other forms of financial
assistance. Apart from scholarships, the forms of assistance is provided to the students in the
form of mid-day meals. The schools provide nutritious meals to the students, so they do not
have to be concerned regarding getting meals from homes. The availability of financial
assistance provides contentment to the individuals, mainly belonging to deprived and
marginalized sections of the society.

Equal Opportunities – In schools, it is vital to make provision of equal opportunities

to girls. These may be in terms of participation in classroom activities or when there are

38
organization of any competitions and events. Rural schools are primarily co-ed, i.e. when
girls and boys, are enrolled in schools. Hence, it is vital for the teachers to ensure that girls
too are treated equally and they should be allowed equal participation opportunities as the
boys, especially in the implementation of lesson plans. Another point that is essential to be
taken into consideration is, girls should be treated with respect and courtesy. Research has
indicated that lack of equal opportunities and discriminatory treatment against the girls also
compel them to drop out of schools, even before their educational skills are honed. Therefore,
for leading to progress of the schools and enhancement of the system of education, it is
necessary to make provision of equal opportunities.

Organization of Classes for the Parents - In rural communities, parents are in some
cases unwilling to get their children enrolled in schools, particularly girls. They possess the
viewpoint that girls are meant to acquire training in terms of the implementation of household
chores, as they have to eventually get married and go to marital homes. They possess the
viewpoint that in their marital homes, they would not be able to make use of their educational
skills and abilities. On the other hand, they believe in sending their male children to schools
and augment their academic skills and abilities. They feel that male children would acquire
employment opportunities and enhance the reputation of their families, when they acquire
education. Therefore, to enable the parents to encourage education among girls is necessary
not only for development of the system of education, but also overall rural development.
Hence, the main purpose of organization of classes for the parents is to enable them to
recognize the significance of education for their children and how it can lead to
improvements in their overall quality of lives.

Programs Formulated by the Government

For promoting the significance of education throughout the country, there has been
implementation of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. It is
an act that was introduced to make provision of free and compulsory education to the
children, belonging to the age group of six to fourteen years. Several central and state level
initiatives have been in operation from the early 1980s. The major objectives include,
increasing enrolment of girls, enhancement of academic outcomes, reinforcement of
community involvement, improving teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies
and augmenting the skills and abilities among the teachers by making provision of in-service

39
teacher training (Sreekanthachari, & Nagaraja, 2013). Some of the programs have been stated
as follows: (Sreekanthachari, & Nagaraja, 2013).

Lok Jumbish Project (LJ)

The Lok Jumbish (LJ) project has 75 blocks, covering approximately 12 million of the
population. LJ project works in co-ordination with the government agencies, teachers, non-
government organizations, elected representatives and other individuals, with the aim of
promoting universalization of primary education. The seven guiding principles are, a process
rather than a product approach, partnerships, decentralized functioning, participatory
learning, integration with the mainstream education system, flexibility of management and
forming multiple levels of leadership, committed to quality and mission mode. LJ progressed
close to about two decades of work in the areas of primary education. The functions were
carried out both by the Government and voluntary sectors. The Shiksha Karmi of Rajasthan,
could be considered as the indicators of the programs within the state (Ramachandran, 2003).

Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP)

The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) is being implemented since 1987. The assistance is
available from the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). It aims
at the universalization of elementary primary education in the remote villages of Rajasthan.
Special emphasis was put upon girls. The SKP was based upon the advanced, economical and
practical approach. It was originally developed in the Silora Block by the Social Work
Research Centre (SWRC), a voluntary group in Tilonia and the Government of Rajasthan
(Chapter – II. Primary Education in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, n.d.). SKP has
established the Village Education Committees (VECs) in 2000 villages to promote
community involvement in primary education and promote village level planning. Non-
formal classes are also organized by SKP, which are known as preher pathshalas. The
education among girls is encouraged by the organization of angan pathshalas in three blocks.
The program at present covers 1,50,000 students in 1,785 schools and 3,250 preher
pathshalas, involving more than 4,271 shiksha karmis.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

The major objective of this program is all children, belonging to the age group of six
to eleven years, should complete primary education by 2007. Whereas, all children,
belonging to the age group of six to fourteen years should complete eight years of schooling

40
by 2010. Special emphasis is put upon education of girls, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes
and children with special needs. The SSA centres are mainly established in those areas, which
do not have any schools. Special girl oriented programs include, girl education at elementary
level, National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL), Kasturba
Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) and Mahila Samkhaya Scheme.

District Primary Education Program (DPEP)

This program was initiated in 1994 with the main objective of universalization of
primary education. The main features of this program are, universal access, universal
retention and universal achievement. It aims that primary education should be accessible to
each and every child of school going age. Once the child gets enrolled in school, he should be
retained. The major components of this program are, construction of classrooms and new
schools, opening of non-formal schooling centres, establishing early childhood education
centres, recruitment of teachers and providing education to disabled children. The number of
schools that have been opened under this program are, 1,60,000 and 84,000 alternative
schools. Furthermore, planning is implemented for the construction of 52,758 schools. The
disabled students that have been enrolled in schools are, 4,20,203.

National Program for Nutritional Support to Primary Education

This program was initiated on 15th August, 1995 with the main objective of increasing
enrolment, retention and attendance in primary schools by providing nutritional meals to
children. The outcomes of this scheme has been positive. By 1997-1998, the scheme was
introduced in all blocks of the country. The number of children covered accounted for around
110 million. It is implemented for the students, belonging to classes, I-V. It was further
extended in 2002, to cover the children, studying in the centres, operated under the Education
Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative and Innovative Education Scheme (AIE). The
central assistance under the scheme included, free supply of food grains, i.e. 100 grams per
child per school day and subsidy for transportation of food grains up to a maximum of Rs.
50,000 per quintal (National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education, 2006).

Operation Blackboard

One of the important objectives of educational development is Universalization of

Elementary Education. Making provision of free and compulsory education to all children, up
to the age of 14 years is included in the guiding principles of Indian Constitution and is also a

41
part of the Minimum Needs Program and 20-Point Program. The primary objective in the
educational policy, declared by the central government in 1986, was making provision of free
and compulsory education to all children, up to the age of 14 years by 1995. Operation
Blackboard is the scheme formulated to achieve the goal (Operation Blackboard Scheme,
n.d.). This scheme was initiated in 1987 with the main objective of bringing about
improvements in the school environmental conditions. Another important area that was taken
into consideration was retention and augmentation of academic skills among the students.
This program has led to improvements in primary education to a large extent. During the
initial stage, the number of schools covered were 5,23,000.

Recommendations

Education is regarded as the key to alleviate poverty and backwardness. The school
going children within rural communities are also residing in the conditions of poverty. Due to
the prevalence of the conditions of poverty, they are compelled to work and not get enrolled
in schools (Shahapur, & Omprakash, 2017). The value of education has been
comprehensively recognised among rural individuals (Motiram, & Osberg, n.d.). They aspire
to get their children enrolled in schools, but when they are overwhelmed by the conditions of
poverty or experience severe financial problems, then they are regarded as major
impediments within the course of acquisition of education. The recommendations for
bringing about improvements in rural education and encouraging the families as well as the
students to get enrolled in schools have been stated as follows:

The specialists and the professionals, who are involved in rural development need to
conduct an analysis of the rural environmental conditions. Both physical and cultural
environmental conditions need to be taken into account. When the designing and
implementation of the projects takes place, then it is vital to ensure that the environmental
conditions will be able to cope up with the projects in an appropriate manner (Moulton,
2001).

The communities should be encouraged to use the schools as the centre for education
and social activities, beyond the primary schools. The school environmental conditions
should be made hospitable for the organization of adult literacy classes, extension activities,
women’s groups, community functions and other activities and events. In this manner, the
school gets transformed into a multi-function learning or a meeting centre (Moulton, 2001).

42
 The parents and teachers should get involved into interaction with each other on a
timely basis. This interaction would facilitate effective learning and augmentation of skills
and abilities among the students. When students experience setbacks in their performances,
then parents as well as the teachers can provide each other suggestions, with the common
purpose of generating good academic outcomes on the part of the students.

Within some schools, there are provision of mid-day meals, whereas in some, students
are required to bring their meals from homes. But in most of the rural schools, there is lack of
civic amenities, such as, restrooms and clean drinking water. The students normally are
required to stay in schools for around five to six hours. Hence, it is of utmost significance for
the schools to provide basic civic amenities for the students, as well as for teachers and staff
members.

The schools should provide the resources for teaching students regarding the rural
environment, agricultural skills and other practical skills and knowledge. The teachers should
train students in terms of preservation of the environment and how to keep the environment
clean. The rural communities are normally dependent upon the natural environmental
conditions. Hence, they need to be aware of methods and strategies, in terms of its
preservation.

Appreciating the efforts of students is also regarded as an important aspect, mainly to

arouse interest and enthusiasm among them towards learning. For this purpose, rewards and
scholarships are provided to the students in various forms. These include, giving of stationary
items, bags, food items or monetary resources. Appreciation and rewards leads to an increase
in the retention of students in schools and decline in the rate of absenteeism.

There are number of children within rural communities, who are unable to attend
schools, due to lack of transportation facilities. Therefore, in order to increase the enrolment
of students in schools, it is vital to make provision of transportation facilities. When there
will be availability of buses, then large number of students will easily be able to transfer to
school and back home. This would lead to an increase in enrolment and decline in the rate of
absenteeism.

In rural schools, apart from providing knowledge and information to the students in
terms of academic skills, it is necessary to organize activities and picnics. In the organization
of activities and picnics, it is vital to ensure that students are able to acquire an efficient

43
understanding of the academic concepts, as well as take pleasure in participation. This would
lead to an increase in the retention rate of students.

Implementation of policies and rules among schools is an essential aspect. When

educational institutions are established within rural communities, then it is essential to ensure
that adequate policies and rules are formulated. Policies and rules would make the individuals
disciplined. These would not only enable the individuals to carry out their job duties in an
appropriate manner, but also inculcate the traits of morality, ethics, righteousness and honesty
among themselves.

In rural schools, girls have experienced various forms of criminal acts too, such as,
sexual harassment, verbal abuse, and discriminatory treatment. Hence, policies should be
formulated that would enable the girls to feel comfortable within the school environment.
Equal rights and opportunities should be provided to them and they should be communicated
with respect and courtesy. Furthermore, there should not be any kind of discrimination on the
basis of caste, creed, race, religion, gender, age, ethnicity and socio-economic background.

Conclusion

Education is regarded as an instrument that leads to effective growth and development

of the individuals and enable them to sustain their living conditions adequately. The system
of rural education is not in a well-developed state and there are number of problems
associated with it. These include, unsatisfactory teaching-learning methods, lack of
transportation facilities, lack of infrastructure, lack of extra-curricular activities, lack of
financial resources, absence of competitions and events, shortage of teachers, low income,
conflicts and disputes and discriminatory treatment. The lack of resources is one of the major
problems, which include, financial resources and human resources. Due to lack of resources,
schools are experiencing problems in making advancements in the system of education.
These problems and challenges are imposing number of unfavourable effects upon the
students. As a result of these problems, there is a decline in the retention rate of the students,
increase in the rate of absenteeism, and girls, when experience discriminatory treatment or
any form of criminal act, usually drop out, before their educational skills are honed.

There is a need to formulate measures for bringing about improvements in the system
of rural education. These are, up-gradation of teaching-learning methods, use of technology,
organization of workshops, implementation of extra-curricular activities, implementing

44
proper evaluation procedures, rewarding students, providing adequate infrastructure, financial
assistance, equal opportunities, and organization of classes for the parents. When these
measures would be put into operation in an appropriate manner, then improvements would be
bought about in the system of rural education. There have been programs formulated by the
government for bringing about improvements in rural education. These are, Lok Jumbish
Project (LJ), Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), District Primary
Education Program (DPEP), National Program for Nutritional Support to Primary Education
and Operation Blackboard. With the initiation of measures and programs on the part of the
government, non-government organizations and other agencies, there have been
improvements made in the system of rural education. The Right to Education Act (2009)
makes provision of free and compulsory education to all children, belonging to the age group
of six to fourteen years.

Chapter 4. Science and Technology in Rural Areas

Science and technology renders a significant contribution in bringing about

improvements in various areas. The significance of science and technology is widely
recognized with the main purpose of leading to effective progress and development of the
country. The development of rural areas is indispensable for leading to progress of the entire

45
country. Therefore, it is vital to understand how science and technology are rendering an
effective contribution towards bringing about development of the rural environmental
conditions as well as the communities. It is the utilization, enhancement and protection of the
natural, physical and human resources that would be needed to make long-term
improvements in the rural environmental conditions. The significance of science and
technology in bringing about progression of rural communities was acknowledged by
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, in 1930s (Deshmane, 2016). In rural communities, it was
believed that when science and technology would be effectively made use of in various
sectors, then it would augment profitability.

Agriculture and farming practices are regarded as the major occupations of the
individuals, belonging to rural communities. Apart from getting involved in the agricultural
sector, the rural individuals are involved in the production and manufacturing of handicrafts,
artworks, food items and so forth. When they would put into operation, science and
technology within the agricultural sector, then they would not only be able to enhance
productivity, but also bring about improvements within their overall quality of lives. The
implementation of science and technology makes the job duties of the individuals more
manageable. Before the advent of machines, the individuals were meant to carry out all tasks
and activities manually. But with the introduction of machines, they just need to possess
appropriate knowledge and skills to perform the job duties in a well-organised manner. In
rural communities, there are establishment of training centres, where individuals are able to
acquire training regarding science and technology. It has been recognized, when they make
adequate use of science and technology in the implementation of job duties, then they are
able to attain better livelihoods opportunities.

Significance of Science and Technology

The significance of science and technology has been recognized in leading to progress
of various areas, including industrial development, rural development, development of
education, agriculture, managerial functions, administration and leadership, natural
environmental conditions and so forth. In the present existence, the significance of
technology is comprehensively recognized that individuals are making use of them in the
implementation of various tasks and activities. When the individuals are required to
communicate with others or prepare a document or report or even pay a utility bill, they make
use of technology to a major extent. Individuals, belonging to urban as well as rural

46
communities are aspiring to make a career in this field. Hence, in higher educational
institutions, they take up science subjects or pursue Bachelors or Masters in technology.

When acquiring an understanding of usage of science and technology in the context of

rural development, it is vital to take into consideration the agricultural sector. In the
agricultural sector, the services or the functions that are closely related to science and
technology are, access to information through various types of Agricultural Information
Systems (AIS), monitoring the situation of natural resources, information processing tools are
made use of in the analysis of the environment, soil erosion, etc. Education and
Communication Technologies are rendering a significant contribution in the generation of
new approaches to learning, knowledge management, and networking. Science and
technology can render a significant contribution to facilitate the emergence of virtual
communities and stakeholders that generate and exchange information and knowledge among
themselves. Through the Decision Support Systems (DSS), data and information provide
relevant knowledge inputs for informed decision making. These tools are contributing an
important part in converting information systems into knowledge systems (Deshmane, 2016).

Approach and Drive

The new developments that are taking place in biotechnology, space research, micro-
electronics and computers are the major technologies, which are going to be of primary
assistance in the development of rural communities. Science and technology is important for
bringing about rural development, but these fields are not solely important. In other words,
there are other aspects also that need to be taken into account. In order to bring about actual
development of rural areas, it is vital to put the individuals and their environment on the path
of development. In this manner, rural individuals too will be able to contribute effectively
towards development (Kalbag, n.d.) The approach and drive has been highlighted in the
areas, which have been stated as follows: (Chapter-10, n.d.).

Recognizing that in the globally integrated knowledge-based world, the comparative

advantage is shifting to those, with the ability of absorbing, assimilating and adopting
developments in science and technology, with the objective of bringing about national
development. The tenth plan will give special thrust to the sector by leveraging the strong
institutional framework, built up in the post-independent India.

47
 The approach in the tenth plan would be to put greater emphasis on the development
of indigenous technologies and primary focus was put upon the usage of latest technologies.
Significant efforts will be made in those areas, where India has a competitive edge globally
and science and technology can be advantageous to the individuals to a major extent. This
would put emphasis upon the development of innovative technologies with the main purpose
of leading to progress of not only the rural communities, but country as a whole. The main
areas, which are needed to be improved are, agriculture, education, employment
opportunities, governance, administration and so forth.

Indian exports in the present existence, derive their competitive advantage on the
basis of inexpensive labour and abundance of natural resources. The exports within the
country do not have a significant amount of technologically-intensive products. There is a
need to be bring about a change in such situation. Therefore, emphasis is put upon the export
of technology and hi-tech products.

The tenth plan will give high priority to technologies that are dedicated towards
promoting well-being of the individuals. These include, technologies that provide creative
and cost-effective solutions in health services, population management, mitigating the effects
of natural hazards, conservation of land, water and energy resources and their integrated
management to promote sustainable development. The individuals, residing in rural and tribal
communities are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions, for meeting their
livelihoods requirements. Therefore, it is vital for them to generate awareness in terms of
preservation of the environment.

In science and technology, the development of human resources is regarded to be of

utmost significance. In the present existence, the individuals belonging to rural communities
are developing interest in the fields of science and technology. These fields render a
significant contribution in the development of communities as well. In rural schools, science
is taught and technology is also being made use of in teaching-learning methods and in the
implementation of administrative and managerial functions.

While building on the comparative advantage that India possesses in the emerging
areas of information technology (IT) and biotechnology, special emphasis need to be put
upon agriculture and agro-based industries. In addition, the other areas that need to be taken
into consideration are, energy, transportation, communication and housing. The problems and
concerns that are associated with science and technology are integrated into various policies

48
and programs. These cover economic energy, environmental and other socio-economic
sectors. The integration will be reflected in the identification of economic factors, choices of
technologies and investments and interventions in the individual sectors.

In the present liberalized competitive environment, industry should pay much

attention to the external sources of technology. Measures need to be put into practice to
upgrade technology. When advancements would take place in technology, then it would
contribute efficaciously in bringing about improvements in the livelihoods opportunities of
the individuals. The most significant aspect is, when rural artisans, craftsmen, farmers and
other individuals will make use of technology in their tasks and activities, then they would be
able to augment productivity.

At the macro level, science and technology management should put emphasis upon
meeting the needs and requirements of the individuals within rural communities. The
individuals were encouraged to get enrolled into training centres, where they would be able to
enhance their skills and abilities in terms of usage of technology. Wide range of activities are
included, these are, basic research, applied research, technology transfer, design,
development, fabrication, tests and trials, manufacturing, marketing, maintenance and
product support during the life cycle.

The transfer of technology to the industry is regarded as another important area.

Research and development and academic institutions should give recognition to the design
and product engineering aspects, and the application and upgrading of technology on a
continuous basis should take place satisfactorily. Interaction that takes place with the
industry, should not come to an end with the transfer of technology. But the organizations
and the agencies that are providing technology need to establish communication with the user
industry for problem solving, technology absorption and up-gradation.

In rural communities, it is vital to conduct an analysis of the areas, which need to be

developed. There are number of areas which need to be improved. Therefore, it is vital for the
individuals to find out how and in what ways, technologies need to be made use of to bring
about progression of various areas. These include, education, training, administration,
agriculture, farming, animal husbandry, silk weaving, manufacturing of food items and so
forth.

Special emphasis need to be put upon identifying, promoting and supporting grass
root interventions, adding value to them and disseminating them to ensure that the impact of

49
such innovations is reflected in bringing about improvements in the livelihoods opportunities
of majority of individuals, belonging to rural communities. Efforts need to be made to make
use of energy saving tools, machinery and equipment. In the implementation of household
chores also, rural individuals are made aware in terms of usage of technologies. For instance,
traditional mud stoves have been replaced by gas stoves. As a result of which, there is a
decline in air pollution and improvements in health and well-being of the individuals.

International co-operation in science and technology is regarded as the mechanism to

facilitate effective communication between scientific researchers. Their communication
primarily focuses upon, upgrading and refining the knowledge base, develop modern and
innovative technical methods and take mutual advantage of the complementary technological
and scientific capabilities. This helps in the creation of national science and technology
assets, through the optimum utilization of the available resources. The major aim is to build
the capability levels among the individuals, in terms of skills, knowledge, and how they get
involved in the exchange of information. Rural individuals are mainly residing in the
conditions of backwardness. Hence, it is vital to formulate measures to enable them to
overcome vulnerability and apprehensiveness and develop effective communication skills.

Technologies for Rural India

When acquiring information in terms of technologies for rural India, it is vital to take
into consideration important areas. These are, one should be aware, how it would be
beneficial to the society, in which it is been introduced, how does it bring about improvement
in productivity, does it enhance or undermine employment opportunities for the individuals,
and the fourth criterion deals with the democratization of the technology control and the
decision making process. Health and medical facilities are important for individuals,
belonging to all age groups and backgrounds. Therefore, it is vital to make use of
technologies in these areas in order to provide better assistance and services to the rural
individuals. When the rural individuals are making use of technology, whether it is in the
field of agriculture, farming practices or production and manufacturing of certain items, then
it is essential for them to possess adequate knowledge and information. The major
contributions of technologies is to preserve employment opportunities, augment productivity,
demonstrate their usefulness and be in control of the individuals (Rural Technologies, 2006).

India has more than 6,30,000 villages. Each village has an average population of
about 1200. A high population density is regarded as a distinctive feature of rural India. A

50
significant portion of the villages do not have a telephone connection. Whereas, internet
connection is available in less than one percent of the villages. In rural India, individuals are
residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness. In most of the households, the
income is below 3000 rupees per month, which amounts to Rs. 600 per capita per month. It is
apparent that in such a meagre income, it is difficult for the individuals to meet the needs and
requirements of themselves and their families. It is major challenge to make provision of
telephone and internet services to every household within rural communities. Internet and
telephony are regarded as powerful tools that would promote empowerment of rural
individuals. The major challenges that are encountered are socio-economic barriers,
geographical distances and lack of resources (Rural Technologies, 2006).

The rural individuals are engaged in different professions. These include, artisans,
craftsmen, potters, silk weavers, agricultural labourers, farmers, factory workers, and so forth.
In the implementation of various tasks and activities, they are making use of technologies.
With advancements and modernization taking place, rural individuals have generated
awareness regarding the fact that when they will make use of technologies in the
implementation of tasks and activities, then they would augment productivity and their living
conditions. For instance, in the agricultural sector, wealthy farmers are making use of
technology in cultivation methods, irrigation and so forth. Whereas, small farmers are still
making use of traditional methods, as they are unaware of modern and innovative techniques
and methods. Similarly in the manufacturing and production of handicrafts and artworks,
animal husbandry and in the implementation of other activities, individuals are making use of
technologies.

In the present existence, technologies are contributing an important part in

establishing connections between regions, towns and villages. Private telecom operators, such
as, Reliance, Tata and Bharati and organizations such as, Railtel have laid fibre to establish a
connection between towns. Nearly 85 percent of the rural areas are situated within 15 to 20
km radius of these taluka towns. There was establishment of a wireless system with a radius
of coverage of about 20 km in these towns, to form connections between almost all villages.
In the present existence, wireless systems may cost about Rs. 10,000 per line, including
towers and deployment and can make provision of telecom and internet connectivity with a
20 km radius. Wireless technologies that further causes a reduction in the costs and increase
bit-rate are evolving every year. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and
Multiple Input Multiple Output Antenna System (MIMO) based technologies can bring about

51
rural connectivity, even more in the years to come. Most of the rural India can be connected
by broadband technologies (Rural Technologies, 2006).

Technology is regarded as the beginning. In order to make provision of internet

facilities in rural areas, there is a need for the innovative business model. Commercial
delivery is regarded as essential, since in the long run, the funded models drain financial
resources and are neither scalable nor sustainable. An example of one such business model is
n-Logue Communications Private Limited. It was incubated by the TeNeT group of IIT-M
with the main objective to significantly enhance the quality of life of every individual,
residing in rural communities. This is implemented by establishing a network of wirelessly
connected internet kiosks throughout the country. N-Logue Business model involves Internet
Kiosk Owners (KO) in all rural areas, who are provided a multi-media PC, a UPS with a
battery, a digital camera, printer and a wireless subscriber unit with related accessories. The
total cost of this equipment and marketing kit, local language software, training and internet
connection for the first six months of operation is approximately Rs. 50,000 (Rural
Technologies, 2006).

Education is regarded as the major field that requires technology. In rural schools,
though the system of education is not in a well-developed state, but it is vital to make use of
technologies to enrich the system of education. In rural schools, science is taught to the
students. Since, rural individuals experience shortage of amenities and usually obtain water
from the water bodies that are located nearby. Hence, preservation of the environmental
conditions is an important area, regarding which the students are trained. In schools,
technologies are being made use of with the purpose of augmenting the skills and knowledge
of the students. Another important area is health care. In the medical and health care sector, it
is vital to make use of technologies. The health care services have been enhanced by the
development of the tele-medicine kit, which allows the patients to transmit important
parameters, such as, blood pressure, pulse rate, temperature and ECG online to the doctors,
who are located at remote distances. It has been piloted in few areas, but has shown only
limited results, despite the fact that many of the rural areas do not have proper health care and
medical facilities (Rural Technologies, 2006).

Role of Information and Communication Technology in Rural

Development

52
 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has rendered a valuable
contribution for providing solutions to the development related issues and problems within
the society. Furthermore, they have assisted in carrying out tasks and functions successfully
in the areas of agriculture, education, industries, banking, governance, business, health,
tourism and so forth. This has been put into operation in rural as well as in urban
communities. Therefore, ICT is regarded as the most important and valuable aspect of all
human beings and the societies in which they live. ICT consists of hardware, software,
networks and media for collection, storage, processing, transmission and presentation of
information, voice, data, text and images. Information is disseminated and promoted using
communication and transmitted through technology. The various devices that are made use of
are, telephone, television, video, tele tax, voice information systems and fax, as well as those,
requiring the use of the personal computer, fitted with the modem. The dial up services that
can be made use of include, electronic banking, file exchange, and closed information
services (Newase, Sheetlani, & Patil, 2017). The aspects that signify the role of ICT in rural
development have been stated as follows:

Development of Knowledge – The modern technology and computer dominated

technology will replace the conventional production technologies in a rapid manner. But
basically their value is as information processors and concluded that all developed would be
dependent upon the knowledge and information. The transfer and the dissemination of
knowledge is regarded as the most complicated aspect, particularly within rural communities.
For promoting rural development, it is necessary to make use of computers and other forms
of technologies. Internet is regarded as the most significant, through which individuals are
able to generate awareness and develop knowledge in terms of all areas and subjects
(Newase, Sheetlani, & Patil, 2017).

Productivity of Economic Activities – The information and communication

technologies are rendering a significant contribution in promoting productivity of economic
activities. When certain policies and strategies need to be formulated to carry out any
economic tasks and activities, then it is vital for the individuals to possess adequate
knowledge and skills. Augmentation of the capacity to disseminate valuable knowledge, to
facilitate reliable village data collection and analysis needed for development planning are
important areas that need to be taken into consideration by rural individuals. Rural
communities and individuals need to be empowered and this can be efficaciously done by
enhancing their capacity and skills development (Newase, Sheetlani, & Patil, 2017).

53
 Leisure and Recreation – Among rural individuals, there is generation of awareness in
terms of usage of digital technology. They are making use of technologies for leisure and
recreational purposes as well. Individuals, who usually stay at home and are not involved in
any tasks and activities, they normally make use of mobile phones for leisure and recreational
purposes. Elderly individuals watch movies, shows and other programs on their mobile
phones, listen to music and feel pleasurable. Making use of mobile phones for
communication purposes is regarded as the most common purpose of technology. Apart from
speaking to other individuals on phone, rural individuals are also acquiring information
regarding sending messages.

Mobile Connectivity – Mobile connectivity is regarded as one of the aspects that are
used to bring about transformation in rural India (Newase, Sheetlani, & Patil, 2017). In
simple terms, it is regarded as establishing connections between individuals as well as the
groups of individuals through the use of mobile phones. It has proved to be advantageous to a
major extent in number of aspects within rural communities. In other words, mobile
connectivity has led to improvements in the living conditions of the individuals on a large
scale. These include, rural productivity, reduction in dependence and can ensure that rural
programs and schemes can be put into operation, in accordance to the planned benefits and
meet the sustainable growth and development of the country.

Education – Education is regarded as the major instrument that leads to growth and
development of the individuals in an effective manner. Furthermore, through the acquisition
of education, one augments his or her skills and abilities to bring about progression in the
overall quality of life. The use of technology in the field of education proves to be beneficial
to not only students, but also teachers. When students are acquiring an understanding of the
academic concepts, then they make use of internet to acquire understanding in terms of
various concepts and topics. Technology can be efficiently be made use of to prepare reports
and documents as well. The administrative staff members in schools are also making use of
technology to carry out various tasks.

Employment Opportunities – In rural areas, individuals are residing in the conditions

of poverty and backwardness. In order to alleviate their conditions of poverty, they aspire to
obtain employment opportunities. Through the use of technology, individuals are generating
awareness in terms of employment opportunities. It has been found, within rural
communities, individuals are making use of technology, particularly when they work from

54
home. Internet is regarded as the major source that makes provision of adequate information,
available to the individuals in terms of various areas and fields, primarily of their own
interest. When rural individuals aspire to migrate to urban areas to look for employment
opportunities, they make use of internet of acquire information.

Development of Agriculture – Agriculture and farming practices are regarded to be of

utmost significance within rural communities. The rural individuals are primarily engaged in
these areas, with the aim of sustaining their livelihoods better. There have been developments
taking place in the agricultural sector and farming practices. Agricultural labourers and
farmers are making use of modern and innovative technologies with the main goal of
augmenting productivity. In the present existence, there have been improvements taking
place in agricultural technologies. When the agricultural labourers and farmers are making
use of technologies, then it is vital for them to possess sufficient knowledge and skills. In
rural communities, there have been establishment of institutions and training centres, which
are providing information to the individuals in terms of usage of technology in agricultural
and farming practices.

Empowerment of Women – ICT has rendered a significant contribution in promoting

empowerment opportunities among rural women. In some rural communities, women and
girls are not given equal status and are discriminated against. Hence, promoting
empowerment opportunities for rural women is regarded as one of the important aspects for
promoting rural development. ICT has a major potential to create employment opportunities
for rural women and also encouraging them towards acquisition of education. Through the
use of ICT, women are generating awareness among themselves in terms of getting enrolled
in educational institutions, with the main aim of improving their academic skills and abilities,
acquiring employment opportunities and obtaining equal rights and opportunities within as
well as outside their homes.

Governance – The governance and implementation of administrative functions within

rural communities are regarded to be of utmost significance. The leaders and the other
individuals, who are carrying out the political functions also are making use of technologies
to generate awareness as well as to put into practice certain methods and approaches. For
instance, when certain communities experience shortage of water, then through the use of
technology, one will be able to generate awareness in terms of the effects that individuals are
experiencing through scarcity of water. Good governance comprises of the implementation of

55
managerial, administrative and leadership functions. ICT can equip the individuals to put into
operation these functions in a well-organized manner.

Health Care and Well-being – In rural communities, there have been establishment of
health care and medical centres. There have been implementation of technologies and modern
and innovative techniques and methods in these centres. These are also made use of by the
medical practitioners and health care specialists to obtain information in terms of various
areas and to go through the case studies. The individuals, belonging to all age groups need
health care and medical facilities. The rural individuals are usually not aware and literate.
They are required to make visits to health care centres and obtain guidance from medical
practitioners. Individuals, belonging to all age groups and backgrounds need health care
facilities.

Technology in Water Management

The major water problem that the country is experiencing is what strategies and
approaches, should it put into practice to manage the available water resources in an
appropriate manner. The management of water resources needs to be done in an efficient
manner to promote economic growth, alleviate poverty and preserve the environmental
conditions. Throughout the country, there has been utilization of water resources, but the
individuals, especially belonging to rural communities do not possess adequate information in
terms of the practices and policies. Trade and business is no longer regarded as an option for
the future of the country. There has been improvement of technology in many water related
areas. This has acquired significance with the development of biotechnology. In India, there
has been an increase in drought and pest resistant crops during the post 2015 period. This can
likely ensure the production of more usable food in the same area of land, by making use of
same or less quantum of water (Rural Technologies, 2006).

A variety of solutions is available for harvesting rain water. This may range from the
construction of dams, small, medium or large, use of tanks and groundwater recharge. The
major issue is, how the rainwater can be conserved, so that it can meet the human needs in an
appropriate manner. India is a large country and it is heterogeneous in nature, due to various
forms of social, political, cultural, economic and climatic conditions. In addition, there are
differences between management and technical capacities from one region to another. All
states are different and they need to adopt different solutions to manage the water resources
in an effectual manner. In the field of rainwater management, one size does not fit all. The

56
implementation of solutions need to take place in an appropriate manner, in accordance to the
specific locations and boundary conditions. Construction of a large dam may be regarded as
the most significant option for harvesting rainwater or groundwater recharge, or use of tanks
or a combination of these alternatives (Rural Technologies, 2006).

In rural areas, to provide solutions to the problems of water, the individuals are
required to meet the expenses involved. They have to meet the costs, either directly or
through the taxes for the privilege of having clean water in their houses and for the disposal
of waste water. In India, proper rural and urban supply of water and sanitation services are
often non-existent and when they exist, they are subsidized. For the provision of clean and
sustainable water in rural areas, it is vital for the rural individuals to consider water pricing,
public and private partnerships, participation of stakeholders and education of the general
public on water conservation and personal hygiene (Rural Technologies, 2006). In rural
areas, one of the unfortunate aspects is, water bodies are polluted to a major extent. This has a
major effect upon the health conditions of the individuals, as number of illnesses and diseases
takes place, due to contaminated water. Therefore, it is vital for them to ensure to keep the
water bodies clean and not dump any waste materials into them.

Conclusion

In the present existence, the fields of science and technologies have acquired
significance in the implementation of various tasks and activities in number of fields. These
include, education, administration, management, marketing, preservation of the environment,
production and so forth. In urban communities, these are made use of by the individuals on a
comprehensive scale. But science and technology has been rendering a significant
contribution in promoting development of rural communities. The major use of science and
technology has been to augment knowledge and awareness among the individuals. The
individuals, who are working towards rural development as well as the rural individuals too
can promote their well-being through science and technology. The role of Information and
Communication Technology in rural development have been highlighted in the areas, which
are, development of knowledge, productivity of economic activities, leisure and recreation,
mobile connectivity, education, employment opportunities, development of agriculture,
empowerment of women, governance and health care and well-being.

In rural India, individuals are mostly employed in the agricultural sector. Their main
objective is to enhance productivity. Therefore, for the purpose of augmenting productivity

57
and profitability, it is essential for them to acquire knowledge in terms of technology. They
put into practice, modern and innovative techniques and methods. Water is regarded as a
basic necessity of all individuals, in urban as well as in rural communities. In rural
communities, individuals mostly experience scarcity of water within their homes. Therefore,
they are dependent upon the water bodies, located nearby for meeting their needs and
requirements. Technology has been made use of, for the purpose of water management. In
schools and training centres, rural individuals need to be provided with appropriate
information in terms of usage of technology. Apart from seeking assistance from other
agencies and organizations, they need to be empowered to make use of technology to
enhance their living conditions.

Chapter 5. Health Care Facilities in Rural Areas

Health care facilities are regarded to be of utmost significance and individuals,

belonging to all age groups and backgrounds need these facilities. Rural health care services
in India are mainly based upon primary health care, which envisages healthy status and well-
being for all. Also being holistic in nature, it aims to provide preventive, and promote
curative and rehabilitative care services. The different health policies and programs within
the country aim at achieving an acceptable standard for health for the general population of
the country. With the main purpose of achieving this comprehensive objective, a widespread

58
approach was advocated, which included improvements in health care, public health,
sanitation, clean drinking water, proper diet and nutrition and knowledge of hygiene and
feeding practices. Significance was accorded to cause a decline in the health care facilities
across the regions. There should not be any disparities between regions and these facilities
should be provided to individuals, belonging to rural and remote areas as well (Chapter 2.
Rural Health Care in India, n.d.).

An assessment of the performance of the country’s health related indicators depicts

that significant gains have been made in them, e.g. life expectancy at birth, child and
maternal mortality and morbidity. Primary health care is regarded as a strategy, which is a
backbone of health service delivery for the country. India was one of the first few countries to
recognize the significance of primary health care approach. Primary health care was
conceptualized in 1946, three decades before the Alma Ata Declaration. Sir Joseph Bhore
made recommendations, which laid the basis for the organization of basic health care services
in India. Over the past decade, there have been appointment of several committees and
commissions have been appointed by the Government, which examine the issues and the
challenges that the health care sectors are experiencing (Chapter 2. Rural Health Care in
India, n.d.).

Health Practices in Rural India

Rural individuals in India in general and tribal individuals in particular have their own
beliefs and viewpoints in terms of health. The tribal communities are found throughout the
country in hilly and mountainous regions. They are primarily dependent upon the natural
environmental conditions, in order to fulfil their daily needs and requirements. When they
experience various forms of health problems and illnesses, then too, they are dependent upon
the forests and natural environments to obtain herbs and medicinal plants. The various health
practices that are adopted by rural individuals include, Ayurveda, unani, siddha and
naturopathy to maintain positive health care and to prevent illnesses and diseases. The
occurrence of socio-economic, cultural and political assaults, arising moderately from the
exploitation of human and material resources have endangered the naturally healthy
environment (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal, 2002).

The primary cause for the occurrence of rural health problems are also attributed to
lack of awareness, health consciousness, poor maternal and child health services and
occupational hazards. In rural communities, the increase in the death rate is primarily due to

59
the prevalence of infectious, communicable, parasitic and respiratory diseases, which are
preventable. The rate of morbidity within rural communities is high due to infectious
diseases. It is 40 percent in rural and 23.5 percent in urban. Waterborne infections, account
for about 80 percent of the diseases in India. In rural areas, individuals are dependent upon
water bodies to a large extent, as they experience shortage of water within their homes.
Therefore, when the water bodies are polluted, then they experience waterborne infections.
On an annual basis, 1.5 million deaths and loss of 73 million workdays are attributed to
waterborne diseases (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal, 2002).

The groups of infections that are widespread in rural communities have been
classified as follows: (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal, 2002).

1. Diseases that are carried in the gastrointestinal tract, such as, diarrhoea,
amoebiasis, typhoid fever, infectious hepatitis worm infestations and
poliomyelitis. There are 100 million rural individuals, who suffer from cholera
and diarrhoea ever year.
2. Diseases that are carried in the air, through coughing, breathing and sneezing,
such as, measles, tuberculosis (TB), whooping cough and pneumonia. In the
present existence, there are 12 million TB cases, i.e. an average of 70 percent.
More than 1.2 million cases are added every year and cases of measles that are
reported every year account for 37000.
3. Infections, which are more difficult to deal with include, malaria, filariasis and
kala-azar. These are regarded as the result of development. The methods of
irrigation causes malaria and filariasis, the use of pesticides have produced a
resistant strain of malaria, the water that is collected on the roads, especially
during rainy seasons and during the construction of roads are considered as
breeding places for snails and mosquitoes. About 2.3 million episodes and 1000
malarial deaths takes place every year within the country. An estimation of 45
million are regarded as the carriers of micro-filaria. The active cases account for
19 million and 500 million are at the risk of developing filaria.

Every third person, who is suffering from leprosy is an Indian. Malnutrition is

regarded as one of the dominant health problems within the country, especially in rural areas.
There is widespread prevalence of protein energy malnutrition (PEM), anaemia, Vitamin A
deficiency and iodine deficiency. The children, who account for 100 million are unable to

60
obtain two square meals in a day. This states that more than 85 percent of the children,
belonging to rural communities are undernourished (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal, 2002).
The major cause of the prevalence of malnutrition is poverty. When individuals are residing
in the conditions of poverty, they are unable to meet their daily needs and requirements. Due
to these conditions, it becomes difficult for them to satisfy their nutritional requirements as
well. Among children, the prevalence of malnutrition leads to spread of illnesses and
diseases. Furthermore, problems also take place within their growth and development.

In addition, agricultural and environmental injuries and diseases are common in rural
areas. These include, mechanical accidents, individuals may get prone to accidents, while
making use of tools and machines, pesticide poisoning, snake, dog and insect bites, zoonotic
diseases, skin and respiratory diseases, oral health problems, socio-psychological problems of
the female, geriatric and adolescent population, and diseases due to addictions. The
increasing rate of population growth in rural areas nullifies all the developmental efforts. In
1951, rural population was 299 million, and in May 2001, it was 750 million. Since 1951, the
government has been making an attempt through vertical and imported programs to combat
the problems, but to no avail. However, the new National Population Policy 2000 gave
emphasis to a holistic approach. The main areas, which are needed to be improved include,
enrichment of the overall quality of life of the individuals, no gender bias in education,
employment opportunities, child survival rates, sound social security, and promotion of
culturally and socially acceptable family welfare methods (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal,
2002).

Though the system of primary health care services are appropriate in rural areas. It
was put into operation in a proper manner, due to the efforts made by health professionals.
The present system has not left any scope for the community members, nor for the grassroots
level, health workers to take ownership for the programs and integrate them within the
overall development. The concept of replacing a community-selected person from the village
and providing them with essential training, so the community will be able to cope up with
health related problems in an operative manner. As a result, the basic requirements of
decentralized people-based, integrated, curative, preventive and promotive services have been
completely undermined by vertical programs (Patil, Somasundaram, & Goyal, 2002). In other
words, in rural areas, there have been recognition of problems and challenges that the health
care sector is facing. Another important aspect is, there have been formulation of measures

61
that are dedicated towards overcoming these problems and promoting well-being of the
community.

Origin and Evolution of Primary Health Care in India

The origin and evolution of primary health care in India has taken place with the
establishment of committees and commissions by the Government of India. The main
objective of the committees and commissions was to look into the problems and challenges
within the health care sector. The purpose of these committees formed from time to time is to
review the current situation, regarding health status within the country. In addition,
suggestions are given to make improvements within the health care sector. The improvements
are focused upon making provision of proper health care facilities to all individuals. The
major committees have been stated as follows: (Chapter 2. Rural Health Care in India, n.d.).

Bhore Committee on Health Planning and Development

The most comprehensive health policy and plan document ever prepared in India was
the “Health Survey and Development Committee Report”, referred to as the Bhore
Committee. The committee was appointed in 1943, with Sir Joseph Bhore, as its chairman.
The main objective of this committee was to make recommendations for the modification of
health services within the country (Navpreet, n.d.). The Bhore Committee report is the first
health report, which was initiated in 1946. It was a plan, which was equivalent to Britain’s
National Health Service. The report was based on a countrywide survey in British India. It is
the first organized set for health care data for the country. It considered that the health
program in India should be developed on the foundation of preventive health work and
proceeds in association with the administration of medical relief. The committee strongly
recommended the health services system, based upon the needs and requirements of the
individuals. The majority of individuals, belonged to deprived, marginalized and
economically weaker sections of the society.

Sokhey Committee Report on National Health

The National Planning Committee (NPC) established by the Indian National Congress
in 1948, under the chairmanship of Colonel S. Sokhey. It stated that the maintenance of the
health of the individuals was the responsibility of the state. It focused upon the fact that
preventive and curative measures should be taken into account within the health care sectors.
The Sokhey Committee report was not much detailed.

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 Community Development Program

With the beginning of the First Five Year Plan (1951-1955) and health planning in
India, the community development program was initiated in 1952. The main purpose of this
program is to promote development of rural areas in all dimensions. This program is
considered as an important landmark in the history of rural development. It was defined as
the process, which was designed to create the conditions of economic and social progress of
the entire community. The members of the community were encouraged to render an active
participation and generate awareness in terms of necessary areas. The other areas that have
been covered under the program include, health and sanitation. Through the establishment of
primary health care centres and sub-centres and other related sectors, including agriculture,
education, transport, social welfare and industries. Each community development block
consists of 100 villages with an approximate population of about 100000. One primary health
care centre was created for one community development block.

Mudaliar Committee on Health Survey and Planning

By the end of the second five year plan (1956-1961), Health Survey and Planning
Committee was initiated, which was headed by Dr. D.L. Mudaliar. It was appointed by the
Government of India to review the progress made in the health care sector, after the
submission of the report of the Bhore Committee. This committee found the conditions in the
primary health care centre to be unsatisfactory and suggested that the primary health care
centre, already established should be reinforced, along with the strengthening of the sub-
divisional and district hospital. The major recommendation of this committee report was to
limit the population served by the primary health centres to 40,000. There were
improvements made in the health care services provided by these centres. Another area that
was recommended was provision of one basic health worker per population of 10,000
individuals.

Mukherjee Committee Reports on Basic Health Services

The Mukherjee committee was formed under the headship of Shri Mukherjee. The
main purpose of this committee report was to review the factor of family planning. The
committee observed that the multiple activities of mass programs of family planning, small
pox, leprosy, trachoma, National Malaria Eradication Program, were imposing problems for
the states to undertake them in an efficient manner. Financial problems were the major
hindrances within the course of implementation of activities and programs. The committee

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does visualize that at a later stage, there can and should be a much greater integration
between family planning and maternity and child health programs and basic health services.

Jungalwalla Committee on Integration of Health Services

The Jungalwalla Committee on the integration of health services was established in

1964 under the chairmanship of N. Jungalwalla, the Director of the National Institute of
Health Administration and Education. The main objective of the committee was to look into
various problems, related to the integration of health services, abolition of private practice by
the doctors in government services and the service conditions of doctors. Integrated health
services were defined as services with the unified approach for all problems. The committee
recommended integration from the highest to the lowest level in the services, organization
and personal. Well-qualified, skilled and capable individuals should carry out the
administrative functions in medical care and public health programs.

Kartar Singh Committee on Multipurpose Workers

The Kartar Singh Committee was initiated in 1973. This committee laid down the
standards and principles regarding the health workers, with the main purpose of forming a
framework for the integration of medical and health services at peripheral and supervisory
levels. For ensuring proper coverage, the committee recommends the amalgamation of
peripheral workers into a single cadre of multipurpose workers. An organizational change
was recommended, which was one primary health care centre was recommended to the
population of 50,000 individuals. The job duties, carried out by three to four health workers
need to be supervised by one health assistant.

Shrivastav Committee on Medical Education and Support Manpower

The Srivastav Committee was established in 1974, as a group on medical education

and support manpower. The primary objective of this committee is to determine the steps that
are needed to reorient medical education in accordance to the national needs and priorities.
Another important area that needs to be taken into consideration is, to establish a curriculum
for health assistants, who rendered a significant contribution in the promotion of health care
services. The major recommendations of the committee are, creation of bands of
paraprofessional and semi-professional health workers from within the community, like
school teachers, post masters and so forth; the development of the three cadres of health
workers between the community level workers and doctors at the primary health centres; the

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development of “Referral Service Complex” by establishing connections between primary
health centres and higher level referral and service centres, i.e. taluka, regional, district and
medical college hospitals. Furthermore, there would be establishment of medical and health
education commission for planning and implementing the reforms needed in bringing about
developments in the health and medical education on the lines of University Grants
Commission (UGC).

Rural Health Scheme: Community Health Volunteer Scheme-Village Health

Guides

Acceptance of the recommendations of the Srivastav Committee Report led to the

initiation of Rural Health Scheme in 1977. Under this scheme, the main areas that were taken
into consideration are, providing training to the community health workers, reorientation
training of multipurpose workers and establishing connections between medical colleges to
rural health. The initiation of community participation, the community health volunteer,
village health guide (VHG) scheme was launched on 2nd October, 1977. In accordance to the
VHG scheme, the village community makes the selection of the volunteer, to be a person
from the village. In most cases, women were appointed, they were imparted short-term
training, and small incentive for the work performed. It is their job duty to provide health
education and generate awareness in terms of maternal and child health and family welfare
services. One needs to possess adequate knowledge in terms of communicable diseases,
various health problems and illnesses and provide medical treatment to the patients.

Alma Ata Declaration – Health for All by 2000

The Alma Ata Declaration of 1978, initiated the concept of health for all by 2000. It
was signed by 134 governments, including India and 67 other agencies. The Alma Ata
Declaration in 1978 gave an insight into an understanding of primary health care. It viewed
health has an integral part for leading to socio-economic development of the country. It
provided effectual understanding to the individuals in terms of health. In addition, the
framework is provided that is required by the states to achieve the goals of development. The
Declaration recommended that primary health care should include, education concerning
prevailing health problems and methods, diet and nutrition, safe water and sanitation,
maternal and child care, immunization against major infectious diseases, prevention and
control of locally endemic diseases, promotion of mental health and provision of essential

65
drugs. The participation of the committee is regarded important in every stage of
development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-confidence.

Primary Health Care Resources in India

The primary health care resources in India have been stated as follows: (Chapter 2.
Rural Health Care in India, n.d.).

Infrastructure

Health infrastructure is regarded as an important mechanism for the health care

delivery provisions and mechanisms within the country. Health infrastructure indicators are
sub-divided into two categories, these are, educational infrastructure and service
infrastructure. Educational infrastructure provides details of medical colleges, number of
students that have been enrolled in medical colleges to pursue M.B.B.S, post-graduate
diploma programs in dental colleges, AYUSH institutes, nursing courses and para-medical
courses. Medical education infrastructures within the country have shown rapid growth
during the last 20 years. There are 314 medical colleges within the country. The total
admission of 29,263 (in 256 medical colleges), 289 colleges for BDS courses and 140
colleges conduct MDS courses, are 21547 and 2783 respectively, during 2010-2011. There
are 2028 institutions for general nurse mid-wives, with the admission capacity of 80332 and
608 colleges for pharmacy and diploma, with the intake capacity of 36115 on 31st March,
2010.

Service infrastructure in the health care sector include, details of allopathic hospitals,
hospital beds and other amenities and facilities required to make provision of proper medical
and health care facilities to the individuals. In addition to these, the other areas that are taken
into account include, Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy hospitals, sub-centres,
primary health care centres, community health centres and blood banks. In the country, there
are 12,760 hospitals having 5,76,793 beds. Within rural communities, there are, 6795
hospitals, with 1,49,690 beds and within urban communities, there are, 3748 hospitals with
3,99,195 beds. In the states of Bihar and Jharkhand, rural and urban bifurcation is not
available. The availability of health care and medical facilities under AYUSH by
management status i.e. dispensaries and hospitals are 24,465 and 3,408 respectively as on
1.4.2010. In March 2010, there are 1,47,069 sub-centres, 23,673 primary health centres and

66
4,535 community health centres in India. Total number of licensed Blood Banks within the
country as on January 2011 are 2445.
The information available on health infrastructure within the country, the number of
health medical and paramedical health personal, the adequacy of their training, the types of
organizations involved in providing medical relief, the nature of services provided by them
and the conditions of service of various health personnel, availability of various therapeutic
substances, instruments and appliances and facilities for their production and the control of
trade in these substances and equipment are some of the important aspects that need to be
taken into consideration (Bajpai, & Saraya, 2011).

Sub-Centres

The sub-centre is the most bordering and first contact point between the primary
health care system and the community. Each sub-centre is required to be manned by at least
one Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM) or female health worker and one male health worker.
Under NRHM, there is a provision for one additional second ANM on contract basis. One
Lady Health Visitor (LHV) is assigned with the task of supervision of six sub-centres. Sub-
centres are allocated the tasks relating to interactive communication with the purpose of
bringing about behavioural change and provide services in relation to maternal and child
health, family welfare, nutrition, immunization, diarrhoea control and control of
communicable diseases programmes. The sub-centres are provided with basic drugs for the
treatment of minor ailments, the other areas are needed for taking care of essential health care
requirements of men, women and children.
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is providing 100% central assistance to
all the sub-centres in the country since April 2002 in the form of salary of ANMs and LHVs,
rent at the rate of Rs. 3000/- per annum and contingency at the rate of Rs. 3200/- per annum,
in addition to drugs and equipment kits. The salary of the male worker is borne by the State
Governments. Under the Swap Scheme, the Government of India has taken over an additional
39,554 sub-centres from State Governments and Union Territories since April, 2002 in lieu of
5,434. Rural Family Welfare Centres transferred to the State Governments and Union
Territories. There are 1, 47,069 sub-centres functioning within the country as on March 2010.
Primary Health Centres (PHCs)

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 Primary Health Centre is the first contact point between village community and the
medical officer. In other words, through this, connection is established between village
communities and medical officers. The primary health centres were envisioned to provide an
integrated curative and preventive health care to the rural population with emphasis put upon
preventive and promotive aspects of health care. The PHCs are established and maintained by
the State Governments under the Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) and Basic Minimum
Services (BMS) Programme. As per minimum requirement, the functioning of the PHC is
carried out by medical officers, supported by 14 paramedical and other staff. Under NRHM,
there is a provision for two additional staff nurses at PHCs on contract basis. It acts as a
referral unit for six sub-centres. It has four to six beds for patients. The activities of PHC
involves remedial, precautionary, promotive and family welfare services. There are 23,673
PHCs functioning as on March 2010 throughout the country.
Community Health Centres (CHCs)
The Community Health Centre, third tier of the network of rural health care units, was
required to act as a referral centre for the neighbouring PHCs, primarily four in number. This
is for the patients requiring specialized treatment in the areas of medicine, surgery,
paediatrics and gynaecology. The objective is two-fold, one is to make modern health care
services available to the rural individuals and to ease the overcrowding of the district
hospitals (Functioning of Community Health Centres, 1999). CHCs are being established and
maintained by the State Government under MNP and BMS programme. As per the minimum
norms, the functioning of CHC is carried out by four medical specialists i.e. surgeon,
physician, gynaecologist and paediatrician, and supported by 21 paramedical and other staff
members. It has 30 in-door beds with one OT, X-ray, labour room and laboratory facilities. It
serves as a referral centre for four PHCs and also provides facilities for obstetric care and
specialist consultations. As on March 2009, there are 4,535 CHCs, operating within the
country.
First Referral Units (FRUs)
An existing facility, which may include a district hospital, sub-divisional hospital,
community health centre and so forth can be declared, completely operational first referral
unit (FRU), only if it is equipped to make provision of round-the-clock services for
emergency obstetric and new born care. These are in addition to all the emergencies that the
hospital is required to provide. It should be noted that there are three critical determinants of
the facility being declared as a FRU. The emergency obstetric care include, surgical
interventions like the caesarean sections, new-born care and blood storage facility on a 24

68
hour basis. FRUs provides comprehensive obstetric care services, including emergence care
of sick children, complete range of family planning services, safe abortion services treatment
of STI/RTI and referral transport services. There has been a significant increase in the
number of FRUs from 940 in 2005 to 3104 in 2018 (National Health Mission, 2013).
Human Resources

The formulation of policies in terms of human resources must create a balance on a

continuous basis, the need for the financial health teams in primary, secondary and tertiary
sectors. The major challenge encountered in achieving health care goals are, non-availability
and uneven distribution of health care providers. One of the aspects that is regarded as
unfortunate in the health care facilities within rural India is, there is lack of qualified and
skilled personal. Hence, it is necessary to formulate measures that would enable the
recruitment of qualified and skilled health care providers and medical practitioners to meet
the needs and requirements of rural individuals.
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that worldwide, this factor may lead to
failure in attaining the Millennium Development Goals within the timelines. One
international norm a minimum of about 25 skilled health workers, i.e. doctors, nurses and
midwives as per 10,000 population, with the main purpose of achieving a minimum of 80%
coverage rate for deliveries by skilled birth attendants or for measles immunization as seen in
cross country analysis. According to 2001 census, the density of health workers falls
approximately eight per 10000 population, of which Allopathic physicians around 48%,
followed by nurses and mid-wives of 30%, pharmacists of 11%, AYUSH practitioners of 9%
and rest are others. Also 60% of the health workers reside in urban areas, which skew their
distribution considerably. The density of health workers per 10000 population in urban areas
is 42, which is nearly four times that of rural areas, which is only 11.8, and also the majority,
70% of health workers are employed in private sectors.

Health Insurance in Rural India

Due to non-accessibility of public health care and low quality health care services, a
majority of individuals within the country turn to the local private health sector as their first
choice of care (Rural Healthcare, n.d.). If one looks at the health care facilities available,
within the country, particularly in rural communities, it has been found that in rural
communities, the health care centres and hospitals are not in a well-developed state. There are

69
lack of infrastructure, facilities, qualified staff, health care and medical practitioners and
other modern and innovative methods and techniques. As a result of these, the individuals are
unable to obtain proper medical and health care facilities. In most cases, within rural
communities, proper health care centres and hospitals are not available. Hence, the
individuals are required to make visits to urban areas in order to obtain access to medical and
health care facilities.

The individuals within rural communities are in most cases unaware of certain facts.
For instance, when they obtain water from the wells, water bodies and rivers located nearby,
then they are mainly unaware of the fact of water pollution. Hence, they get prone to many
health problems and illnesses, due to contaminated water. Besides the lack of overall health
care infrastructure, the second most important influence upon the health care industry of the
country is the shortage of medically insured population and high expenditure. There has been
fluctuations in the India’s insurance industry, between public and private ownership for most
of the 20th century. The Insurance Amendment Act of 1950, ultimately led to the government
of India in making decisions in terms of nationalization of the insurance business (Healthcare
in India, n.d.).

However, in August 2000, The Insurance Regulatory and Development Act (IRDA),
opened up the market in order to accept the registration applications. In the present existence,
the major insurance companies within the country are, New Delhi (17.9 percent of the market
share), United India (15.1 percent), National (14.1 percent), ICICI Lombard (12.0 percent),
and Oriental (11.9 percent). These public and private insurance companies, only cover a
small minority of the population. The rest of the country is subjected to self-funding of the
medical expenses. These are the ones that are not covered by the government’s universal
health care. While the insurance industry is limited in a number of individuals that it reaches.
But it does put into practice, certain professional strategies and methods to carry out the tasks
and activities (Healthcare in India, n.d.).

While the insurance industry is limited in a number of individuals it reaches. There is

a public reinsurer, general insurance company (GIC), is the sole reinsurance company within
the country. There are also more than 12,000 registered actuaries, with the Institute of
Actuaries within the country. In the health insurance companies, they are rendering a
significant participation in the pricing, reserving, and other analytical roles. Through the
Actuaries Act of 2006, these professionals are governed by myriad of rules and policies that

70
are mandated by the collection of councils, committees and advisory groups (Healthcare in
India, n.d.). In other words, in health insurance companies, when recruitment of staff takes
place, they are required to undergo the training and development programs. After the
acquisition of training, they obtain a license, and then they can implement insurance policies
among the clients. Among the rural individuals, it is vital to generate awareness in terms of
health insurance.

Remedies in Rural Health System

There have been formulation of programs and schemes, which aim at bringing about
improvements in the rural health system. The Government has taken up various programs and
measures, which aim at its development and have been stated as follows: (Jaysawal, 2015).
National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)

The initiation of National Rural Health Mission took place in 2005. The main purpose
of this program was to take into account the problems taking place in the health care sector in
rural areas. It makes provision of reachable, inexpensive, effective, accountable and
consistent health care services to rural individuals. The major focus of the program is upon
the deprived, marginalized and underprivileged sections of the society. NRHM is regarded as
the flagship scheme of the central government. It has the major objective of bringing about
improvements in the provision of basic health care services within rural communities. The
important areas that are needed to be taken into consideration are, diet and nutrition, safe
drinking water, sanitation, hygiene and making provision of appropriate medical and health
care facilities to the individuals, particularly belonging to deprived, underprivileged and
economically weaker sections of the society.
Under NRHM, some of the steps have been undertaken to bring about transformation
in the rural health infrastructure. In this manner, improvements can take place within the
infrastructure. Infrastructure is regarded as one of the aspects that is of utmost significance,
particularly in hospitals and health care centres, when individuals are coming to obtain
medical treatment and health care facilities. Another vital aspect is, through this scheme,
there have been strengthening of primary health care centres. There have been transformation
of various primary health centres into the 24x7. Due to this, individuals are able to obtain
access to medical and health care facilities in an appropriate manner. In addition, there has
been establishment of the connection between patients and mainstream health system,
through a wide network of ASHA network, throughout the country.

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 Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)

Under the Government of India, there has been introduction of the JSY program under
NRHM. The primary objective of this program is to lead to a decline in institutional delivery
to cause a reduction in maternal and neo-natal mortality. It makes provision of cash
incentives for the poverty stricken individuals, particularly women to deliver in a government
or accredited private medical facility. Under JSY, ASHA workers increase the cases of
institutional deliveries through escorting women, who are expecting, proper medical facilities
and anti-natal care. Their contribution is like an interface between the rural health system and
the community. The study findings of the development research services (DRS) of UNFPA
indicate that 73 percent of the births, during 2008 in Madhya Pradesh and Orissa were
conducted in a health facility.
Another aspect, which was found was more than two-thirds of women in Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh and four out of five mothers in the states of Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh, received proper facilities after child birth. Bihar was regarded as the only state, in
which only 16 percent of the mothers stayed at the institution for two days or more after their
delivery. More than 90 percent of the beneficiaries, who delivered in the institutions in these
five states, reported as having received 1400 rupees as an incentive. In the states of Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, 79 to 86 percent of the mothers, received the incentive money
from the institution, in which the delivery has taken place. Whereas, in the states of Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh, 40 to 44 percent of the mothers, received the money from the institution
and received similar proportions from other sources.

Health Insurance through Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY)

In the area of rural health, Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana is regarded as one of the
essential aspects. It offers a micro-insurance product for the households that are designated as
below poverty line. One of the primary objectives of this scheme was to cover the households
that account for around 60 million, throughout the country. The RSBY primarily aims to
make provision of financial protection for all the households that are affected by major health
problems and illnesses. The individuals and families, who are residing in the conditions of
poverty and those who cannot afford health services are the ones, who are addressed. RSBY
was launched in 2008. It ensures the families, particularly the ones, who are residing below

72
the poverty line to meet the hospitalization costs and make a selection between public and
private hospitals.
Beneficiaries are required to pay the nominal registration fees. Whereas, the costs of
the premium payments are shared by the central and state governments. First, insurance
companies are selected by the competitive bidding in each district and receive the premium of
every household, enrolled by them within the scheme. Insurance companies empanel in-
patient care facilities (ICFs), they then reimburse ICFs for in-patient care, provided to the
enrolled households. These may be either public or private, public facilities may retain
payments from the RSBY in the self-governed societies, known as the Rogi Kalyan Samities.
The beneficiaries under RSBY are entitled to an insurance cover of 30,000 rupees, for most
of the health problems and illnesses that require hospitalization.

Mobile-Based Primary Health Care System

The mobile-based primary health care system renders a significant contribution in the
area of health care services, particularly within rural communities. In simple terms, it means
the primary health care services that are based on mobile devices. Its main purpose is to
ensure improved access to primary health care. It was launched in 2005 and a mobile is made
use of to transmit the vital signatures of the individuals. Through this system, the health
professionals will be able to remotely monitor the patients, suffering from chronic illnesses
and diseases, throughout the country. The major areas, in terms of which services are
provided include, diet and nutrition, health education, basic sanitation, mother and child
family welfare services, immunization disease control and appropriate treatment for illnesses
and health problems.

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY)

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY) was initiated in 2010. The major
objective of this program is to encourage women to follow infant and young child feeding
(IYCE) practices, including early and exclusive breast feeding for the first six months.
IGMSY is a centrally sponsored scheme, which would be put into operation through the state
ICDS cells. Financial assistance is available to 100 percent from the Ministry of Women and
Child Development. Throughout the country, it has been piloted in 52 districts. Under this
scheme, there is a provision of cash transfers to all expecting and lactating women within the

73
selected districts. It leads to encouragement in the demand of mother and child care services,
through making provision of incentives, based on specific criteria.

Conclusion
Health care is regarded as one of the important aspect that is a major requirement of
the individuals, belonging to various castes, creeds, races, ethnicities gender, age groups and
socio-economic background. In rural communities, the health care and medical facilities are
not in a much developed state. In some cases, when rural individuals experience severe health
problems and illnesses, they are required to migrate to urban communities. When the origin
and evolution of primary health care in India takes place, the main programs and schemes
are, Bhore Committee on Health Planning and Development, Sokhey Committee Report on
National Health, Community Development Program, Mudaliar Committee on Health Survey
and Planning, Mukherjee Committee Reports on Basic Health Services, Jungalwalla
Committee on Integration of Health Services, Kartar Singh Committee on Multipurpose
Workers, Shrivastav Committee on Medical Education and Support Manpower, Rural Health
Scheme: Community Health Volunteer Scheme-Village Health Guides and Alma Ata
Declaration – Health for All by 2000.

The primary health care resources in India are, infrastructure, sub-centres, Primary
Health Centres (PHCs), Community Health Centres (CHCs), First Referral Units (FRUs) and
human resources. In rural areas, it is vital to generate awareness among the individuals in
terms of health insurance. In order to provide solutions to the problems of rural health, there
have been introduction of remedies in the form of programs and schemes. These are, National
Rural Health Mission (NRHM), Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY), Health Insurance through
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY), Mobile-Based Primary Health Care System and
Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana (IGMSY). In the effective implementation of these
programs, the individuals are required to possess the necessary skills and abilities. They need
to make efficient use of their skills and abilities to generate awareness among the rural
individuals in terms of not only improving their health conditions, but overall quality of life
as well.

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 Chapter 6. Employment Opportunities in Rural
Areas
In India, there are differences in the nature of employment opportunities, on the basis
of areas and regions. The employment opportunities are acquired by the individuals on the
basis of number of factors. These include, their educational qualifications, skills, abilities,
location, and personality traits. Every individual aspires to obtain employment opportunities.
There are two main reasons behind this. First is, it enables the individuals to generate income,
which would help them in the sustenance of their living conditions and another is, the
individuals are able to make use of their qualifications, skills and abilities. In rural
communities, the individuals are mostly residing in the conditions of poverty and
backwardness. They either possess low educational skills or no educational skills at all. They

75
are also unaware in terms of various areas. Due to these factors, the rural individuals are
mostly engaged in minority jobs. The primary sector of promoting employment opportunities
among them is the agricultural sector. Apart from agriculture and farming practices, they are
involved in production of handicrafts, food items, pottery making, silk weaving, animal
husbandry and so forth.

Expansion of employment opportunities has been an important objective of

development planning in India. There has been a significant growth in employment
opportunities over the years. However, a relatively higher growth of the population and the
labour force has led to an increase in the rate of unemployment from one plan period to
another. With the initiation of the eighth plan period, there has been initiation of employment
opportunities within rural communities, with the main aim of bringing about a decline in the
rate of unemployment. These measures and approaches are considered important, because, it
is realised that larger and efficient use of the available human resources is one of the most
operative ways of alleviating poverty and backwardness, reduction of inequalities and
sustenance of economic growth. In rural areas, human resources and the measures and
approaches are considered vital in promoting employment opportunities (Chapter II, Rural
and Urban Employment in India, n.d.).

Nature of Unemployment in India

One of the major setbacks that the rural individuals have experienced are with regards
to the inability to cause a significant reduction in the workforce in the agricultural sector
(Kumar, Kumar, Singh, & Shivjee, 2011). One of the major causes of this is, participation of
individuals in other tasks and activities. In the present existence, rural individuals are
migrating to urban areas to acquire jobs to enhance their living conditions. With the advent of
modernization and globalization, within the country, there have been transformations and
advancements taking place in all areas and fields. But apart from these advancements, the
individuals are experiencing severe problems of illiteracy, unemployment, and homelessness.

Unemployment is regarded as one of the most severe problems that is a hindrance

within the course of attaining an effective livelihood. In India, the nature of unemployment is
different from the ones, in other countries. The nature of unemployment in advanced
countries is due to the result of the deficiency of effective demand. It implies that in such
economies, machinery is no longer in use and there is a decline in labour. The reason being,
demand for industrial products has decreased. The remedies of unemployment, primarily

76
concentrated upon the measures to keep the level of effective demand at a sufficiently high
rate. In this manner, the economic machine does not lessen the production of goods and
services (Chapter II, Rural and Urban Employment in India, n.d.).

This type of unemployment is caused by economic fluctuations. The country was

affected by the great depression, which was from 1930 to 1933. But with the introduction of
remedies to the problems, the country was able to mitigate unemployment. Gradually within
the course of time, the country began to generate employment opportunities for the
individuals and alleviate cyclical unemployment. Similarly, after the Second World War
(1939-1945), when war-time industries were closed, there was a good deal of frictional
unemployment. It was primarily caused due to retrenchment in the army, ordinance factories
and so forth. These workers were to be absorbed in peace time industries. In the same
manner, the process of rationalization, which was initiated within the country since 1950, also
caused displacement of labour. But the unemployment that was more serious as compared to
cyclical unemployment and frictional unemployment, is the prevalence of disguised
underemployment or chronic unemployment. Furthermore, the educated individuals, residing
in urban communities also experience unemployment (Chapter II, Rural and Urban
Employment in India, n.d.).

The problem of unemployment has been serious within the country, even in the
present existence. Well-educated individuals, belonging to urban communities are also
experiencing unemployment. They are required to make use of various sources, send their
resumes and cover letters to the organizations and companies. When they send their resumes
to at least 100 places, they are called for the interview from just three to four places. In some
cases, individuals are required to take the written tests and go through various rounds of
interviews, in order to obtain employment opportunities. Therefore, it can be stated that in
reputed organizations, it is not easy to obtain employment opportunities. Whereas, in rural
areas, also acquiring employment opportunities is not easy. Rural areas within the country are
still in a backward state and agriculture and farming practices are regarded as major areas, in
which the individuals are engaged in. Apart from these, the other areas, in which they are
engaged in include, small scale industries, animal husbandry, production of handicrafts, food
items, construction work, jobs involving unskilled manual labour, and so forth.

Well-educated individuals, belonging to urban communities and rural individuals as

well, usually take into consideration number of factors. These include, pay, location of

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workplace from home, means of transportation, working environmental conditions, nature of
job duties, terms and relationships with other individuals within the workplace, training
programs, work timings, benefits and incentives, and provision of infrastructure, machinery
and tools in the performance of job duties. When rural individuals, even the ones, who are not
educated are to get engaged in employment opportunities, they ensure that all the above
stated factors are adequately taken into consideration. When they experience problems in any
one of the factors, then it becomes difficult for them to get engaged in the implementation of
job duties in an operative manner. Research has indicated that when rural individuals find
employment opportunities, they feel elated. Even if they are required to work for long hours
and the pay is not sufficient, still they perform their job duties with utmost dedication and
interest.

The problem of unemployment assumes serious dimensions and is threatening upon

the lives of the individuals. Within rural communities, individuals are overwhelmed by the
conditions of poverty. It is effecting the lives of the individuals in an unfavourable manner.
Therefore, it is necessary to make provision of employment opportunities, particularly for the
underprivileged and socio-economically backward sections of the society in rural areas. In
addition, to employment opportunities, there are formulation of measures and programs,
which are proving to be assisting in bringing about improvements within their overall quality
of lives. From the point of view of development, the employment opportunities helps to raise
productivity and serves as the vehicle for redistribution of national income. The various plan
documents, did not take into consideration the programs, which would enable the rural
population to acquire employment opportunities (Chapter II, Rural and Urban Employment in
India, n.d.). This is regarded as one of the major causes that rural individuals are still not
employed and are residing in destitute conditions.

A decentralized pattern of industrial development, while causing a reduction in local

or regional unemployment and rural underemployment proves to be instrumental in
distributing income and economic power more equally among the individuals and the
regions. Thereby, contributing to the emergence of economically sound, politically stable and
regionally balanced democratic society. Generating employment opportunities and
introduction of measures and schemes, with the main objective of alleviating poverty and
backwardness, require the individuals to possess the essential skills and abilities. In India,
nearly 70 percent of the population is dependent upon agriculture. In the agricultural sector
too, particularly for small and marginal farmers, the income is meagre. It is not enough to

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meet the daily living requirements. The pace of structural transformation in favour of non-
agricultural activities within rural areas in the country were recognized during the post-Green
Revolution period. However, the rate of rural diversification is not uniform across different
states and regions (Rural Non-Farm Employment, n.d.). In addition, many countries aspire to
a decentralized industrial structure, in which there would be a comprehensive distribution of
ownership and economic power. Within the country, this objective is the foundation of the
economic policy (Chapter II, Rural and Urban Employment in India, n.d.).

Types of Employment Opportunities in Rural Communities

In rural communities, the various forms of employment opportunities that the

individuals are engaged in are stated as follows:

Agricultural Sector – Agriculture is regarded as the major occupation of the

individuals. When the individuals are involved in this sector, then it is vital for them to
possess the essential skills and information in terms of all the methods of production and
cultivation. In the present existence, there has been establishment of training institutions in
rural communities that are making provision of adequate knowledge and information to the
individuals in terms of utilization of scientific methods. In order to augment production and
profitability, it is vital for the agricultural labourers and farmers to possess adequate
knowledge in terms of modern irrigation methods, use of fertilizers, insecticides and
pesticides and other methods. The farmers need to generate awareness in terms of the
climatic conditions as well, as these need to be suitable to enhance productivity.

Education Sector – In rural areas, there have been establishment of schools,

educational institutions and training centres. Individuals, belonging to these communities
have recognized the significance of education and aspire to get their children enrolled in
schools. There also have been establishment of training centres, which make provision of
adequate knowledge and information to the individuals, particularly in terms of one area of
their interest, such as, diet and nutrition, health care, technology, child development and so
forth. In other words, individuals get enrolled in training centres to acquire knowledge in
terms of an area of their interest. In addition, there have also been establishment of adult
education institutions, which encourage the enrolment of adult individuals, who have either
never been to school or have dropped out before their educational skills are honed. In the
education sector, individuals obtain numerous types of employment opportunities. These

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include, teaching, or they may perform the functions of administration and management of
the institution.

Health Care and Medical – The individuals obtain employment opportunities in the
health care and medical sectors as well. Research has indicated that individuals obtain
medical degrees from reputed medical institutions in urban communities. Upon the
completion of their education, they return back to their villages and set up hospital or health
care centres, for the well-being of their community members. Whereas, in rural communities,
there are establishment of medical and health care facilities, where recruitment and selection
of qualified and skilled individuals takes place. When the individuals are employed in this
area, it is vital for them to possess effective communication skills and not discriminate
against any individuals on the basis of any factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion, age,
gender, ethnicity and socio-economic background. Furthermore, they need to make provision
of proper information and remedies to them, particularly in terms of health problems and
illnesses. Apart from providing medicines, the medical practitioners and health care
specialists also need to provide adequate information, in terms of psychological well-being.

Production of Handicrafts – In rural areas, men as well as women are involved in the
production of various types of handicrafts. These include, pottery making, jewellery making,
embroideries, needle-work, decorative items, garments and so forth. When parents are
involved in the production and manufacturing of handicrafts, then they provide training to
their children from the initial stage. The children generate awareness among them in terms of
these areas and help their parents. When they grow up, they become skilled, as they have
been practicing them, since the initial stage. In order to enhance their income through the
production of handicrafts, it is vital for the individuals to possess adequate knowledge in
terms of marketing strategies. Normally, handicrafts are marketed to a large extent at the time
of festivals and occasions.

Production and Marketing of Food Items – Production and selling of food items is
regarded as one of the most significant aspects of employment among rural individuals. In
rural areas, individuals are involved in the rearing of livestock. Hence, they mainly produce
milk products, such as, butter, cheese and other sugary items, which they sell for a living.
Apart from the production of food items, rural individuals are involved in selling fruits and
vegetables. They sell these in rural areas and in some cases, even migrate to urban areas and
work as vegetable and fruit vendors. When the individuals migrate to urban areas to market

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food items, then they are required to work hard. They need to make visits to places, where,
they obtain fresh fruits and vegetables and go around the streets to market their products.
Whereas, in other cases, they set up stalls within market places.

Factories and Industries – Rural individuals are employed in large scale in factories
and industries. The factories and industries are of different types, including, silk weaving,
plantations, lock industries, beedi rolling, diamond polishing, gem cutting, coal mines and so
forth. The employment opportunities that are available in these industries are considered
hazardous. Hence, in order to prevent any accidents from taking place, individuals are
required to acquire proper training and work under the supervision of a skilled and
knowledgeable person. Research has indicated that even children, who are below 14 years of
age are employed in these industries. When the individuals are unable to sustain their living
conditions in an appropriate manner, due to shortage of funds and other resources, then they
even encourage their children to obtain employment opportunities in industries and factories.
One of the factors that is unfortunate is, individuals are required to work in hazardous
employments for long hours and their pay is less. It is insufficient to meet their daily needs.

Cultural Performances – In rural areas, individuals, belonging to all age groups and
backgrounds develop interest in dance and music. In some cases, they develop interest in
singing and acquire training to augment their skills and abilities. Participating in various
programs and events, where they are able to make use of their skills and abilities is also
regarded as one of the most significant employment opportunities for rural individuals. When
there are organization of any social, cultural, and religious programs at the time of festivals or
marriage ceremonies or events, then rural individuals, who are well-trained and skilled in
these areas are able to render an effectual participation and earn income. The participation of
these individuals may take place on individual basis as well as in the form of a group. They
may participate in different places, which include, religious places, markets, homes and so
forth.

Tea Stalls and Restaurants – Setting up own tea stalls and restaurants are regarded as
common areas, which may generate income for rural individuals. In some cases, individuals
may even get involved in two jobs, at the same time. They may work in the agricultural
sector in the morning hours and run a tea stall or a restaurant in the evening. When
individuals develop interest and enthusiasm in operating a tea stall or a restaurant, then they
possess the viewpoint that it would render a major contribution in augmenting profitability.

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Diet and nutrition is regarded as a necessary requirement of all individuals. Hence, in the case
of this business, they need to ensure that food provided is of good quality, proper
infrastructure and sitting arrangement is provided, assistance available from helpers is
efficient and of good quality and the cost is not very high, as rural individuals, primarily
belonging to economically backward sections of the society cannot spend a large amount on
just one meal.

Repairing Machines and Technologies – In rural areas, there have been advancements
taking place. Individuals are making use of tractors and innovative machinery in the
agricultural sector, farming practices and also in the production and manufacturing of other
items. Apart from the use of modern and innovative methods and approaches, there has been
use of digital technology among rural individuals. Rural individuals are making use of digital
technology for various purposes, such as, communication, leisure and recreation, generating
awareness and so forth. This is apparent that when technology, mobile phones, vehicles and
other machinery gets worn out or does not work efficiently, it needs to be repaired. There are
number of rural individuals, who find employment opportunities in shops, where repair works
are implemented. They acquire training in terms of repairing particular items, such as, mobile
phones, cycles, scooters etc. and even set up their own shops. Hence, getting involved in
repair works is regarded as one of the important aspects of generating income.

Vocational Occupations – Individuals in some cases, develop interest in the areas of

plumbing, electric work, gardening, driving, painting, carpentry and repair works. These
tasks are regarded as integral in not only the households, but also factories, industries and
other organizations. In order to acquire skills in terms of these areas, the individuals get
enrolled in training centres. In urban areas too, there are colleges, which provide training to
the individuals in terms of these areas. The individuals, belonging to rural communities,
develop interest in mostly one of these areas and acquire training. Upon obtaining efficient
skills and abilities in one of these areas, they either migrate to urban areas to make use of
their skills in generating a source of income or they stay in rural communities. As these skills
can also get utilized in households, market places, industries and factories in rural areas.

Factors Influencing Children to get engaged in Employment

Opportunities

In rural communities, research has indicated that individuals get overwhelmed by

number of factors, which encourage them to get engaged in employment opportunities at a

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childhood stage. The children either get engaged in employment opportunities outside their
home or their parents train them in terms of manufacturing of products, if they are engaged in
the production and manufacturing of various items. The major factors influencing children to
participate in various forms of employment opportunities have been stated as follows:

Poverty – Poverty is regarded as one of the most significant factor that is a major
hindrance in the sustenance of adequate livelihoods opportunities for the individuals. When
the individuals do not possess sufficient financial resources and when their per capita income
is inadequate to meet the daily needs and requirements, then they are residing in the
conditions of poverty. In rural areas, there has been prevalence of the conditions of poverty
among individuals. Due to these conditions, they even experience problems in meeting their
nutritional requirements. Hence, with the main purpose of alleviating the conditions of
poverty and generating income to sustain one’s living conditions in an appropriate manner,
parents encourage their children to look for various employment opportunities.

Lack of Interest in Studies – In some cases, individuals do not develop interest in

studies and in getting enrolled in schools. When they lack the interest in studies, then they
aspire to get engaged in various types of employment opportunities. Research has indicated
that children, belonging to rural communities lose interest in studies on the basis of number
of factors. These are, financial problems, difficulty in acquiring an efficient understanding of
the academic concepts, when the distance of schools from homes is large, when they are
unable to access adequate means of transportation, when they experience discriminatory
treatment in schools (particularly girls), when the teaching-learning methods and the
instructional strategies are not put into practice in an efficient manner, when there is shortage
of qualified, skilled and experienced teachers and when there are not any provision of extra-
curricular activities. Hence, when one or more than one factor exists, then children do not
develop an interest in learning and instead get engaged into employment opportunities.

Occurrence of Conflicts and Disputes – Research has indicated that in rural

communities, when individuals are unable to meet their daily needs and requirements, then
they mostly get involved into conflicts and disputes. The feelings of anger and frustration are
the major causes for the occurrence of conflicting situations and disputations among the
individuals. When children experience the occurrence of conflicts and disputes within the
household, especially between their parents, concerning their upbringing, then they make an
attempt to provide effective solutions. For instance, if a dispute has taken place regarding the

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educational requirement of the children, then they may simply discontinue their education
and look for work, in order to supplement family income.

Discriminatory Treatment – In some of the rural communities, girls experience

discriminatory treatment. In other words, they are not considered equal to male children and
are considered as liabilities. The birth of the girl children in some cases is not appreciated and
preference is given to the male children. The individuals possess the viewpoint that girls need
to eventually get married, so they should be trained in terms of implementation of household
chores and school education is not meant for them. Instead male children are enrolled in
schools to acquire education. It is believed when males would be educated, they would be
able to obtain better employment opportunities to bring about well-being of their families.
Hence, girls are usually compelled to participate in the management of household
responsibilities and production of certain items.

Development of Interest and Enthusiasm – Children, both girls and boys develop
interest and enthusiasm in terms of certain areas. These include, sports, physical activities,
handicrafts, artworks, dancing, singing, music, role playing and so forth. When they develop
interest in one or more of these areas, then they feel to develop their skills and make effective
use of them to promote better livelihoods opportunities. Research has indicated, when
children drop out of schools, even before their educational skills are honed, then they usually
either join a training centre or adopt other means to augment their skills. With thorough
practicing, when they become proficient, then they make use of them to sustain their living
conditions in an appropriate manner.

Developing Communication Skills – When the individuals are getting engaged in

employment opportunities, then they not only are able to generate a source of income, but
also are able to develop communication skills in a well-organised manner. In rural
communities, individuals are residing in the state of backwardness. They do not feel
confident and secure, especially when they need to communicate with other individuals,
outside their community. The rural individuals have acquired an efficient understanding of
the fact that to achieve one’s desired goals and objectives, it is vital to develop effective
communication skills. When rural individuals and children are participating in various types
of employment opportunities, they are able to generate awareness in terms of effective
communication skills.

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 Coping up with Criminal and Violent Acts – In rural communities, individuals,
belonging to all age groups and backgrounds are experiencing various forms of criminal and
violent acts. These are verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual harassment, discriminatory
treatment, neglect, exploitation, child marriage and trafficking. Girls and women are the ones,
who experience these acts to a major extent as compared to boys. When the individuals are
engaged in employment opportunities, they are able differentiate between appropriate and
inappropriate. When the employers are kind and generous, then they also lend a helping hand
to their employees, especially the ones, who are experiencing abuse and mistreatment.
Therefore, obtaining useful suggestions and solutions from the employers would enable the
children to cope up with criminal and violent acts.

Empowerment Opportunities – For the operative development of the rural

communities, it is vital to promote empowerment opportunities, especially among women
and girls. Getting engaged in employment opportunities is regarded as one of the vital aspects
that would promote empowerment opportunities, among not only rural women, but also girls.
Research has indicated, rural girls, even when they are below 18 years of age, in some cases
migrate to urban areas and get employed as domestic helpers. In urban households, they are
not only given pay for their job duties, but they are also given a place to live, food and
clothing. In addition to these, when employers are kind enough, they get them enrolled in
schools to enhance their academic skills, encourage them to participate in various childhood
activities and encourage them towards acquisition of better livelihoods opportunities.
Therefore, empowerment opportunities can be acquired through getting engaged in
employment opportunities, as they enable the individuals to acquire self-sufficiency.

Generating Income for Education – Children normally are required to drop out of
schools and are not able to pursue further education, due to lack of financial resources. When
they do not possess the funds for meeting the expenses such as, books, stationary, bags,
uniforms, transportation costs, fees and so forth. Then they form this viewpoint that they need
to get engaged in some kind of employment, generate income and then they would be able to
meet the expenses, involved in the pursuance of education. For this purpose, they normally
get employed as helpers in tea stalls or restaurants, or get engaged in selling and marketing of
the products. These jobs do not generate much income. But in some cases, they even get
engaged in work for long term period, i.e. one or two years. When they are able to generate
enough funds, then they get enrolled in schools.

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 Meeting Other Expenses – Children, belonging to all communities normally possess
the desire to obtain various things that would contribute effectively in the enhancement of
their living conditions. These include, good-quality food items, good clothing, jewellery,
playthings, accessories, electronics, technologies and so forth. It has been found, especially
when the children are below 14 years of age, apart from learning and getting involved in play
activities, they strengthen their desires for number of other things. When they are residing in
destitute conditions and experience financial problems, then their parents normally encourage
them to get involved in employment opportunities and generate income. In some cases,
children attend schools in the morning, whereas, after school, they work to earn income.
Children, belonging to rural communities normally attend school and work simultaneously, to
meet their expenses.

Factors Influencing the Acquisition of Employment Opportunities

Productive, lucrative, ethical and durable long-term employment opportunities are the
essential necessities and requirements of the individuals. Making provision of employment
opportunities to the rural individuals is regarded as one of the major challenges that the
society is experiencing (Saha, & Verick, 2016). When the individuals obtain these
employment opportunities, they feel satisfied to a major extent and are able to secure their
future. In rural communities, the notion for work and employment, especially for rural
women is regarded as a complicated area. The reasons, why women work or do not work is
regarded as a lucrative activity. Whether they are engaged in full-time or part-time job too
can be diverse and may be rooted in the complex interplay of social, economic, political and
personal factors (Srivastava, & Srivastava, 2009). When rural individuals are to get engaged
in any form of employment opportunities, they take into consideration, number of factors and
these have been stated as follows:

Pay – Pay is regarded as an aspect that is of utmost significance, particularly, among

rural individuals, who are residing in the conditions of poverty and are struggling to make
ends meet. In some cases, their work gives them pay which they regard as sufficient to
sustain their living conditions. This is usually, when they migrate to urban communities and
are employed in organizations. In some of these areas, they get paid 30,000 to 40,000 rupees
per month and feel satisfied. Whereas, unskilled manual jobs or employment in agriculture,
plantations, industries and factories usually enable them to make around 10,000 rupees per
month or less. This is not regarded as sufficient to meet the daily requirements.

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 Location of Workplace from Home – In rural communities, individuals in some cases
are not fortunate enough to find employment opportunities at their door-step. They are
required to travel to distance places. When the workplace is not located at a large distance,
then the individuals usually adopt some means of transportation. Whereas, when they are
located at a greater distance, then rural individuals usually experience problems in
commuting and are not able to retain their jobs for long. This usually applies to rural women,
as they possess a vulnerable nature and are not used to travelling to distance places for work.

Means of Transportation – In some of the rural communities, roads and means of

transportation are not in a well-developed state. Due to this, the areas not only experience
problems and challenges within the course of socio-economic development, but individuals
too experience problems in attaining employment opportunities. In other words, when the
conditions of roads would not be in a well-developed state and when proper means of
transportation would not be available, then individuals would not be able to commute to
work. Mostly, in rural communities, individuals make use of personal transportation, such as
bicycles, especially when they go to work or in the implementation of other tasks and
activities.

Working Environmental Conditions – When engaged in employment opportunities, all

individuals, irrespective of their caste, creed, race, ethnicity, religion, gender, age and socio-
economic background ensure that working environmental conditions are pleasant and
amiable. Within the working environment, sociability and amiability is encouraged through
maintaining good terms and relationships with other individuals, performing one’s job duties
in an effective manner, following the rules and policies and the employers need to ensure that
they make provision of all the essential aspects that are needed to achieve the desired goals
and objectives. In addition to these factors, the other aspects are, making provision of civic
amenities, facilities and other equipment that would enable the individuals to perform their
job duties in an appropriate manner.

Nature of Job Duties – In the implementation of job duties, individuals are usually
required to make use of their qualifications and skills. Rural individuals are normally not
educated and usually lack the literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic as well. But it
is vital for them to possess adequate knowledge in terms of the performance of job duties.
They are mostly skilled and experienced in the performance of manual job duties. Hence,
when they are employed in the agricultural sector or industries and factories, they mostly get

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engaged in manual jobs. The rural individuals, when employed in any places, need to
inculcate the traits of diligence, conscientiousness and resourcefulness. With the inculcation
of these traits and possession of adequate knowledge, they will be able to meet the job
requirements satisfactorily.

Terms and Relationships with Other Individuals within the Workplace – One cannot
work in isolation. Within the working environment, it is vital for the individuals to
collaborate and work in co-ordination with each other. One is able to generate adequate
awareness and acquire information, when they communicate with other individuals within the
workplace in an operative manner. Within the manufacturing industries, when rural
individuals are engaged in the production processes, then too, it is vital for them to ensure
that they maintain good terms and relationships, particularly with their supervisors and
employers. They need to acquire proper training and develop knowledge, as in lock
industries, gem cutting, diamond polishing, beedi rolling, plantations, jobs are hazardous. The
individuals may experience detrimental consequences in their jobs, if they do not maintain
good terms and relationships with other individuals.

Training Programs – When the rural individuals are recruited in any organizations or
industries, then it is likely possible that they would not possess efficient knowledge in terms
of the implementation of job duties. They would not possess any information regarding
operating a machine, production processes, other individuals, departments, working
environmental conditions and goals and objectives of the organization. Therefore, to obtain
adequate knowledge in terms of these aspects, it is vital for the individuals to get enrolled in
the training programs. In rural communities, there have been establishment of training
centres, which provide training to the individuals regarding use of modern and innovative
methods in the agricultural sector. Whereas, when they are employed in industries and
factories, then it becomes vital for them to acquire training in terms of machines and tools
and the production processes. When the individuals are well-trained, only then they should
commence their job duties.

Work Timings – When rural individuals, particularly women are possessed with other
responsibilities, such as, management of household chores, child development, rearing of
livestock, taking care of the needs and requirements of the elderly family members and so
forth and also when the workplace is located at a distance from their homes, then work
timings are of major concern to them. In such cases, they normally work on part-time basis.

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They prefer going to work in the morning and returning home in the afternoon. On the other
hand, men do not have to be much concerned and are even engaged in work for more than 10
hours per day.

Benefits and Incentives – The pay scale of the rural individuals is normally low,
especially in contrast to the performance of job duties. In most cases, they work hard and for
long hours, but their pay is not sufficient to sustain their living conditions. Benefits and
incentives are referred to the rewards that are earned by the individuals, particularly when
they have done a good job performance or have pleased their employers, by getting engaged
in some task or an activity. Benefits and incentives are also given to the workforce at the time
of festivals. These can be in the form of finances, paid leaves, vacations or giving of other
items, which would be beneficial to the individuals.

Provision of Infrastructure, Machinery and Tools – When the rural individuals are
engaged in the production of goods, then they need to make efficient use of machinery and
tools. Within the working environment, when there is provision of infrastructure, machinery
and tools, then the individuals would certainly render an indispensable contribution in
enhancing production processes. Apart from making use of machinery and tools, it is vital for
the individuals to acquire training regarding their utilization. In the present existence,
individuals are making use of machinery and tools to augment productivity, rather than
carrying out every stage of the production processes manually.

Conclusion

Employment opportunities are regarded as indispensable, particularly among the

individuals belonging to rural communities. In rural areas, individuals are primarily engaged
in agriculture and farming practices. Apart from these, they are employed in small scale
industries or get engaged in the production of handicrafts and other products. The types of
employment opportunities in rural communities are, agricultural sector, education sector,
health care and medical, production of handicrafts, production and marketing of food items,
factories and industries, cultural performances, tea stalls and restaurants, repairing machines
and technologies and vocational occupations. These are numerous types of employment
opportunities, in which rural individuals are engaged in, on the basis of their skills and
abilities and interest areas. When they are unable to find employment opportunities in rural
areas, then they migrate to urban communities to look for better livelihoods opportunities.

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 Children belonging to rural communities also get engaged in employment
opportunities of various types. When they attend schools, then they normally get engaged in
employment after school hours, on a part-time basis. On the other hand, when they do not
attend schools, then they are usually employed on full-time basis. The factors influencing the
children to get engaged in employment opportunities are, poverty, lack of interest in studies,
occurrence of conflicts and disputes, discriminatory treatment, development of interest and
enthusiasm, developing communication skills, coping up with criminal and violent acts,
empowerment opportunities, generating income for education and meeting other expenses.

Factors influencing the acquisition of employment opportunities are, pay, location of

workplace from home, means of transportation, working environmental conditions, nature of
job duties, terms and relationships with other individuals within the workplace, training
programs, work timings, benefits and incentives and provision of infrastructure, machinery
and tools. When rural individuals are to obtain employment opportunities, they do take these
factors under consideration. Finally, it can be stated that within rural communities, it is vital
to formulate schemes and programs that would augment agricultural productivity,
employment opportunities in industries and factories and overall quality of lives of rural
individuals. Another vital area is, children should be encouraged towards acquisition of
education and participation in childhood activities and should not be encouraged in
employment opportunities.

Chapter 7. Livelihood Opportunities in Rural Areas

The concept of livelihood strategy is regarded as one of the central aspects of the
development policies, practices and programs, not only in India, but in other countries of the
world as well. Adequate and secure livelihoods are regarded as a concern to the well-being of
rural individuals (Chapter 3, n.d.). Livelihood is a set of economic activities, involving self-
employment and or wage employment by making use of one’s endowments, which can be
human and material. The use of human and material resources are primarily made use of to
generate adequate resources, which can be either cash or non-cash. These resources are made
use of by the rural individuals to sustain their livelihoods in an enhanced manner.

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Government of India has rendered a significant contribution in promoting livelihoods
opportunities among rural individuals. There have been implementation of various rural
development programs, including Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MGNREGS). In rural communities, individuals experience number of problems and
challenges in meeting livelihoods opportunities in an appropriate manner (Chapter-1.
Introduction, n.d.).

The basic inequalities in the livelihood security, in the basic necessities of food,
clothing and shelter lead to prevalence of destitute conditions among rural population.
Furthermore, the environmental effects of poverty, i.e. deforestation, declining land
productivity, erosion and other environmental hazards are regarded as factors that have a
negative influence upon the livelihoods opportunities of rural individuals. For the sustenance
of livelihoods opportunities, in most cases, rural households depend upon agriculture,
farming practices, animal husbandry and management of livestock. Some of the livelihoods
strategies are wage labour, social pension, remittances from the members of the households,
who are employed in urban communities, unpaid domestic and farm labour and other
activities, which include, production of handicrafts, pottery making, jewellery making and so
forth (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.). In these communities, individuals possess traditional
viewpoints and follow customs, norms and practices. In other words, their livelihood
opportunities are fundamentally based upon their jobs and cultures.

Need for Improvements in Livelihoods Opportunities

The individuals are required to work diligently and implement practices and
approaches to bring about improvements in their livelihoods opportunities on a continuous
basis. The most serious problem that the rural society faces within the country is poverty. The
major causes of poverty are unemployment, underemployment, low wage rate and reductions
in the agricultural sector and so forth. The conditions of poverty are regarded as major
impediments within the course of sustenance of adequate livelihoods opportunities. When the
rural individuals experience severe problems as a result of poverty, then they form this major
goal to get engaged in different types of employment opportunities in accordance to their
skills and abilities. The rural communities are not in a well-developed state. Individuals are

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unable to obtain employment opportunities in these communities, therefore, they migrate to
urban areas to seek employment. In some cases, when they are unable to obtain employment
opportunities in accordance to their interests, then they obtain other jobs, which are not in
accordance to their interests (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

Most of the rural individuals within the country take into account the agricultural
sector as the backbone of their income. But in the present existence, they can no longer be
dependent upon agriculture. There are number of causes, that rural individuals no longer
consider the agricultural sector as the major area to promote livelihoods opportunities among
themselves. Individuals, who are employed in this sector, usually are disappointed and
struggle to make ends meet due to low wage rate. The cost of production does not in tally
with the yield. The farmers usually turn out to be reluctant to get involved in the agricultural
sector. The farmers, who are employed in other fields are not paid a fair wage. Population
explosion is also considered as one of the major causes of decline in the agricultural field. As
a result of population explosion, most of the fertile lands are being converted into house
plots. Hence, due to this, there has been a decline in the employment of rural individuals
within the agricultural sector (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

The need for improvement of livelihoods opportunities for the individuals is primarily
due to current overall endowments of the factors of production, distribution of productive
assets and productive abilities are grossly out of the alignment with what is needed. The
economy is not in a well-developed state, which would contribute effectively for generating
employment opportunities, mainly for the individuals, who aspire to obtain them. In India,
there is not any scarcity of labour power and also insufficient investible capital. A large
proportion of the individuals, who need work are, uneducated, unskilled and do not possess
capital. Mostly, they possess the abilities to get occupied in unskilled manual labour. They
are able to lift loads with ease. All these individuals and migrants, belonging to other
countries are in the present within the age group that are required to enhance their livelihoods
opportunities (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.). Hence, with the possession of certain abilities,
they are able to even get involved in minority jobs, such as, cleaning, washing and so forth.

The rural individuals are effected to a major extent by the conditions of poverty,
illiteracy, unemployment, and malnutrition. When they get affected by natural calamities and
disasters, such as, drought, floods, and earthquakes, then too, they need assistance to

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recuperate. One of the most indispensable means to alleviate these problems is to obtain
lucrative livelihoods opportunities. In this case, one is able to generate ways that would
promote well-being of their living conditions. It is a fact that there is not any involvement of
any other factor that would bring about improvements in various aspects of the community.
These include, economic, social, cultural and educational. If the individuals, belonging to
rural communities are effectively trained to make use of their skills and abilities, then they
would be in a position to meet their physical needs and requirements. In other words, it is
vital for the individuals, belonging to rural communities to generate awareness in terms of all
areas that would render an effective contribution in the sustenance of the living conditions
(Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

The state is required to put into operation the measures that are necessary to secure
livelihoods opportunities among individuals. It is vital to initiate measures to organize new
development policies and programs and to instigate the policies and programs, which
augment economic and social sustainability of rural livelihoods. The family is regarded as the
micro-unit of the community. It is the primary responsibility of the family members to ensure
that proper means are provided to the individuals to sustain their livelihoods in an enhanced
manner. If the economic condition of the family is in an improved state, then it would
gradually lead to economic sustainability of the state. It is necessary to acquire information in
terms of transformation that has taken place from mere wage employment programs to right
base wage employment program Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (MGNREGS) (Chapter-1. Introduction, n.d.).

Within the country, there are three decades of experience for the purpose of
generating wage employment programs. To create employment programs within the public,
through a scheme is not regarded as a new practice. The Maharashtra Model of rural
employment has existed since 1970s. As far as new MGNREGS is concerned, it has a large
number of individualities, like people’s entitlement, and support by law. These are mandatory
in nature. Many changes have not taken place in the form and substance of public works
programs in the past 30-odd years. In many ways, MGNREGS is regarded as the replication
of other schemes in letter or spirit and with legal guarantee. The first set of programs, the
National Rural Employment Program and the Rural Landless Employment Program, began in
the 1970s, with the initiation of Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Scheme (Chapter-1.
Introduction, n.d.).

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 The other programs and schemes that were introduced with the main purpose of
enhancing livelihoods opportunities are, Wage Employment Programs, which was initiated in
1972. The Food for Work Program (FWP) was initiated in the 1970s, to make food grains
available to the individuals, particularly the ones, who are poverty stricken and landless. The
other program is, National Rural Employment Program (NREP). It has the objective of
creating profitable employment opportunities within rural communities. Rural Landless
Guarantee Scheme (RLGS) was initiated in 1983 with the objective of expanding
employment opportunities to rural landless individuals, by guaranteeing employment to at
least one member of the landless households, for up to 100 days in a year, on the projects for
building community assets and rural infrastructure. The amalgamation of the programs, i.e.
NREP and RLGS took place in 1989 into Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY) (Chapter-1.
Introduction, n.d.).

National Rural Livelihood Mission

The Government of India has created a new program that would bring about
transformation in the living conditions and livelihoods opportunities of rural individuals. The
new National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM) would reach the level of the households
with the aim of providing support to the formation of institutions of the poverty stricken and
underprivileged sections of the society. The adequate space has been created for these
individuals, so they are able to access food, health care facilities, assets, resources and are
able to promote better livelihoods opportunities for themselves and their families (India’s
National Rural Livelihoods Mission, n.d.).
This program is regarded as the largest poverty reduction initiative. It is the largest
program for women in the world, with its goal of reaching approximately 70 million rural
households. NRLM will be initiated in 12 states, which account for 85 percent of the rural
poor households within the country. More than $ 5.1 billion would be invested in NRLM by
the Government of India over next seven years. It includes the expected allocation for the 12th
Five Year Plan. The World Bank is committing $ 1.5 billion through its National Rural
Livelihoods Project (NRLP). It is regarded as the largest single investment in the poverty
reduction program (India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission, n.d.).

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 The major focus of this program is to alleviate the conditions of poverty in rural
communities. Poverty is regarded as the major hindrance within the course of sustenance of
better livelihoods. The major approach that it has adopted in reducing poverty is mobilizing
rural households into representative and self-managed institutions at the grassroots level.
These are known as women’s self-help groups (SHGs). The tasks and activities of this
program has been put into operation exclusively through women’s groups and organizations.
It can have a major impact upon gender issues. The poverty stricken individuals would also
demand services such as, early childhood education, pensions, safety nets, and assistance and
services to those in need (India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission, n.d.).
The major goal is to stimulate the individuals to get involved in variety of ways that
would enable them to sustain better livelihoods. These are, agriculture and allied sectors,
animal husbandry, rearing of livestock, and inland fisheries. The program also leads to
development of enterprise through making provision of training to the individuals to obtain
suitable employment opportunities. In addition to these, the program also gets involved in the
building and protection of the asset base. This is carried out through savings and ultimate
access to financial institutions. This accessibility makes provision of room to the poverty
stricken households to cause a reduction in the debt burden by retiring high debt-cost, access
new credit at market prices and access products to cause a decline in vulnerability, such as,
insurance (India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission, n.d.). Accessibility to these products
also render an effective contribution in making their future secure. Hence, it can be stated that
NRLM has rendered an indispensable contribution in promoting enhanced livelihoods
opportunities for rural individuals.

Aspects Signifying Rural Livelihoods

The major aspects that are important in promoting and reinforcing livelihoods
opportunities among rural communities have been stated as follows:
Education – The acquisition of education establishes a base for the individuals to
sustain better livelihoods. One is able to acquire understanding of various concepts and areas,
which enables them to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate. The individuals
are able to inculcate the traits of morality and ethics, which would enable them to implement
honesty and righteousness in carrying out various tasks and activities. In rural communities,
individuals are recognizing the significance of education. They possess the viewpoint that

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upon the acquisition of education, their children would be able to acquire good employment
opportunities and augment their livelihoods. Even when the parents are not educated, they
aspire to get their children enrolled in schools and augment their academic skills. Research
has indicated that rural individuals are migrating to urban areas as well to get enrolled in
higher educational institutions to enhance their educational qualifications. They are acquiring
masters and doctoral degrees with the objective of promoting better livelihoods for their
families and communities.
Diet and Nutrition – Diet and nutrition is regarded as the aspect that is of utmost
significance. Individuals in rural as well as in urban communities pay adequate attention upon
this aspect. When women begin to carry out the household responsibilities, then they first of
all plan preparation of meals. In order to get engaged in any task or activity, it is vital for the
individuals to obtain proper diet. When children go to school in the morning or when
individuals go to work, then they obtain their breakfast, as they need the essential nutrients
and also need to boost their energy levels. When rural women are involved in the
implementation of household chores, then too, they obtain their breakfast, so they can
perform their work duties better. Rural individuals are primarily engaged in manual jobs and
these jobs require them to make use of their muscles. Hence, they are required to obtain
nutritious and healthy meals. Therefore, it can be stated that through the acquisition of proper
diet, one would be able to promote livelihoods opportunities in an efficacious manner.
Agriculture and Farming Practices – Agriculture and farming practices are regarded
as significant areas within rural India. Majority of the rural population is dependent upon the
agricultural sector for sustaining their living conditions. In order to generate productivity, it is
vital for them to possess efficient skills and knowledge. Increase in productivity and
profitability can be achieved through, blending practical knowledge with scientific
technologies, efficient use of natural resources, implementing time specific management
practices, giving importance to technology-driven production, adopting appropriate farming
systems, adoption of location-specific technology, market demand driven production and
implementing low cost and no cost technologies (Shekara, Balasubramani, Sharma, Shukla,
Kumar, Chaudhary, & Baumann, 2016).

In these sectors, agricultural labourers and farmers are employed and work diligently,
but they also need to face challenges. There are certain positive and negative aspects. The
positive aspects are, the individuals are making use of modern and innovative techniques and
practices in their work to augment productivity. In rural communities, there have been

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establishment of training centres, in which individuals get enrolled to acquire information in
terms of advanced methods and technologies. The negative aspects are, when individuals and
areas get effected by floods, droughts and other problems, which may hinder productivity. In
these sectors, the income generated is not sufficient, hence, individuals look for other
alternatives.

Vocational Training – As it has been stated that being employed in just the
agricultural sector is not sufficient to promote better livelihoods opportunities. The rural
individuals look for other options as well. Vocational training is common among them.
Vocational education, vocational education and training, technical and vocational education
and training, skills development, workforce development and human resources development
are often used interchangeably. Vocational education and training are regarded as the set of
practices and technologies (McGrath, 2011).
The individuals get enrolled into vocational training centres to augment their skills
and abilities, so they are able to look for other alternatives. The rural individuals enhance
their skills in terms of number of areas. These include, plumbing, repair work, electric work,
painting, carpentry, production of handicrafts, artworks and so forth. The individuals make
selection of the fields, primarily on the basis of their interests and abilities. When they are
efficiently trained in these areas, then they usually migrate to urban areas and obtain
employment. In most cases, they make visits to houses and offices and implement their skills.
This usually applies to electricians, plumbers, carpenters, painters and repair workers.
Whereas, in others, they may establish their own business. This is mostly in the case of
artisans and craftsmen.
Extra-Curricular Activities – Extra-curricular activities render a significant
contribution in not only schools, but also in enriching the livelihoods opportunities among
rural individuals. When one considers the large number of activities available, then one is
able to identify the number of activities available to generate income and enhance one’s
living conditions. These include, athletics, publications, fine arts, student government,
academic clubs, service organizations and special interest activities (O’Dea, 1994). It has
been found that rural individuals possess great interest and enthusiasm in not only production
of handicrafts and artworks, but also activities such as, singing, dancing, playing of musical
instruments and so forth.
When they possess keen interest in them and aspire to get trained in any one particular
extra-curricular activity, then in some cases, they even drop out of schools and join training

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centres or in some cases, attend schools and training centres, simultaneously. On the other
hand, when they are residing in destitute conditions and experience financial problems, then
they make use of mobile phones or television or computers to augment their skills and
abilities. One gains proficiency and expertise in these activities with practice. When
individuals acquire proficiency in these activities, then they even establish their own training
centres. Whereas, in other cases, they even participate in shows and concerts to generate
income. Hence, rural individuals make use of their skills and abilities to enhance livelihoods
opportunities.
Sports Activities – Rural individuals depict interest in various forms of sports
activities as well as make them sources to augment livelihoods opportunities. The various
forms of sports that individuals depict interest in are, running, wrestling, taekwondo,
badminton, tennis, cricket, boxing, swimming and so forth. Normally, individuals develop
interest in sports, when their family members, particularly fathers and grandfathers have been
sportspersons. In other words, rural individuals often possess the viewpoint that their children
should make a career in such activities, when they are no longer able to make use of them. At
the initial stage, the individuals acquire training from their fathers, grandfathers or uncles.
But within the course of time, when they need to acquire proficiency and expertise to
participate in competitions at the national or at the international level, they join training
centres. Training centres provide efficient training and prepare the individuals to become
national level or international level athletes. In the present world, rural individuals are getting
involved in sports activities to a major extent to augment livelihoods opportunities.
Safety Nets – In order to enhance livelihoods opportunities, individuals are required to
maintain their health and safety. Safety and protection of the individuals is regarded as
indispensable, particularly when they are employed in industries, plantations and other
hazardous occupations. In rural areas, there have been establishment of small scale industries.
Rural individuals are employed in these industries and make use of machines and tools in the
implementation of production processes. The use of machines and tools are normally
considered hazardous in the production of various items, such as locks. When the individuals
do not have access to other options, they work in these industries. But it is vital for them to
acquire appropriate training and work under the supervision of the manager or supervisor,
especially, when they are novice. In various occupations, especially the ones, in which they
make use of chemicals and other substances, individuals need to take adequate precautions
and safety measures, such as proper attire, glasses, gloves and so forth. Therefore, it can be

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stated, when training is provided to the individuals, they need to be made aware, particularly
in terms of safety nets.
Marketing and Sales – In rural areas, individuals, men and women are engaged in the
production of handicrafts, food items, pottery, jewellery, embroideries, garments, decorative
items and so forth. When they are engaged in the production of these items, then they need to
possess adequate awareness in terms of marketing and sales. Normally, they market their
products within their own communities at the time of festivals. In rural communities,
individuals have their own customs and practices, upon which their lives are centred.
Particularly at the time of festivals, individuals make purchases of decorative as well as other
items. Hence, they are able to market their products and incur profitability. In some cases,
rural individuals migrate to urban communities, where they make visits to market places and
set up stalls. The increase in visits takes place, especially at the time of festivals. During the
festive season, they may also make visits to fairs for marketing and sales. Artisans and
craftsmen need to be informative in terms of the time period, when demand for their products
would be high.
Animal Husbandry – Animal husbandry deals with the study of various breeds of
domesticated animals and their management for obtaining better products and services. When
it involves the study of proper utilization of economically significant domestic animals, then
it is known as livestock management (Animal Husbandry, n.d.). Animal husbandry is also
regarded as one of the essential areas of rural communities. It is the branch of agriculture that
deals with rearing of animals that are used for fibre, meat, milk, eggs and other products. In
households, individuals keep livestock and rearing of livestock is regarded as one of the
major responsibilities. In this case, individuals belonging to all age-groups and genders
participate. The major functions that they are required to carry out in animal husbandry are,
day-to-day care, selective breeding and raising of livestock. The individuals need to take care
of diet, health care, shelter, safety and other areas of their animals.
In rural communities, individuals in most cases, keep livestock and make use of them
to generate productivity and income. In order to enhance livelihoods opportunities, they
obtain products from their animals, such as, fibre, wool, meat, milk, eggs and so forth, mainly
for selling purposes. Normally, when they possess efficient skills, then milk is used to
produce items such as, butter, cheese, which they usually sell on daily basis. Another major
use of keeping animals is, they are also able to transport to other regions and cities. Such
animals are horses, camels, and bullocks.

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 Programs and Schemes - In rural communities, there have been introduction of
programs and schemes, which have the major objective of promoting well-being of the
individuals, particularly the ones, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. When the individuals are experiencing health
related problems or illnesses or are not ambulatory, in other words, when they are not able to
earn their livelihoods opportunities, then they obtain assistance from programs and schemes.
Financial assistance is one of the major assistances that is available to these individuals.
Micro-finance is one of the programs that makes provision of financial assistance to
particularly rural women. Apart from this, the other programs and schemes are, women and
child development programs, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and so forth.
Furthermore, there are also formulation of programs that work towards promoting well-being
of the farmers and agricultural labourers. Some of the programs are initiated to augment skills
development opportunities among individuals, these are known as skills development
programs. It has been found that rural individuals have been making effective use of these
programs and schemes to acquire better livelihoods opportunities.

Role of Agriculture in Improving Livelihoods Opportunities

Within developing countries like India, majority of families in farm and non-farm
sectors, regard agricultural sector as the major area that would lead to bringing about
improvements in the livelihoods opportunities for rural individuals. Livelihood opportunities
can be improved by the individuals, when they have adequate food and financial resources
available to meet their daily needs and requirements. When the individuals have a job, when
they have resources and assets to sustain their living conditions, they feel that they will be
able to sustain their livelihoods opportunities in an appropriate manner. There are four
principle ways of securing livelihoods opportunities among the individuals, belonging to rural
communities. These are stated as follows: (Acharya, 2006).
Production-based Livelihoods – In the case of production-based livelihood, the large
proportion of small and marginal farmers acquire livelihoods opportunities through
production on small pieces of land. In simple terms, when the individuals are engaged in the
production processes to sustain their living, then it is regarded as production-based
livelihoods. For these individuals, availability or access to inputs and improved methods of

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production and cultivation are considered quite critical for improving livelihoods
opportunities.
Labour-based Livelihoods – In the case of labour-based livelihoods, the small
landholders and landless rural households meet their livelihoods opportunities by selling their
labour. In some cases, individuals even get employed in construction work, where they put
into practice, unskilled manual labour. In the labour-based livelihood, they take into
consideration, factors such as, demand for labour, wage rates and prices of food.
Exchange or Market-based Livelihoods – Exchange or market-based livelihood is,
when individuals or families, belonging to rural communities produce surplus food or non-
food agricultural products or non-farm goods by selling of surplus within the market. For this
purpose, they need to possess adequate information in terms of marketing strategies, and the
costs involved in production and selling prices. They need to be aware of the fact that costs
involved in production and manufacturing of the products should be less than the selling price
in order to incur profitability.
Transfer-based Entitlements – Transfer-based entitlements usually are meant for
households, which do not possess any income-earning asset or an able-bodied person to get
engaged in some type of work to sustain their livelihoods opportunities in an appropriate
manner. They are the ones, who are dependent upon the transfers, available from the
government or other social organizations. The Government’s social security and food
assistance programs are considered relevant for this group of rural households in fulfilling
their livelihoods requirements. The rural livelihoods systems within the developing countries,
thus include a comprehensive range of factors and depend upon several macro sub-systems of
the economy.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined sustainable agriculture as the
management and conservation of the resource base and the use of modern and innovative
methods and strategies that would ensure the attainment and satisfaction of human needs of
the present and future generations. It follows that sustainable agriculture is that path of
development of agriculture that is environmentally non-degrading, technologically
appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable (Acharya, 2006). In other words, the
rural individuals would be able to augment their livelihoods opportunities, when they would
be able to make use of modern and innovative techniques and methods in the production
processes.
When understanding, how the agricultural sector is rendering an effectual contribution
in the sustenance of the living conditions of the individuals, it is necessary to identify that

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agriculture by definition is the most efficaciously managed eco-system. It is closely
connected with the food system. The advancements taking place within the agricultural sector
not only leads to augmentation of productivity, but the rural individuals, who are solely
dependent upon it to sustain their livelihoods are able to alleviate poverty. The agricultural
labourers are able to generate income and would also not experience problems in fulfilling
their nutritional requirements. It is essential for these individuals to possess awareness
regarding methods and techniques, for the purpose of augmenting productivity. With the
implementation of sustainable cropping and farming systems, recent trends in the profitability
of farming and some new approaches, such as organic farming, and so forth would lead to
augmentation of productivity (Acharya, 2006).
A significant aspect of sustainability of agriculture and rural livelihoods is the
perception of rural and urban areas. The relationship between rural and urban areas has
undergone a significant change in recent years, which is regarded as an appropriate sign for
reducing pressure on land and water resources. It has become difficult to define the borders
between the farm lands, small and large towns, informal urban settlements, peri-urban areas
and urban centres. There has been an increase of the peri-urban areas as compared to the
cities at a rapid pace. The major cause of increase in these areas is, because private
investments tend to be concentrated in these areas. The urban population is increasing at a
rate, which is higher than that of the total population and this trend continues to exist
(Acharya, 2006).
There is strong evidence available that rural livelihoods have been far more multi-
locational. The rural individuals travel to urban areas and other regions, where they feel they
would be able to find opportunities to secure better livelihoods. The jobs in industries and
factories are regarded as hazardous. Rural individuals, usually feel insecure, when they are to
work in these places, as they do not possess the needed skills and also feel vulnerable.
Individuals normally are skilled only in those areas, in which they are engaged. The rural
individuals are primarily engaged in the agricultural sector and farming practices. Therefore,
they possess adequate knowledge and information regarding the tasks and activities involved
in this sector. When they are unable to generate sufficient income in the agricultural sector,
then they look for other job opportunities. It has been found, rural individuals acquire training
in terms of plumbing, electric work, repair work, carpentry, painting, welding, gardening,
driving, cooking, pottery making, silk weaving and so forth. They make use of these skills
and abilities to acquire employment opportunities in urban areas as well.

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 Measures to Enhance Rural Livelihoods
Livelihoods are regarded as occupations that individuals are engaged in, with the
main purpose of generating a source of income. The major areas that are considered as
sources of rural livelihoods within the country are agriculture, labour, production, animal
husbandry and so forth. A rural livelihood is defined as the capabilities, assets and activities
of the individuals that they need with the main aim of sustaining their living. In order to
enhance better livelihoods opportunities, the major strategies that are required to be taken into
consideration are, poverty alleviation, innovative approaches in creating better livelihood
opportunities, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities and wage and self-
employment (Netar, 2017).

Poverty Alleviation

Poverty is regarded as one of the major problems that rural individuals are
experiencing. Due to the prevalence of poverty, they are experiencing major impediments in
carrying out various tasks and activities and even in looking after their health care and well-
being. The conditions of poverty are mainly characterised by lack of resources, particularly
finances, which are needed to fulfil all needs and requirements. Due to these conditions,
individuals, mostly women and children are experiencing the problem of malnutrition. The
alleviation of poverty is the first and the foremost priority of the individuals, particularly the
ones, who have the main objective of rural development.
For the achievement of this objective, there have been formulation of measures. These
measures are economic and humanitarian. The measures that aim at the alleviation of poverty
are social security measures, food security measures, health care and medical facilities and
wage and employment opportunities. With the dawn of economic growth, there have been
alleviation of conditions of poverty and individuals, belonging to rural communities are also
bringing about improvements within their overall quality of life. To alleviate the conditions
of poverty, one of the most significant aspects is, making provision of financial assistance.
With the introduction of modern and innovative methods in the agricultural sector, there has
been enhancement of productivity and profitability. In other words, rural individuals need to
be aware of employment opportunities and focus upon development of skills in order to earn
better livelihoods.

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 Innovative Approaches in Creating Better Livelihoods Opportunities

Livelihood is best understood by taking into cognizance the financial, physical, social,
human and natural endowments. The human element is considered as the most critical. When
formulation of measures and approaches takes place, then the first and foremost concern is
addressing the problems and challenges that the rural individuals are experiencing. Taking
into account this aspect, there have been number of constitutional, administrative, legal and
institutional approaches (Innovative Approaches in Creating Livelihoods, 2010). The
innovative approach that has been widely acknowledged in not only creating better
livelihoods opportunities for the rural individuals but also for implementing other tasks and
activities is use of technology. As it has been stated that agriculture is the primary occupation
of rural individuals. They are able to augment productivity and profitability with the use of
technology.
In the creation of better livelihoods opportunities, BASIX has been playing a leading
role within the country. BASIX is the collective representation of the group of financial
services and technical assistance entities that are rendering a significant contribution in the
promotion of better livelihoods. The different aspects that have been taken into consideration
in BASIX are, Livelihoods Financial Services (LFS), Agricultural/Business Development
Services (Ag/BDS), and Institutional Development Services (IDS). These are regarded as the
means of addressing the needs and requirements of individuals, particularly belonging to
deprived and underprivileged communities. The Foundation for Ecological Security (FES)
has shown that management and development of common property land can lead to not only
restoration of the degraded forest, but also promoting livelihoods opportunities, particularly
for the vulnerable sections of the society. In common lands, watershed approach is regarded
as the most relevant method for the propagation of livelihoods opportunities (Innovative
Approaches in Creating Livelihoods, 2010).
Basic Amenities and Infrastructure Facilities

In rural communities, individuals normally experience shortage of civic amenities

within their homes. Furthermore, the infrastructural facilities are also not in a well-developed
condition. Water is regarded as the most significant need, which is required in the
implementation of various tasks and activities. In rural households, there is scarcity of water
and individuals need to depend upon wells, water bodies and rivers located nearby. Apart
from shortage of water, they also experience shortage of electricity. They make use of mud

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stoves and traditional methods in the preparation of meals and in their overall management of
household responsibilities. In rural communities, the infrastructural facilities are also not in a
well-developed state. The aspects that are taken into consideration in infrastructural facilities
are, broadcasting, radio, transportation, public services, technology and communications,
power supplies, water supplies, telecommunications, and roads and rail networks. It is vital to
bring about improvements in these areas in order to promote better livelihoods opportunities.
Apart from bringing about improvements in them, it is vital to generate awareness among
rural individuals to make effective use of them, particularly, technology and communications.
Wage and Self-Employment

It has been found that acquisition of employment opportunities and generation of

income are regarded as primary objectives of rural individuals. They are looking for means to
get engaged in various types of jobs, which would enable them to augment livelihoods
opportunities. The individuals are stated to be self-employed, when they are engaged in any
task or job duty on their own. In other words, when they are not working under any employer.
The rural individuals are engaged in various jobs, which would promote wage and living
conditions. These include, agriculture and farming practices, especially, when they have their
own farms, animal husbandry, production of handicrafts and artworks, pottery making, silk
weaving, production of food items and so forth. When rural individuals are unable to look for
employment opportunities, then they acquire training and develop their skills in any one
particular area of their interest and put it into operation to augment their livelihoods
opportunities. In self-employment, the earnings of the individuals usually depends upon how
much their products are in demand in the market. Normally, they are engaged in the
production of items that are in much demand. These include, garments, food items or other
items of daily use.

Conclusion

Augmenting livelihoods opportunities is regarded as the primary aspect of the

individuals, belonging to all age groups, categories and backgrounds in order to promote their
well-being. In the present existence, the need for bringing about improvements in livelihoods
opportunities of rural individuals have been given consideration. To fulfil this objective, there
have been formulation of measures and programs, taking into consideration, the needs and

105
requirements of rural individuals. NRLM is a program that was implemented, primarily to
alleviate the conditions of poverty. The aspects signifying rural livelihoods are, education,
diet and nutrition, agriculture and farming practices, vocational training, extra-curricular
activities, sports activities, safety nets, marketing and sales, animal husbandry, and programs
and schemes. The agricultural sector renders a significant contribution in promoting
livelihoods opportunities for rural individuals. The four principle ways are, production-based
livelihoods, labour-based livelihoods, exchange or market-based livelihoods and transfer-
based entitlements.
In achieving the major objective of enhancement of rural livelihoods, the main areas
that need to be taken into consideration are, poverty alleviation, innovative approaches in
creating better livelihoods opportunities, basic amenities and infrastructure facilities and
wage and self-employment. In rural communities, it is vital to ensure that individuals are able
to generate sufficient income through which they would be able to augment their living
conditions. In rural areas, individuals normally have large families, there are more than two
children in a nuclear family. Therefore, in order to sustain their living conditions, the
individuals are required to adopt more than one task or activity. In most cases, individuals
belonging to rural communities migrate to urban areas to acquire job to enhance their living
conditions. It has been found that they not only obtain employment opportunities in urban
communities, but also are seeking enrolment in higher educational institutions to enhance
their educational qualifications. Hence, it can be stated that rural individuals are generating
information regarding programs, schemes and measures that would lead to up-gradation of
their livelihoods opportunities.

Chapter 8. Status of Women in Rural Areas

In rural communities, women are experiencing contradictions. On one hand, she is

vested with the major responsibility of implementation of household chores, child
development, taking care of needs and requirements of elderly family members and so forth.
Whereas, on the other hand, she is subjected to various forms of abuse and mistreatment. In

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some of the rural communities, girls are regarded as liabilities. Their birth is not appreciated
and more preference is given to male children. The individuals normally possess the
viewpoint that girls should be trained in terms of implementation of household
responsibilities and school education is not meant for them. They have to eventually get
married, where they will not be able to make use of their academic skills. Whereas, boys are
encouraged to get enrolled in schools and acquire education, as it is believed, they would
contribute towards promoting well-being of their families and communities, through their
educational skills. Hence, in this manner, girls experience discriminatory treatment.

Rural women and girls normally are required to follow the instructions of the male
members within the household. In their natal homes, they have to listen to and obey their
fathers, in youth, they are required to follow the rules formulated in their marital homes and
in old age, they are dependent upon their sons. They are less literate and capable as compared
to men. Majority of rural women, not only experience economic poverty, but also information
poverty. In some cases, constraints are imposed upon them to express their viewpoints or
have a say in the decision making matters. In rural India, the percentage of women, who own
land and other productive assets are few. Majority of women are engaged in the agricultural
sector, where they are required to carry out manual work. Women mostly are not skilled in
terms of use of machines and these are put into operation by men (Bhattacharyya, n.d.).

Socio-Economic Status of Rural Women

Women in rural India have been experiencing number of aspects that are imposing
detrimental effects upon their socio-economic status. They have been victims of various
forms of criminal and violent acts as well, which are proving to be major barriers in their
progression. In rural areas, girls are required to contribute in the implementation of household
responsibilities. In the present existence, there has been transformations within the
viewpoints of the individuals and they also aspire to get their girls educated. But prevalence
of the conditions of poverty is regarded as a major barrier within the course of acquisition of
education. When rural individuals possess limited resources, then they give preference to
education among male children. Whereas, girls are trained in terms of implementation of
household responsibilities, such as, cleaning, washing, rearing of livestock, fetching water,
preparation of meals, taking care of siblings and elderly members of the family, especially
when their parents go to work and so forth.

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 When girls aspire to learn, get enrolled in schools and augment their skills and
abilities, but due to certain problems, they are unable to do so, in such cases, their male
siblings teach them what they have learned in school. It was observed that among the age
group of seven years and above, the literacy rate among the males was found to be 83
percent, whereas, among females, it was found to be 67 percent. Similarly, it was found
among rural communities that approximately 4.5 percent of the males and 2.2 percent of the
females completed their education to the level of graduation and above. Whereas, in urban
areas, the percentage of males, who completed this education is 17 and percentage of females
account for 13 (Yasaswini, Tharaka, & Bhagavanulu, 2017).

In the lower socio-economic level of the society, women were engaged in more
hazardous manual labour than men. In the agricultural sector, more than half the labourers are
women. Still, it is unfortunate that contributions of women are not given recognition and men
are considered as bread-winners of the household. The rural women possess the traits of
diligence and resourcefulness. They render a whole-hearted contribution in the
implementation of various tasks and activities. In spite of their meticulousness, their work is
lesser paid outside and unpaid within the house. In various employment settings, their wage is
less as compared to men, for the implementation of similar job duties. These aspects signify
that they are considered inferior to men. Men normally possess the viewpoint that women
should be confined within the household, carry out the household responsibilities and
upbringing of the family.

Women participation in development is not considered free from gender

discrimination. In the development process, gender bias is considered as the form that
alienates women from the mainstream society. The efforts that they perform and the
contributions that they make towards the well-being of the society are giving them lesser or
no benefits (Chapter II. Review of Women Studies, n.d.). It is unfortunate and is regarded as
a major impediment within the course of progression of not only women, but country as a
whole that women are marginalized and are deprived of equal rights and opportunities as
compared to their male counterparts. The policies and programs that are formulated, focusing
upon development of women put more emphasis upon bringing about improvements in the
status of the male members. In rural areas, males are regarded as the ones, who are likely
responsible for enhancement of family status. Individuals possess this viewpoint that if they
are enrolled in schools or are sent even to urban areas to acquire higher educational

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qualifications, then they would render an effective contribution towards promoting well-
being of their families and communities.

It has been found among rural households, even though they are unable to make
provision of education to their children, primarily due to prevalence of the conditions of
poverty or any other factor. But they usually send their male children to urban areas to look
for better livelihoods opportunities. Girls usually remain in villages, they are trained in terms
of implementation of all types of household responsibilities. In addition to household
responsibilities, they acquire training in terms of production of various forms of handicrafts,
food items, embroideries, knitting, crochet and so forth. In the present existence, rural
individuals have recognized the significance of education and are getting their girls enrolled
in educational institutions. Therefore, when they acquire efficiency in management of
household responsibilities, preparation of meals, production of handicrafts and literacy skills,
then they eventually get married.

Earning enhanced livelihoods opportunities is the major priority of the rural

individuals. Research has indicated that when women get married and are send to marital
homes, then in some cases, they live in their marital homes, along with their in-laws, whereas
their husbands move to urban communities to look for better job opportunities. In such cases,
women have a dual role to perform. The duality of their roles is recognized in the
management of household responsibilities as well as in participation in other tasks and
activities. Rural women and girls, normally possess keen interest and desire in the production
of handicrafts and artworks. Hence, they are engaged in the production of these items and
market them. When they feel they are not able to incur profitability in rural communities,
then they migrate to urban communities to market their products. But before getting engaged
in the production processes, they need to obtain consent from their in-laws.

For rural women, performing dual roles is not a difficult task. When they are involved
in the implementation of more than one job, then it is vital for them to put into operation,
effective time management skills. For instance, in their marital homes, they have more
responsibilities and tasks to carry out, as compared to their natal homes. Since morning until
night time, they are required to work meticulously, especially when they are engaged in
work. This is one of the most indispensable positive factors of rural women and due to this,
they are able to not only supplement family income, but also enhance their status and acquire
empowerment opportunities.

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 Labour Force Participation of Women

There is an interconnection between the education system and the labour force of
women. When women are educated or possess the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and
arithmetic, then they are able to acquire employment opportunities, which may be well-paid
as compared to the jobs, in which women are engaged, particularly the ones, who are not
educated nor possess the basic literacy skills. Within the country, there has been an increase
in the demand of labour, both skilled and semi-skilled in urban and rural areas. When women
need to look for jobs, it is vital for them to generate awareness in terms of qualifications and
experiences required in order to meet the job requirements. In some jobs, employers may
require them to possess at least the basic literacy skills, whereas, in other jobs, employers
may require them to possess at least senior secondary educational qualification (Anxo, &
Lindh, 2010).

When participating in the labour force, women experience number of negative as well
as positive effects. The negative effects are, the employers may make demands of educational
requirements and skills, which may not be possessed by women. Therefore, when they do not
possess the required educational qualifications and skills, then they usually experience
problems in acquiring employment opportunities. Rural women, who are not educated nor
possess the basic literacy skills, usually get engaged in minority jobs, which may include,
unskilled manual labour. In rural as well as in urban areas, women get engaged in
construction work or perform the tasks of cleaning and sweeping. These are regarded as
minority jobs, which may not require them to possess any types of skills. These jobs merely
require them to get engaged in manual work. In most cases, women migrate to urban areas,
where they get employed as domestic helpers. In domestic households, they perform the
tasks, such as, cleaning, sweeping, washing, or taking care of the needs and requirements of
the elderly family members, particularly the ones, who are not ambulatory.

The positive effects that are associated with participation of women in minority jobs
within domestic households are numerous, particularly in urban communities. The employers
make provision of various items and services that may render an effective contribution in
bringing about improvements within their overall quality of lives. These include, making
provision of food, clothing and other items, which would be useful to them such as, kitchen
appliances, blankets and so forth. Apart from various items, they also provide assistance,
such as providing tuition classes to their children free of cost or health care and medical

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assistance, if they are from the medical background. Hence, through these positive aspects,
they are not only able to generate income, but also enhance their skills and abilities.

The individuals employed in the informal sector have less or no formal education.
They make use of labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive technology. They are
uneducated and unskilled and do not have an easy access to financial capital. In India, nine
out of every ten women are employed in the informal sector. The home-based work makes it
manageable for women to carry out the family responsibilities as well as render an effectual
contribution in the implementation of job duties. Within the country, women, who are
employed in the informal sector have inculcated the traits of diligence, resourcefulness and
conscientiousness among themselves. The organization of women have taken place through
the trade union, i.e. Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), which was established in
1972. This organization is regarded as the forum for women in the informal sector, to acquire
complete employment and attain social security. The organization makes provision of credit,
social security, child care, health care and insurance (Anxo, & Lindh, 2010).

Within the formal sector, the rate of employment among the males is higher as
compared to women. Therefore, in the informal sector, women are the main labour supply.
The informal sector does not make provision of social protection and this augments
vulnerability of women. Women in this sector do not require monetary resources to initiate
the production process. Since the production processes are labour-intensive, even when the
investment made is small, it has a high marginal rate of return. It has been observed, within
rural households, when women are the heads of the family, then there is a high drop-out rate
among children from school, as they are encouraged to participate in the management of
household responsibilities as well as jobs. The rate of women is high in the tobacco rolling
industry. This industry employs five million workers and 90 percent of them are women. This
work is usually home-based and women are able to get their daughters involved as well
(Anxo, & Lindh, 2010).

In most of the societies in India, social differentiation takes place between genders.
Within various forms of employment settings, it was believed by the employers that women
are not much capable of performing manual jobs. Manual jobs can be performed
appropriately only by men. This viewpoint is regarded as the major cause of discriminatory
treatment against women. In recent times, equality of status has been assigned to women, but
it is regarded as more legal than existential. This signifies that the status of women is still

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regarded as subordinate to men. Women are considered primarily as reproducers, although
they invented 50 percent of the world’s food. Recognition is given to their role as producers
and due to this, they have gained significance within society (Chapter IV, n.d.).

The employers do possess the viewpoint that men are more capable of performing
manual jobs, particularly lifting, loading and so forth. But in rural as well as in urban areas,
women too are participating in manual jobs. For instance in the construction of houses and
buildings, it has been observed, manually labour jobs are carried out by men as well as
women. One of the negative aspects that they experience is, particularly with regards to pay.
Men are paid more than women, for the performance of same job duties. This is the major
indicator of discriminatory treatment against women. Hence, it is vital for the employers to
ensure that women are given equal pay and equal rights and opportunities within the
employment settings. This should particularly be in the case of implementation of similar job
duties.

Factors Imposing Detrimental Effects upon Status of Women

The factors imposing detrimental effects upon the status of women have been
identified as follows:

Poverty – The conditions of poverty within rural communities are not only imposing
barriers within the course of enhancement of status of women, but individuals, belonging to
all age groups are undergoing unfavourable effects as a result of poverty. In rural India,
nearly 45 percent of the individuals are living below poverty line. In most cases, they are
engaged in minority jobs and are struggling to make ends meet. Under such circumstances,
women and children are the ones, who need to undergo detrimental effects to a major extent.
Research has indicated that when a household has limited income, then most of it is made use
of for providing education, health care and other facilities to the male children. Good quality
food is provided to male children and more attention is paid towards their health care needs.
On the other hand, proper attention is not paid towards providing adequate diet and nutrition
and health care facilities to girls and women. Hence, girls and women experience
disadvantages as a result of poverty, more as compared to males.

Criminal and Violent Acts – Girls and women experience various forms of criminal
and violent acts within as well as outside the home. These are, verbal abuse, physical abuse,
sexual harassment, exploitation, neglect and discriminatory treatment. The major cause

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behind inflicting criminal and violent acts upon women is lack of education and preference
given to male children. The rural individuals, who regard girls as liabilities, impose criminal
and violent acts upon them. They are unable to realize that girls can also render an effective
contribution in bringing about well-being of their families and communities, provided, they
should be given equal opportunities. Experiencing criminal and violent acts within home and
in other places, such as, educational institutions, employment settings, have a major negative
effect upon their mind-sets. As a consequence, they feel vulnerable in going out of their
homes and remain confined within the house. Research has indicated that criminal and
violent acts in schools and training centres have compelled girls to drop out, before their
academic skills are honed.

Economic Exploitation – On the global level, women and girls participate in two-
thirds of the world’s work and receive only one tenths of the world’s income. They form 40
percent of the paid labour force. Women constitute half of the world’s population and own
only one percent of the world’s property. In rural India, their condition is in a deteriorated
state in all aspects of social life. They are paid half of three-quarters of the money as
compared to their male counterparts, even when they are performing same types of job duties.
In the agricultural sector, they perform half of the work, but their work is not given any
recognition. On the average, rural women, work for around 15 to 16 hours per day. Women in
India earn 25 percent less than men. This depicts that there is existence of gender disparities
in determining pay rates (Yasaswini, Tharaka, & Bhagavanulu, 2017).

Educational Deprivation – Apart from discriminatory treatment and neglect, there are
number of factors that deprive girls from getting enrolled in schools to augment their
educational skills and abilities. These are, conditions of poverty, lack of financial resources,
lack of interest in studies, shortage of teachers in school, inappropriate teaching-learning
methods and instructional strategies, unavailability of proper means of transport, lack of
extra-curricular activities in schools, discouraging attitude on the part of the family members,
unpleasant home environmental conditions, and implementation of household
responsibilities. When girls experience any one or more of these factors, then they experience
problems in the acquisition of education. In most cases, they experience challenges in the
acquisition of education, due to inability in understanding academic concepts. At home, their
parents are not educated and they also are unable to concentrate on their studies. Whereas, in
schools as well, when they are unable to clarify their problems, the ultimate outcome is, they
do not score well in tests and exams and have to discontinue their education.

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 Child Marriage – Child marriage is regarded as a criminal act that imposes negative
effects upon the lives of children. Girls are the ones, who suffer to a great extent as compared
to boys. It is when marriage takes place of girls and boys, when they are below 18 years of
age. Within their natal homes, during the childhood stage, girls are trained in terms of
implementation of household chores. It has been found, even when girls are below 10 years
of age, they are encouraged to carry out the household chores. When parents feel that they
have developed their skills and abilities in an efficient manner, their suitable grooms are
found and marriage is arranged. In their marital homes, girls and women are vested with the
primary responsibility of carrying out the household chores. Hence, child marriage not only
discourages girls from acquisition of education, but also participation in other childhood
activities. They merely have to follow the rules and instructions are imposed upon them by
their family members.

Lack of Health Care Facilities – Health care is regarded as the basic requirement for
all individuals, irrespective of their gender, class, caste, age, ethnicity and socio-economic
background. In rural communities, health care facilities are not in a well-developed state.
Individuals experiencing health problems and illnesses are required to travel to distance
regions and to urban areas to obtain medical treatment. When the rural individuals do not
possess sufficient resources to take care of health care needs and requirements of all family
members, then too, girls and women need to undergo deprivation. In such cases, more
attention is paid towards health care and well-being of the male members. The major cause of
this deprivation is limited financial resources. Another cause is, male children are regarded as
the assets of the family. Family members ensure that they get good quality and nutritious
meals, and proper medical facilities are provided to them, in case they experience any health
problems and illnesses. Whereas, less attention is paid towards making provision of healthy
and nutritious meals and health care facilities to girls and women.

Prohibited from Participation in Decision Making Matters – Decision making is

regarded as an integral part of households in all communities. In rural communities too,
individuals are required to make decisions in their lives. Decisions can be major or minor.
Major decisions are the ones, in which family members may seek ideas and suggestions from
others. Whereas, minor decisions are the ones, in which the authority is vested only within
the hands of the male members and they do not obtain ideas and suggestions from others.
Women and girls are not allowed to have a say in the decision making matters. They are
prohibited from giving their ideas and viewpoints and merely have to follow the instructors

114
that have been imposed upon them by their male counterparts. When women possess certain
viewpoints and perspectives and want to express them, but the other members of the family
are unwilling to listen to them, then they feel despondent and inferiority in their status to a
major extent.

Prohibited from Participation in Other Tasks and Activities – Rural women and girls
usually possess the viewpoint that it is necessary for them to get engaged in any kinds of
tasks and activities, which would help them to acquire empowerment opportunities.
Therefore, when they feel, they are unable to get enrolled in schools to acquire education,
then they develop interest in creative and extra-curricular activities. In rural communities,
women and girls normally develop interest in extra-curricular activities, such as, singing,
music, dance, role plays, production of handicrafts, and artworks and so forth. In some cases,
when these aspects are not given attention in their school, then they usually feel disinterested
in studies. It has been found that when they express willingness to augment their skills in any
one particular area, the family members usually do not give their consent. Hence, they are
prohibited from participating in any form of creative and extra-curricular activities. They are
able to get engaged in the production of handicrafts and artworks, provided when their family
members are involved.

Unequal Distribution of Wealth and Resources – Women experience discrimination

with regards to distribution of wealth and resources. When it is stated, unequal distribution of
wealth and resources, it means, male members of the family are given more wealth and
resources by their parents. One of the major causes for the prevalence of this disparity is the
caste system. This system perpetrates injustice, abuses and exploitation of the vast majorities
of the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward
sections of the society. In Uttar Pradesh, this problem is still prevalent. It is characterised by
large differences in distribution of wealth and resources among men and women (Chapter –
2. Socio-Economic Status of Women in India: A Review, n.d.). Widows are the ones, who
experience deprivation of wealth and resources. When a woman becomes a widow, she was
not only prohibited from participation in social, cultural and religious ceremonies, but also
were evicted from homes and were denied right to property. Individuals usually possess the
viewpoint that widows would bring about bad luck. The widows were required to dress
simply in white. They were prohibited from wearing coloured clothes and any ornaments or
jewels.

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 Limited Visits to Other Places – Women were usually meant to remain confined
within the households and restraints were imposed upon their visits to other places as well.
When they expressed the desire to make visits to certain places, restraints were imposed upon
them, such as, they were required to return home within a certain time frame or were
accompanied by other individuals. Girls and women normally express willingness to make
visits to their friend’s houses, or other religious, social, cultural and other places and so forth.
In such cases, they are told, particularly within their marital homes, that when they would
complete certain tasks, only then they would be able to go out for leisure purposes. Women
are socially and physically suppressed. Low participation of women and girls in education is
regarded as the major cause of lesser communication with the outside world. The limited
opportunity of women and girls to acquire education is bound to affect their ability to
participate in activities and make visits to various places (Chapter – 2. Socio-Economic
Status of Women in India: A Review, n.d.).

Measures to Enhance the Status of Rural Women

As it has been understood that women in rural communities are undergoing numerous
unfavourable consequences that are leading to reinforcement of inferiority with respect to
their status. In the present existence, there have been formulation of measures and programs
that are rendering a significant contribution in bringing about improvements in their status.
These have been stated as follows:

Encouraging towards Acquisition of Education – In rural communities, the system of

education is not in a well-developed state. This is primarily characterised by inadequacy in
the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies. Furthermore, the schools do not
have well-developed infrastructural facilities, civic amenities, extra-curricular and creative
activities and also there are shortage of teachers. These are some of the school factors that
have led to a significant decline in the enrolment of students. On the other hand, parents also
do not encourage their girls towards acquisition of education as they encourage their boys.
Therefore, one of the most significant measures is, girls should be encouraged towards
acquisition of education. They should get enrolled in schools and it is the responsibility of the
family members as well as the teachers and school staff to ensure that girls are able to attend
schools and acquire education safely. During the initial stage, particularly, when schools are
located at a distance, then it is the responsibility of the parents to take their girls to schools
and bring them back home.

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 Augmenting Skills Development Opportunities – Rural women possess keen interest
and desire to augment their skills and abilities in terms of various areas. These include
production of various types of handicrafts, artworks, music, dancing, singing, sports, physical
activities and so forth. In some cases, they are fortunate enough to enhance their skills and
abilities in terms of certain areas, particularly, when their parents are involved into them. For
instance, when individuals have a family business of pottery making, then they train their
children too in this field. Whereas, when girls possess the desire to learn a skill, then their
family members should encourage them to get enrolled in training centres. When they are
unable to get enrolled in training centres, due to shortage of funds or location at a distance,
then normally they acquire training through making use of technology. In the present
existence, digital technology has been used comprehensively in rural communities and
individuals are making extensive use of it for different purposes.

Encouragement towards Acquisition of Employment Opportunities – It has been found

that in most cases, rural individuals, especially belonging to deprived, marginalized and
socio-economically backward sections of the society give more preference to getting engaged
in employment opportunities. The main reason behind is to generate income for the purpose
of sustaining their living conditions and it is considered important than any other aspect.
Women and girls in rural communities are discouraged from not only getting enrolled in
schools, but also in acquisition of employment opportunities, particularly in terms of their
interest. Hence, one of the measures to augment the status of rural women and promote
empowerment opportunities among them is to encourage them towards acquisition of
employment opportunities. In some cases, poverty stricken and underprivileged families even
send their girls to urban areas to find employment as domestic helpers. In some cases, when
they are fortunate enough to find kind and generous employers, they obtain support and
assistance in sustaining better livelihoods opportunities for themselves.

Providing Equal Opportunities – Girls and women should be provided with equal
opportunities as their male counterparts. When making provision of equal opportunities, the
family members need to possess the viewpoint that girls too can promote well-being of their
families and carry out same jobs and activities, when they are provided with opportunities.
During the early childhood stage, it is vital for the family members to ensure that girls should
be sent to schools and get engaged in all kinds of childhood activities. When they grow up,
they should be sent to urban communities to get enrolled in higher educational institutions to
acquire Bachelors, masters and even doctoral degrees. Research has indicated that when girls

117
are provided with opportunities, then they are able to obtain better career opportunities. In
other words, when their families give them freedom to make their decisions and look for
means to augment their livelihoods opportunities, then they are able to render an
indispensable contribution towards promoting well-being of their families and communities.

Eliminating Criminal and Violent Acts - The family members within natal as well as
in marital homes inflict abuse and mistreatment upon girls, because of various reasons. These
are, possession of feelings of antagonism and hatred, when they feel they are too demanding
and would not yield any returns on investment, when they do not carry out household tasks
and activities in accordance to the expectations, when they are unable to abide by the rules
and instructions, when they get engaged in any activity without obtaining approval, when
they make use of any item or object without permission and so forth. In most cases, when
solutions can be provided to problems in a peaceful manner, individuals impose criminal and
violent acts upon women, mainly out of the feelings of anger and frustration. Therefore,
individuals need to understand that women too need to be treated with respect and courtesy.
They should be allowed freedom, which would enable them to attain empowerment. When
they need to convey any information to them or give them suggestions, then they need to
ensure that communication takes place in a polite and decent manner.

Eliminating Discriminatory Treatment – As it has been stated that in rural

communities, women and girls experience discriminatory treatment in terms of number of
factors, such as, acquisition of education, employment opportunities, participation in skills
development programs, health care and medical, diet and nutrition and obtaining other items
such as, clothing, playthings, technology and so forth. Families, particularly those who
possess limited finances, usually tend to provide better opportunities to the male children.
Due to this, girls feel discriminated against within their own homes. Therefore, it is vital for
the rural individuals to give equal preference to girls and make provision of essential things
to them in order to promote effective growth and development. On the other hand, outside the
homes in schools as well as in workplaces too, girls are discriminated against. Discriminatory
treatment in terms of payment of wages is common. They are paid less than men, for the
performance of same job duties. Therefore, it is of utmost significance to eliminate
discriminatory treatment and provide equal rights and opportunities to girls and women in
schools, employment settings as well as in making provision of other services.

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 Promoting Effective Communication Skills – When girls and women remain confined
within the homes and primarily get involved in the implementation of household
responsibilities, then they are unable to develop effective communication terms, particularly
with individuals, outside the home. In other words, they are unable to realise that outside their
home also there is a world, with which they have to interact. They are just able to establish
interaction with their family members and do not have any contacts with the community
members. Due to this, they possess an apprehensive and reticent nature. Therefore, it is the
responsibility of the family members to ensure that their girls participate in various social,
cultural and religious programs, make visits to homes of their friends and relatives, and form
a social circle. In this manner, they would overcome their reticent nature and put in more
confidence in themselves to communicate with other individuals, outside their homes.

Encouraging Mobility – Remaining confined within the house and having restricted
mobility is regarded to have unfavourable effects upon the mind-sets of women and girls. In
some cases, they began to experience psychological problems, such as, anger, stress,
depression, pressure and anxiety. Due to these psychological problems, they tend to keep to
themselves and lose communication terms, even with their family members. Therefore, to
alleviate psychological problems and promote effective development of the mind-sets,
women and girls should be encouraged towards mobility. Encouraging mobility is referred to
encouraging them to make visits to various places. These include, market places, parks,
religious places, homes of friends and relatives, health care centres, educational institutions,
training centres, and even to other regions and cities. When rural women and girls are
encouraged towards making visits to these places, then they are able to benefit in number of
ways. These include, development of effective communication skills, generating awareness in
terms of various aspects, acquiring academic skills, and promoting good health and well-
being, physically as well as psychologically.

Implementing Morality and Ethics – For individuals, belonging to all age groups,
categories and backgrounds, it is necessary to implement morality and ethics. Morality and
ethics are vital for the individuals to understand, irrespective of their caste, creed, race,
religion, ethnicity, occupation and socio-economic background. When individuals acquire an
efficient understanding of these traits, they are able to differentiate between appropriate and
inappropriate. These need to be put in operation in the performance of various tasks and
activities, as well as in dealing with other individuals. Men and women need to understand
the principles, standards, norms, values and ideologies, particularly when they are

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collaborating with others in the implementation of tasks and activities. When women acquire
efficient understanding in terms of morality and ethics, they are able to curb any form of
violent and criminal acts and discriminatory treatment that is taking place within the society.
Another benefit is, they are able to enhance their status and put into operation, empowerment
opportunities.

Up-gradation of Status of Widows – The status of widows has been in a deprived

state. The major causes of deterioration of their status are, they are deprived from many rights
and opportunities. These include, prohibition from participating in social, cultural, and
religious programs, not permitted to wear coloured attire or jewellery, not permitted to
consume various food items, which may include, sugary or fried foods, denied right to
property, not allowed to have a say in the decision making matters and inferiority of status.
Due to these factors, widows were not able to render an effectual contribution within the
society or bring about improvements within their status. Therefore, it is necessary to
formulate measures that would bring about up-gradation within their status. In order to lead
to up-gradation of their status, the aspects that are of utmost significance are, they should be
allowed to express their viewpoints and perspective and have a say in the decision making
matters, should be allowed right to property, allowed to participate in various programs and
functions and should not be regarded as inferior.

Conclusion

Within rural communities, women are experiencing number of problems and

challenges within the course of enhancement of their status. Women are primarily involved in
the management of household responsibilities and in taking care of the needs and
requirements of family members. Apart from these responsibilities, their participation has
been increased in the informal sector. Factors imposing detrimental effects upon status of
women are, poverty, criminal and violent acts, economic exploitation, educational
deprivation, child marriage, lack of health care facilities, prohibited from participation in
decision making matters, prohibited from participation in other tasks and activities, unequal
distribution of wealth and resources and limited visits to other places. Women and girls
normally experience one or more of these factors within their households. These are regarded
as barriers within the course of bringing about improvements in their status. Hence, it is vital
to eliminate these barriers and promote advancement opportunities for women and girls.

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 In rural communities, the status of women is in a declined state. Preference is given to
the male members and girls are regarded as liabilities. The primary factor of bringing about
improvement in the status of women is, the family members need to bring about changes in
their viewpoints and regard girls as assets. They should make provision of equal opportunities
for them and allow to them to get involved in various tasks and activities that would augment
their status. There have been formulation of measures to bring about improvements in the
status of women. These are, encouraging towards acquisition of education, augmenting skills
development opportunities, encouragement towards acquisition of employment opportunities,
providing equal opportunities, eliminating criminal and violent acts, eliminating
discriminatory treatment, promoting effective communication skills, encouraging mobility,
implementing morality and ethics, and up-gradation of status of widows. When rural
individuals will acquire sufficient awareness in terms of these measures, then they would
render a significant contribution in up-grading the status of women and improving their living
conditions.

Chapter 9. Rural Social Framework

When taking into consideration rural social framework, it is vital to understand that
the term ‘social framework’ takes into consideration all the areas and activities, in which
rural individuals are engaged in. Rural social framework is a comprehensive and a multi-
dimensional concept, including the development of agriculture and allied activities, village
and cottage industries, including handicrafts, socio-economic infrastructure, community

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services, and facilities and above all the development of quality of life of rural individuals.
When rural individuals need to formulate measures and programs to bring about
improvements in their living conditions, then it is of utmost significance for them to develop
communication terms with the other individuals within the community and augment their
social network. The individuals should inculcate within them the essential skills and abilities
to form connections between social, physical, technological and institutional factors. As a
strategy, its main objective is to improve social and economic well-being of the individuals
(Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

The origin of rural social framework took place within the context of agriculture.
Agriculture is regarded as the major occupation of the individuals, residing in rural
communities. Both men and women are employed in this sector and it is regarded as one of
the primary areas to sustain their living conditions. Apart from agricultural sector, the rural
individuals are employed in other occupations as well. These include, production of
handicrafts, animal husbandry, pottery making, silk weaving, and so forth. Furthermore, these
individuals are employed in cottage and small scale industries. When they are engaged in
various employment opportunities or even when they participate in social, economic, cultural,
religious, and political activities, then it is vital for them to socialize with others. One cannot
carry out any tasks or activities in isolation, it is essential for them to establish
communication terms with other individuals. Therefore, social framework is given
significance in rural communities (Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and
Strategies in India, n.d.). With the advent of globalization and industrialization, the rural
social framework has undergone number of transformations.

Creation of Employment Opportunities

Creation of employment opportunities for rural individuals is regarded to be of utmost

significance. When employment opportunities need to be created for them, then it is essential
to ensure that they lead to effective development of their skills. The youth and aspiring
individuals should be trained to get engaged in these employment opportunities. In rural
communities, there have been establishment of complete business units. In these units, all the
major tasks and functions can be dealt with by rural individuals. Their main objective is to
generate income. The most crucial impediment within the course of attainment of
employment opportunities and progression is lack of infrastructure in rural communities.
Basic infrastructure, such as, roads, communications, transportation and so forth are critical,

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to not only leading to effective growth and development of the regions, but also communities.
It is the responsibility of the government to ensure that infrastructural facilities are adequately
developed (Wasan, 2012).

Within the course of creation of employment opportunities, there are certain barriers
that arise. The most important barriers are shortage of financial resources, and the system of
education is not in a well-developed state. The individuals possess certain traditional
viewpoints and perspectives and are mostly residing in the conditions of poverty and
backwardness. The rural individuals do recognize the significance of education, but mostly,
they do not possess the resources to provide their children good education. The major
objective of rural individuals is to enhance their living conditions by alleviating the
conditions of poverty. These individuals possess the traits of diligence, resourcefulness,
creativity and conscientiousness. But due to lack of proper education, training, awareness and
financial resources, they are unable to acquire employment opportunities, where they can
make effective use of their skills and abilities. In order to alleviate their financial problems,
there have been establishment of many micro-finance institutions. Few non-government
organizations and grameen representatives have a micro-finance model, which gets
implemented, in accordance to the required principles and standards (Wasan, 2012).

There have been formulation of number of employment generation schemes and

programs by the Government of India. One of the programs is, Prime Minister Employment
Generation Program. In addition, there have been establishment of institutions, such as,
NABARD and other rural and industrial development banks for the purpose of financing
projects, pertaining to rural communities. An estimated outlay for the subsidy under PMEGP
is rupees 4485 crores for 2008-2009 to 2011-2012. The implementation of programs and
schemes that would lead to progression of rural communities involves large amounts of
money. Though Government, organizations and other agencies are rendering an effective
contribution towards promoting development of rural communities, but it is necessary to
involve the society as well. In other words, rural individuals too should be allowed to
participate in bringing about changes and reformations within their society. There is an
indispensable need to utilize human resources in monetary as well as in non-monetary terms,
with the purpose of accelerating socio-economic growth and improve the overall quality of
lives (Wasan, 2012).

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 Within various types of employment settings, it is necessary to bring individuals,
belonging to different socio-economic backgrounds to work together in co-ordination and
integration. When individuals are employed, they are not only able to generate income, just to
fulfil their needs and requirements, but they are also able to develop various skills and
abilities, generate awareness in terms of various areas and form connections. When the
individuals are employed, they feel pleasurable and contented. When rural individuals are
unable to find appropriate employment opportunities within their own regions, then they
mostly migrate to urban areas. Within urban communities, they usually begin with minority
jobs, such as domestic helpers. But within the course of time, by creating effective terms and
connections with the other individuals, they are able to acquire reputed employment
opportunities. These individuals may or may not acquire education in urban communities.
But they do develop basic literacy skills of reading, writing and arithmetic in rural areas,
before migrating to urban communities.

In urban areas, employment opportunities lead to generation of income, which is

primarily utilized by rural individuals to sustain their living. In some cases, they are fortunate
enough to find living accommodation, free of cost, especially, when they are employed as
domestic helpers as well. In such cases, they render their services to domestic households and
are able to find free accommodation. Hence, they are able to save money in this manner.
Some percent of their income they send to their families, residing in rural communities. In
this manner, their families feel pleasurable and satisfied to a major extent and are able to
alleviate the conditions of poverty. With the possession of sufficient income, the rural
individuals, primarily who are employed in the agricultural sector are able to acquire training
in terms of bringing about modern and innovative methods and techniques in the agricultural
sector and farming practices. In some cases, rural women are engaged in the production of
handicrafts, artworks, food items and so forth. They supplement family income by marketing
their products.

However, the individuals possessed the viewpoint that profit would have an important
role in the operation of the system, which was designed to identify the vision for the creation
of employment opportunities for all. The combination of social, moral, economic and cultural
motives, along with the policy and cultural support available from the government, would
create a sound economic system, which would create employment opportunities and lead to
an increase in per capita income. The framework is based upon three aspects, which have
been stated as follows: (Wasan, 2012).

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 Social Intent

All the entities within the framework of bringing about development of rural
communities and individuals need to have a social intent. The term ‘social intent’ is used as
an integrated approach that is used to promote well-being of the individuals and society as a
whole. The organizations and agencies that have a social intent have the main objective of
promoting welfare of the community as well as to incur profitability. For these individuals,
profit and growth is not regarded as the mere monetary measure, but a long-term and a multi-
variate dimension. It involves enhancement and gain in financial position, social security and
self-satisfaction. The organizations with social intent as the primary objective forms the
perspective that rendering an effective contribution towards promoting well-being of the
society is not only a deed of generosity and kindness, but also as a way of promoting long-
term survival and sustenance of one’s living conditions.

Voluntarism

Voluntarism is an act of implementing ones social intent. In this case, the individuals
who have social intent as one of the objectives are involved in number of tasks and activities.
These contributions may be in cash or kind. When individuals are engaged in voluntarism,
then it is vital for them to possess the necessary knowledge and information that would
generate effectual outcomes. In voluntarism, individuals are involved in the implementation
of various tasks and functions. Some of the common ones are, they may make provision of
free tuition classes to individuals, with the main purpose of enhancing their literacy skills. On
the other hand, if they are from the medical background, they make provision of health care
and medical facilities to these individuals. Giving donations in the form of food, clothing,
blankets and other items of daily use is commonly implemented in voluntarism. The extent of
voluntarism usually is dependent upon the skills and abilities of the individuals.

Policy Support

A well-designed policy framework can have a detrimental effect in the formation of

the overall climate. Particularly, which has the main objective of promoting effective growth
and development of the community individuals. When policies and measures are formulated,
then it is necessary to ensure that they prove to be beneficial to all members of the
community. Policy support usually acts as a catalyst to mobilize the voluntary contributions
that have the main objective of social intent. Support through subsidies, tax relaxations,
approval of projects in rapid manner and credit advancements would be looked upon. Though

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the framework is not entirely free of profit motive. These policies should be implemented in
the light of the specificities of the projects and its beneficiaries. It indicates that the policy
support needs to be flexible. Furthermore, it should be able to incorporate new and pioneering
ideas and variance in local situations. These programs necessarily need to be flexible and
differences in projects will be in accordance to the needs and objectives.

Significance of Education and Technology upon Rural Communities

When researching upon the significance of education and technology upon rural
communities, it is necessary to understand, how rural development can take place through
Social Network Services (SNS) (Bansal, 2015). It is vital to define social media and identify
how it is influencing the lives of rural individuals in a constructive manner. Though
individuals, belonging to urban as well as rural communities have recognized the significance
of social media. They have acquired efficient understanding in terms of important
contribution that it has in leading to progression. There is a strong interconnection between
rural development and social media. In rural communities, there are number of activities in
which individuals are involved. These include, agriculture, farming practices, small-scale
industries, education, administration, governance, health care and so forth. Hence, to
participate efficaciously in these sectors, it is necessary to recognize the significance of
education and technology.

In India, within urban as well as in rural communities, individuals are present,

belonging to different castes, creeds, races, ethnicities, religions, genders, occupations and
socio-economic backgrounds. All categories of individuals live their lives in accordance to
the norms, cultures, values, principles and morals. The Government of India has taken up
many initiatives and programs to bring about development of rural communities. In the
present existence, there have been formulation of measures and programs, focusing upon up-
gradation of rural communities. There have been improvements taking place in the system of
education. In some rural communities, there are introduction of adult education centres to
make provision of literacy skills to adults, including senior citizens to enhance their academic
skills. In addition, there have been establishment of training centres, which are providing
training to these individuals in terms of modern and innovative methods, particularly
regarding the agricultural sector and farming practices. Furthermore, there are also
establishment of training centres, which enrol individuals and provide them training
regarding different areas. These include, handicrafts, artworks, sports, physical activities,

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music, singing, dancing, child development, diet and nutrition, health care, computer literacy
and so forth. The individuals usually acquire training regarding any one of these areas, based
upon their interest.

Education renders a significant contribution in opening up employment opportunities

for the individuals. Even when individuals are to participate in any minority jobs, then too, it
is crucial for them to possess at least the basic literacy skills of reading, writing and
arithmetic. Research has indicated that lack of even basic literacy skills among the
individuals may subject them to acts, such as, fraud, deceit and so forth. From primary
education onwards, it is associated with occupational diversification, but much difference
does not take place in secondary education. It is only after the acquisition of higher education
qualifications that individuals can access well-paid employment opportunities. When they
acquire higher educational qualifications, then both men and women can get engaged into
professional white collar jobs. Research has indicated that rural individuals, who have never
been to school before and are residing in destitute and backward conditions are encouraging
their children to acquire higher education. The system of higher education is not well-
developed in rural communities, hence, individuals are migrating to urban communities.

With the acquisition of education in urban areas, individuals have number of options
available. They may either stay in urban communities, look for employment opportunities
and support their families. The other option is, they may return home and make use of their
educational qualifications to promote well-being of their families and communities. Research
has indicated that educated individuals have put into operation various measures that are
dedicated towards bringing about improvements in the overall quality of lives. Some of the
important programs, which have been implemented include, opening up of schools, within
schools, they recruit teachers and staff members and put into practice appropriate teaching-
learning methods and instructional strategies to enhance the system of education. Another
aspect is opening up health care centres or organizing camps, which would provide health
care and medical facilities to rural individuals. The other areas, which have been focused
upon are alleviating the conditions of poverty, introducing skills development programs,
alleviating criminal and violent acts, bringing about improvements in infrastructural facilities,
promoting women empowerment opportunities and generating awareness among individuals
in terms of providing equal rights and opportunities in all spheres to boys and girls.

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 In rural India, there has been prevalence of technology. Individuals, belonging to all
age groups are making use of technology to sustain better livelihoods for themselves. The
individuals may make use of it for multiple purposes. These include, generating information
in terms of various concepts and areas, communicating, recreational purposes and so forth. In
schools, the use of technology is not given much recognition, but teachers have
communicated this viewpoint among students to make use of internet to acquire efficient
understanding in terms of various concepts and subjects. In rural communities, there have
been establishment of computer centres, where internet is available. The individuals,
belonging to all age groups and backgrounds are free to make visits and use computers.
Therefore, when students or other individuals need to make use of computers or internet, they
make visits to these centres. Apart from computers, the use of mobile technology has been
used to a much greater extent in rural communities. The individuals, make use of mobile
technology, even when they are engaged in management of household responsibilities or any
home-based work.

Rural individuals feel pleasurable, particularly when they are making use of
technology. At the initial stage, when they are learning how to operate computers, they may
not feel comfortable, but within the course of time, with thorough practice, they gain
proficiency in usage of technology. When rural individuals are well familiarized with the
usage of technology, then they make use of it in the implementation of all tasks and activities.
These include, communication, watching shows and movies, listening to music, paying bills,
using internet to generate information in terms of various areas, using camera to take pictures
and so forth. Technology is even made use of by the elderly individuals, particularly for
communicating and recreational purposes. They in most cases, listen to music and watch
television shows and movies on mobile phones. In some cases, with the acquisition of
training in technology, the individuals may even set up their mobile repairing shops in rural
or urban communities.

Social Problems in Rural India

Rural India is characterized by number of social problems. Due to these social

problems, the rural individuals and communities are encountering number of problems and
challenges within the course of their development. The social problems are mainly regarded
as the ones that are having unfavourable impact upon the lives of individuals and
communities. These have been stated as follows:

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1. The majority of rural individuals, both men and women are dependent upon the
agricultural sector to augment their livelihoods. Large number of landowners have
small or medium-sized landholdings (Social Problems in Rural and Urban India,
n.d.).
2. The individuals, belonging to upper castes have large lands. Whereas, the
individuals, belonging to lower castes either own marginal land or work as
landless labourers. When they are working on other individual’s lands, then the
agricultural labourers are required to undergo detrimental effects. The main social
problem that they experience is, their earnings are not sufficient to sustain their
living conditions.
3. In rural areas, individuals possess traditional viewpoints and perspectives. They
give preference to male children and regard girls as liabilities. They pay more
attention towards fulfilment of the needs and desires of the male children and
possess the viewpoint that girls would not yield any returns on investments. They
believe in getting their male children enrolled in schools and train girls in the
implementation of household chores.
4. The rural communities normally experience scarcity of civic amenities and
facilities within their homes. They are required to depend upon the natural
environment conditions. For instance, shortage of water supply is common among
rural households. Therefore, they are required to obtain water from the wells,
rivers or nearby water bodies.
5. When they experience health problems and illnesses and do not have access to
proper health care facilities, then they obtain medicinal herbs and plants from the
forests. Hence, rural individuals implement traditional and natural methods even
in treating their wounds and illnesses.
6. Low income and unemployment are regarded as significant problems among rural
communities. The acquisition of employment opportunities are regarded as most
significant aspects, which would lead to alleviation of the conditions of poverty
and sustenance of living conditions. Rural individuals face severe problems in the
acquisition of employment opportunities and thus bringing about improvements in
their livelihoods opportunities.
7. The typical feature of rural communities is the surplus of labour force due to
availability of lesser employment opportunities. Most of the jobs that are available

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 are meant for unskilled workers. Therefore, workers with higher educational
qualifications are required to migrate to cities (Surchev, 2010).
8. The rural populations comprise of large number of elderly individuals. These
individuals, experience decline in their health conditions as well as financial
problems. Therefore, it is necessary to formulate measures to alleviate their
problems and bring about improvements in their living conditions (Surchev,
2010).
9. In rural areas, there is low labour productivity. The major causes of this are,
individuals are unaware regarding usage of technology, modern and innovative
methods, they do not possess the necessary skills and do not possess resources to
upgrade their living conditions. This can be augmented by the introduction of
modern technology, upgrading the skills of the workers and making provision of
better living conditions for them (Surchev, 2010).
10. The deprived living conditions of rural individuals are associated with
underdeveloped infrastructure and public services. The conditions of roads,
communication facilities, means of transportation and civic amenities and other
facilities are not in a well-developed state. These aspects are considered important
to bring about improvements within communities. Hence, due to
underdevelopment of infrastructural facilities, rural individuals are experiencing
problems and challenges.

Though in rural communities, agricultural labourers and farmers are the ones, who

experience detrimental effects and social problems. These problems occur particularly, when
they do not own their own lands and need to work on the lands of moneylenders or
zamindars. In some of the rural parts of the country, the individuals are required to even work
as bonded labourers. When family members borrow loans from landlords or moneylenders
and are unable to repay, then their children, grandchildren or siblings are obliged to work as
bonded labourers. When the individuals are working as bonded labourers, they are required to
put in long hours of manual work. In return for their work, they may get very less pay or no
pay. Bonded labour is regarded as a form of exploitation, which has detrimental effects upon
the lives of the individuals to a major extent.

When the farmers experience unfavourable consequences to a major extent, then they
normally do not have any other option, but to simply leave the region and migrate to another

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region, where they can took up some work to secure their living conditions. Exploitation is
regarded as one of the major problems that is giving way to other problems. As a result of
exploitation, individuals reside in the conditions of poverty. They are unable to obtain even
one square meal per day, are not able to send their children to school, unable to take care of
their health care requirements, remain unaware of various programs and schemes that are
initiated to promote well-being of these individuals and so forth. Hence, when the individuals
are unable to carry out these responsibilities, then they experience impediments in the
achievement of desired goals and objectives.

The other problems that rural individuals are experiencing are, they do not live in
concentrated areas. In these communities, the necessary services are not in a well-developed
state. These include, system of education, banking, financial institutions, health care and
medical facilities, means of transportation, roads, social media, women and child
development programs, recreational facilities and other areas that are necessary for a modern
lifestyle. Within the households too, individuals make use of traditional mud stoves for the
preparation of meals and implement traditional viewpoints and perspectives in their overall
lives. Therefore, it can be stated that primarily, due to lack of facilities, amenities,
infrastructure, educational qualifications and awareness, rural individuals are experiencing
number of problems. In order to alleviate these problems, it is vital for them to generate
awareness and be informative, particularly in terms of modern methods and approaches.

Measures to Provide Solutions to Rural Problems and Strengthening

of Rural Social Framework

The measures that have been formulated to make provision of solutions to rural
problems and strengthening of rural social framework have been stated as follows:

Development of Social and Economic Programs - In rural communities, there have

been considerable expansion of social and economic programs. These are both centrally
sponsored and initiated by the state government. These programs cover generation of
employment opportunities, pensions, public distribution systems, health and sanitation,
housing, special schemes for girls and so forth. The old age and widow pension schemes are
the ones, which are primarily targeted to the households, living below poverty line. There is a
need to bring about expansion of these programs. It has been observed that in rural
communities in the state of Bihar, half of the poverty stricken households with eligible

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household members have not received pension (Datta, Mishra, Rodgers, Rodgers, & Sharma,
2012).

Development of the System of Education – The education is regarded as an instrument,

which lays the foundation upon which learning, growth and development of the individuals
takes place. In rural communities, individuals have recognized the significance of education,
but due to shortage of financial resources and other problems, they are unable to get their
children enrolled in schools and give them good education. The system of education is also
not in a well-developed state. In rural schools, improvements need to be made in the
teaching-learning methods, instructional strategies, infrastructural facilities, extra-curricular
activities, civic amenities and the overall school environmental conditions. Furthermore,
there are shortage of teachers. Hence, recruitment of skilled and experienced teachers should
take place. As they have the major job duty of imparting academic knowledge to the students
and leading to their effective growth and development. The introduction of technology in the
system of education would facilitate effective learning and progression of not only students,
but also teachers.

Development of Infrastructure – The development of infrastructural facilities, such as,

roads, means of transportation, communications, broadcasting, radio, public services, power
supplies, water supplies, and telecommunications are regarded to be of utmost significance
for the overall development of rural communities. When individuals are engaged in the
implementation of various tasks and activities, then it is apparent that they would have to
transfer from one place to another, within their own region or to another. Furthermore, they
would also have to communicate with other individuals. Hence, when the infrastructural
facilities would not be in a well-developed state, then certainly, they would experience
problems in transferring as well as communicating. Rural households would be able to obtain
water supplies and power supplies and would not have to experience shortages, particularly
when development of power supplies and water supplies takes place. Therefore, development
of infrastructure is regarded as one of the measures that is of utmost significance in
reinforcing rural social framework.

Economic Development – Economic development refers to the development of those

activities that lead to the more productive use of resources and makes provision of
opportunities to the individuals to look for better livelihoods opportunities. It is aimed at
promoting economic development of the individuals. The rural individuals are residing in the

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conditions of poverty and have to undergo number of problems and challenges in meeting
their daily requirements. Therefore, in order to promote development of these individuals, it
is necessary to bring about economic development. Development is change that is primarily
oriented towards a particular purpose. When it is stated, economic development, then it aims
at augmenting welfare of rural individuals. The rural individuals need to acquire self-
sufficiency in order to lead to economic development. Irrespective of their status and
background, they need to understand that they need to work and look for employment
opportunities on their own to enhance economic development.

Regional Development – The natural, financial and human resources are the key
aspects within rural communities, the development of these resources is regarded to be
indispensable to promote development of individuals and regions. The society is subject to
the relations of regional development, as rural areas are the administrative-territorial units
with their own features. In rural areas, individuals need to generate awareness in terms of
preservation of the environment. They are dependent upon the natural environmental
conditions to meet their needs and requirements. Therefore, it is vital for them to be aware of
measures, particularly to curb various forms of pollution, i.e. land, water and air and keeping
the environment clean. Regional development not only includes certain economic indicators,
but also augment welfare opportunities of the rural population by providing solutions to their
problems and exploit the opportunities for economic growth. The individuals are required to
work in collaboration and integration with each other to promote regional development
(Surchev, 2010).

Increase in Asset Holdings – Over the past 30 years, there has been an increase in the
asset holdings for the rural individuals, belonging to all categories and backgrounds. In rural
areas, number of individuals emerge homeless, especially when there are occurrence of
natural calamities and disasters. In such cases, they experience immense loss of life, property,
wealth, resources and assets. When the individuals undergo unfavourable consequences, then
they need help and support from organizations and agencies, which would assist them in
recuperating. There has been a substantial increase in domestic assets and land values. But
there has been a much lesser increase in productive assets and livestock. The rural individuals
are making use of bicycles and mobile phones to a major extent (Datta, Mishra, Rodgers,
Rodgers, & Sharma, 2012). Hence, it can be stated that through increase in the asset holdings
and making use of digital technology, they are increasing their social networks and
improvements are coming about in their living conditions.

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 Generating Employment Opportunities – Providing solutions to the problems relating
to unemployment require the initiation of efforts and measures within the areas to focus upon
creating employment opportunities in various sectors, including agriculture, farming
practices, small scale industries and other areas. In order to get engaged in any form of
employment setting, it is vital for the individuals to possess essential skills. Measures need to
be formulated and implemented by the Government, organizations and agencies for
generating employment opportunities for underprivileged, uneducated and economically
weaker sections of the society. In rural communities, mostly individuals are uneducated and
unskilled, especially women. Women are primarily engaged in the implementation of
household chores. Therefore, special consideration needs to be given to women, so that they
too can contribute in the generation of income. Though majority of women are employed in
the agricultural sector. But, women, who are home-based and are not engaged in any work, it
is vital to initiate employment opportunities for such women. Encouraging women in the
implementation of home-based work, would enable them to work as well as manage
household responsibilities, simultaneously.

Eliminating Discriminatory Treatment – In rural communities, women and girls

usually experience discriminatory treatment within as well as outside their homes. As it has
been stated that birth of the girl child is not appreciated and strong preference is given to
males. The girls, from the initial stage are trained in terms of the implementation of
household chores and discouraged from getting enrolled in schools. More attention is paid by
the family members towards the male children, particularly with regards to education, health
care, diet and nutrition, and participation in social, religious and cultural programs and
activities. In schools too, girls are discriminated against and boys are given opportunities to
participate in various tasks and activities. Therefore, it is vital for these individuals to bring
about changes in their viewpoints and perspectives and provide equal rights and opportunities
to the girls. Women too can lead to effective progression and well-being of their families,
provided they should be given recognition.

Curbing Criminal and Violent Acts – Research has indicated that rural individuals
usually get involved in some kinds of criminal and violent acts. The major causes of these
acts are lack of awareness and information on the part of the individuals, prevalence of the
conditions of poverty, feelings of anger and frustration and strong desires for material wealth
and better livelihoods opportunities. The individuals usually get engaged in criminal and
violent acts, which include, verbal abuse, physical abuse, rape, sexual harassment, neglect,

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exploitation, theft and robbery. Women and girls are the ones, who experience various forms
of abuse and mistreatment more than boys. The rural individuals also get engaged into
criminal acts, such as theft and robbery, with the main purpose of obtaining wealth. In rural
communities, it is necessary to generate awareness among the individuals to curb criminal
and violent acts, as these would impose detrimental effects. Instead, they should work in co-
ordination and develop effective terms and relationships with each other to promote better
livelihoods opportunities.

Promoting Women Empowerment – In rural communities, the conditions of women

are not well-developed. They are discriminated against and are deprived of number of rights
and opportunities. Hence, promoting empowerment opportunities among them is regarded
crucial. Providing education to girls and women is important. It is through education, they are
able to augment their skills and abilities to implement various tasks and participate in
activities. One of the most crucial aspects of women empowerment is, through the acquisition
of empowerment opportunities, they will be able to render an effective contribution towards
promoting well-being of not only their families but communities as well. Educated and
empowered women contribute towards establishment of training centres and libraries in rural
communities, help vulnerable and deprived sections of the society, particularly women and
children, who have been subject to criminal and violent acts to attain better livelihoods
opportunities, organize medical camps and health care centres and ensure girls too are
enrolled in schools and are provided with equal opportunities. Furthermore, educated and
empowered women can also render a significant contribution towards child development and
family welfare.

Augmenting Professional Knowledge – The rural individuals are residing in remote

and sparsely populated regions. They put into practice their own norms, values, beliefs and
principles in carrying out various activities. In most cases, they are unaware of modern and
innovative techniques and methods and use traditional methods. Therefore, one of the
measures is augmenting professional knowledge among them. Professional knowledge
means, they should generate awareness in terms of advanced strategies and approaches and
carry out their daily life tasks and activities in accordance to them. Acquisition of
professional knowledge would enable them to enhance productivity and profitability. For
instance, when rural households are involved in the production of various forms of
handicrafts and artworks, then they are able to enhance production with less effort and time,
especially, when they make use of machines and tools, rather than performing the tasks

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manually. There have been establishment of educational institutions and training centres to
augment professional knowledge of these individuals.

Augmenting Communication Skills – It has been observed that rural individuals

normally feel comfortable when they communicate with other individuals either within their
households or community. They generally feel apprehensive, when they are required to
communicate with other individuals, particularly the ones, who do not belong to their
community. When they migrate to other regions to market their products, then too, they
simply set up stalls, but do not possess effective communication skills. When questions are
put forward by the customers regarding their products, then usually they do not feel
comfortable in giving appropriate replies. Hence, it is vital for the rural individuals to
improve their communication skills. Effective communication is regarded to be of utmost
significance, especially, when individuals are engaged in various tasks, and activities. When
rural individuals are required to obtain assistance and services from the other individuals,
then also it is vital to possess effective communication skills. When one is communicating
with others, it is necessary for them to take into consideration various aspects. These include,
maintaining eye contact, being clear and expressive, providing truthful and honest
information and inculcating the traits of morality and ethics.

Conclusion

Rural social framework is a comprehensive area. There are number of aspects that
need to be taken into consideration, when researching upon rural social framework. When the
country achieved its independence in 1947, the rural areas were in an undeveloped state and
the rate of illiteracy was also high among the individuals. But with the advent of
industrialization and globalization, there have been changes and transformations taking place
with rural communities. Creating employment opportunities is regarded to be of utmost
significance. As through them, the individuals would generate income and promote better
livelihoods. The creation of employment opportunities is based upon three main factors, these
are, social intent, voluntarism and policy support. Improvements in the system of education
and introduction of technology are regarded as significant aspects that bring about
improvements within the lives of rural individuals as well as rural communities. There have
been establishment of educational institutions and training centres, which are rendering an
indispensable contribution in upgrading academic knowledge and technical skills among rural
individuals.

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 In rural communities, there is prevalence of number of social problems. These are,
farmers and agricultural labourers, who are landless and are working on other’s lands do not
get paid in accordance to the work and efforts that they put in, girls are discriminated against,
possession of traditional viewpoints and perspectives, scarcity of civic amenities and
facilities, lack of infrastructural facilities, health problems and illnesses, low income and
unemployment and low labour productivity. In order to provide solutions to these problems
and augment rural social framework, there is a need to implement measures. These are,
development of social and economic programs, development of the system of education,
development of infrastructure, economic development, regional development, increase in
asset holdings, generating employment opportunities, eliminating discriminatory treatment,
curbing criminal and violent acts, promoting women empowerment, augmenting professional
knowledge and augmenting communication skills. To implement these measures in an
effective manner and making them beneficial to rural individuals, it is necessary to make
them aware that if they would recognize their significance, then they would not only be able
to strengthen rural social framework, but also improve their overall living conditions.

Chapter 10. Governance and Administration in Rural

Areas

Governance is referred to as the process of management practices of the government

and making and implementing of decisions for the well-being of individuals and communities
(Dabson, 2006). Good governance is characterised by efficiency, effectiveness, worthwhile
use of resources, which may be financial and human and the use of alternative administrative

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mechanisms. When the individuals are involved in the governance and administrative
functions, then one of the aspects that is of utmost significance is, it is vital for them to
conduct an analysis of all the factors that are imposing unfavourable effects upon the lives of
the individuals. In rural communities, individuals are experiencing number of problems and
challenges that are proving to be impediments within the course of bringing about
improvements in their overall quality of lives. These are primarily related to system of
education, employment opportunities, conditions of farmers and agricultural labourers, health
care and medical, preservation of the environment, alleviation of poverty, illiteracy,
unemployment and homelessness and providing equal rights and opportunities to girls.
Hence, effective governance and administration in rural communities need to take into
consideration these problems and provide remedies.

In carrying out the functions of governance and administration within rural

communities, it is observed that number of agencies and organizations are involved. These
include, non-profit groups, faith-based organizations, community foundations, citizen
alliances, community colleges, non-government organizations, business organizations and
state governments. When taking into consideration, effective governance and administration
in rural communities, the three main areas that need to be taken into consideration are,
initiation of processes that develop leadership, improvement in social capital and personal
networks and reinforcing the capabilities on the part of the community members to promote
welfare and goodwill. Governance is a practice and it is not just a system of the government
(Dabson, 2006). Decision making is an integral part of governance. When the individuals are
involved in the decision making processes, then it is vital for them to conduct an operative
analysis of the alternatives and select the most meaningful and worthwhile.

Self-Help: An Issue in Rural Development

Self-help refers to the strategies that induce growth and development of rural
communities. The implementation of these strategies do not all the time require action on the
part of the government. It could relate to resources, and implementing project or projects to
fulfil the basic needs of the community. It refers to the development of the community
through the co-ordinated efforts of the rural individuals in the selection and execution of
social, economic and cultural programs. Self-help is democratic and puts emphasis upon the
approaches to planning and governance and induces involvement, responsibility, tolerance
with local initiative and satisfaction. The processes may be slow, but they are considered to

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be meaningful, as they are involved in the up-liftment of the individuals and communities.
The formation of agricultural co-operative movements and execution of social infrastructural
projects provide explanation of the major phases in the rural development strategy (Ibietan,
2010).

The infrastructural projects approach to self-help is justifiable on felt-needs on

humanitarian and economic grounds. It promotes the spirit of co-operation between various
communities and the perception of rural populace in equating development with the provision
of social amenities and facilities. Self-help causes a reduction in the economic pressure upon
the government through promoting mobilization opportunities among the rural individuals.
Furthermore, individuals are able to form peaceful and sociable terms and relationships with
each other by forming social connections. A veritable avenue is provided for the socio-
economic participation of rural individuals, causes a reduction in the rural and urban
disparities and encourages community self-reliance that can facilitate the attainment of
aspects that would lead to overall development of rural individuals and communities, such as,
life sustenance and independence (Ibietan, 2010).

The local government is the government that is close to rural populace. It is one of the
most significant institutions that is generating motivation and encouraging mobilization for
self-help. The governance and administrative functions that are being implemented in rural
communities have encouraged social mobilization and participation of rural individuals. The
individuals, who are involved in the implementation of leadership and administrative
functions need to promote well-being of the communities and regions. An effective local
government will be able to carry out its job responsibilities better, when it will obtain
complete support and assistance from other individuals. Mobilization of the support of the
rural individuals is regarded as significant in order to obtain better outcomes (Ibietan, 2010).

Ministry of Rural Development

Since the country has achieved its independence, it has been a welfare state. The
primary objective of all the endeavours has been to promote welfare and goodwill among the
individuals. Planning has been one of the most important functions of Indian policy. Due to
effective planning, the country is able to promote progression of various programs, measures
and regions. The problem of poverty in rural communities is regarded as the major
impediment that is giving rise of number of other problems, i.e. illiteracy, unawareness,
diseases and illnesses, malnutrition, ignorance, crime and violence and so forth. There have

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been implementation of programs and schemes that are focusing upon alleviation of the
conditions of poverty. It was recognized that the sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation
has to be based upon increasing employment opportunities among individuals. Elimination of
all the barriers within the course of effective growth and development and providing a better
quality of life among the individuals were the basic premises upon which all plans and blue-
prints of development were built (Chapter III. Administration and Management of Rural
Development in India, n.d.).

The implementation of governance and administrative functions of rural areas implies

both the economic growth of the individuals as well as greater social transformation. In order
to achieve economic growth, the rural individuals are required to participate in the rural
development programs, decentralization of planning, better enforcement of land reforms and
greater access to credit are the other measures that are envisioned. Initially, the major thrust
of the government was laid upon the agriculture industry, communication, and health and
allied sectors. But at a later stage, it was realized that development can be instituted, only if
the efforts of the government are adequately supplemented by direct and indirect participation
of the individuals at the grassroots levels (Chapter III. Administration and Management of
Rural Development in India, n.d.). When the individuals, residing in remote and backward
areas render their participation in a direct or indirect manner, then they are able to benefit in
number of ways. These include, generating awareness in terms of various areas, developing
communication skills and they are able to acquire information in terms of various policies
and practices that are implemented to promote their well-being.

On 31st March, 1952, an organization known as, Community Projects Administration

was established under the Planning Commission to administer the programs that are instituted
under community development. The Community Development Program instituted on 2nd
October, 1952, was an important landmark in the history of rural development. This program
underwent many changes and transformations and different Ministries contributed in its
implementation. In October, 1974, the Department of Rural Development came into existence
as a part of Ministry of Food and Agriculture. On 18th August, 1979, the Department of Rural
Development was elevated to the status of the new Ministry of Rural Reconstruction. This
Ministry was renamed as the Ministry of Rural Development on 23rd January 1982. In
January 1985, the Ministry of Rural Development was again converted into a Department
under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. In September 1985, it was known
as the Ministry of Agriculture. In July 05, 1991, it was known as the Ministry of Rural

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Development. On 2nd, July, 1992, the Department of Wasteland Development was created. In
March 1995, the Ministry was renamed as the Ministry of Rural areas and Employment, with
three departments, namely, the Department of Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation,
Rural Development and Wasteland Development (Chapter III. Administration and
Management of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

In 1999, the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment was renamed as Ministry of
Rural Development. This Ministry has been performing the role of the catalyst effecting the
change in rural communities through the implementation of number of programs. These
include, poverty alleviation, employment generation, infrastructure development and social
security. Over the number of years, the implementation of programs, particularly in
accordance to the needs of the deprived and underprivileged sections of the society, several
programs have been modified and new programs have been introduced. The major objective
of the Ministry is to alleviate the conditions of poverty. These objectives are achieved,
through the formulation and implementation of programs, relating of various spheres of rural
life and activities, from the generation of income to the preservation of the environmental
conditions. In addition to these, there has been development in the infrastructural facilities,
such as, transportation, roads, communications, power supplies, water supplies and so forth,
so that all individuals can equally benefit (Chapter III. Administration and Management of
Rural Development in India, n.d.).

The program of Pradhan Mantri Gramdoya Yojana (PMGY) was initiated and the
Ministry of Rural Development was entrusted with the responsibility of making provision of
drinking water, housing and roads in rural communities. During the ninth plan, there has been
initiation of several anti-poverty programs for making provision of increased benefits to the
deprived, marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society. The Self-
Employment Programs have been restored by the amalgamation of Integrated Rural
Development Program (IRDP), the Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas
(DWCRA), the Supply of Improved Tool Kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), the Training of
Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), the Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY), and the
Million Wells Scheme (MWS) into a holistic self-employment scheme called Swarnjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) (Chapter III. Administration and Management of Rural
Development in India, n.d.).

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 Taking into consideration, the needs and aspirations of the local individuals,
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have been involved in the implementation of programs and
institutions, constitute the core of decentralized development of planning and its
implementations. The Ministry is also vigorously pursuing with the state governments for the
expeditious devolution of requisite administrative and financial powers to PRIs, as envisaged
under 73rd Amendment Act of the Constitution of India. On 25th December 2002, under
Drinking Water Sector, a new initiative took place, called ‘swajal dhara’. It had the main
objective of empowering the panchayats to operate, formulate, implement and maintain
drinking water projects. To encourage the participation of PRIs in the development process, a
new initiative called ‘Haryali’ has been launched on 27th January, 2003. The main objective
of Haryali was to reinforce the functioning of the PRIs, in the implementation of watershed
programs, such as, IWDP, DPAP, and DDP (Chapter III. Administration and Management of
Rural Development in India, n.d.).

In rural communities, measures need to be formulated to enhance the status of

women. Discriminatory treatment against them and not giving them equal rights and
opportunities is also regarded as the major hindrance within the course of rural development.
Therefore, it is of utmost significance to promote women empowerment. The major concern
of the government of India is bringing women into the mainstream of development. The
Constitutional 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 makes provision of the opportunities of the
selective posts of women. The Constitution has placed immense responsibility upon the
panchayats to formulate and execute various programs, leading to economic development and
social justice. Furthermore, the number of centrally sponsored schemes are implemented
through the panchayats. Therefore, women members and chairpersons of the panchayats,
particularly the ones, who are novice within the panchayats, need to be provided with
sufficient information, with the purpose of performing their tasks and functions in a well-
organized manner (Chapter III. Administration and Management of Rural Development in
India, n.d.).

In governance and administrative functions, the individuals are required to take into
consideration, number of aspects. They have to make effective decisions, carry out the
functions of planning, organizing, directing, co-ordinating, leading and controlling in an
appropriate manner. To impart training to the elected representatives of the PRIs, the State
Governments and the Union Territory administrations are the ones that are merely
responsible. Some financial assistance is provided to the states and Union Territories, with

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the purpose of bringing about improvements in the quality of training programs and to
catalyse the capacity building initiatives for the PRI elected members and functionaries. The
Ministry of Rural Development is a nodal Ministry for two international organizations. These
are, the Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) and the
Afro-Asian Rural Development Organization (AARDO). The Ministry consists of three
departments, Department of Rural Development, Department of Land Resources and
Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation. On 13th July, 2011, the Department of
Drinking Water and Sanitation has been separated from the Ministry of Rural Development
and renamed as Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (Chapter III. Administration and
Management of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Department of Rural Development

The Department of Rural Development is formulating number of programs that have

the major objective of alleviation of poverty, development of infrastructure, generation of
employment opportunities, provision of civic amenities, inadequate financial resources, poor
implementation of projects, lack of competent human resources, and lack of participation of
rural individuals in the decision making processes (Adebayo, 2014). The important functions
of the department can be understood by assessing the schemes and major tasks of the
department (Chapter III. Administration and Management of Rural Development in India,
n.d.).

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadhak Yojana (PMGSY)

It is of utmost significance to bring about improvements in the conditions of roads

within rural communities. The centrally sponsored scheme, known as the Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadhak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched by the government. The program seeks to
provide connectivity to all the areas with the population of more than 500 through All-
weather roads, by the end of the tenth plan period. With regards to hilly states, such as,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Uttaranchal and desert areas, the major
objective is to connect the populations of 250 and above (Chapter III. Administration and
Management of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Swarnjayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

The Swarnjayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is the single self-employment

scheme for the rural individuals, particularly belonging to deprived and underprivileged

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sections of the society. This program came into effect from 1st April, 1999 and has been
considered as a holistic program, taking into account all aspects of self-employment, such as,
capacity building, training, planning of activity clusters, infrastructure development, financial
assistance through bank credit, subsidy and marketing support and so forth (Chapter III.
Administration and Management of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Housing accommodation is regarded as one of the basic aspects of human survival. In

rural communities, the problem of homelessness is severe. The individuals do not have
proper houses. Therefore, the construction of houses is regarded as one of the major activities
of the National Rural Employment Program, which was initiated in 1980. Indira Awaas
Yojana (IAY) was initiated in 1985-1986 as the sub-scheme of Rural Landless Employment
Guarantee Program (RLEGP), which was initiated in 1983. IAY continued as the sub-scheme
of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY). From 1st January 1996, it was delinked from JRY and was
transformed into an independent scheme (Chapter III. Administration and Management of
Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Training

Making provision of training opportunities to the rural individuals would enable them
to generate awareness and augment their skills and abilities in terms of particular areas. There
have been establishment of training centres, which are rendering a significant contribution in
providing training to the individuals in terms of number of areas, including, child
development, diet and nutrition, technology, introducing modern and innovative methods in
the agricultural sector and so forth. In addition to training centres, there have been
organization of workshops and seminars as well. Support and assistance has been provided to
number of training and research institutions to enrich the training and development programs.

DRDA

To reinforce the functioning of the DRDA and make them more professional and
effective in the implementation of their tasks and activities, a new centrally sponsored
scheme, known as the DRDA administration has been put into operation from 1st April, 1999.
It is based upon the recommendations of the inter-ministerial committee, known as the
Shankar Committee. The previous practice has been replaced by this committee of allocating
the percentage of the program funds to the administrative costs. Under this, a separate

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provision has been made to meet the administrative expenses of the DRDAs, who contribute
towards effective management and implementation of the schemes (Chapter III.
Administration and Management of Rural Development in India, n.d.).

Principles of Effective Rural Governance

The major principles that promote effective rural governance have been stated as
follows:

Collaboration – Collaboration and working in integration with the other individuals is

regarded to be of utmost significance, especially when individuals are engaged in governance
and administration. When putting into practice any task or function, the individuals need to
obtain ideas and suggestions from others. When formulating policies and mechanisms, then
too, it is essential to obtain support and assistance from others. In this case, collaboration
involves engaging key intermediaries, strengthening the competencies of local elected
officials, investing local capital and also encouraging the participation of rural individuals.
Community-based collaboration is the process, which involves citizens, agencies,
organizations and businesses to make formal and sustained commitments to work together to
accomplish the desired goals and objectives (Dabson, 2006). In rural communities, it is
regarded as the highest and the most complicated ways of working with others. But
individuals need to understand the significance of collaboration in order to achieve the
desired goals and objectives.

Participation of Rural Individuals – The participation of rural individuals in the

governance and administrative functions provide them opportunities to have a say and attain
empowerment opportunities. For instance, right to vote is regarded as one of the political
rights that provides individuals with the right to elect their leaders. The other ways of
participation of rural individuals is also encouraged by allowing them to give their ideas and
suggestions. The individuals, who have not served in leadership positions should be allowed
to give their ideas and suggestions. Opportunities need to be provided to those individuals,
who are willing to render an effective contribution towards promoting well-being of the
communities and nation as a whole. The individuals, who work as artisans, craftsmen, silk
weavers, potters, farmers, agricultural labourers, teachers, doctors or health care workers are
the ones, who are working for not only sustenance of their own living conditions, but also for
the welfare of the community. Therefore, their participation would generate productive
outcomes.

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 Improvements in Education and Training – Acquisition of education and training
render a significant contribution in the preparation of individuals to perform all types of tasks
and activities in which they are engaged in. Whether it is governance and administration,
production of handicrafts, teaching or working as medical practitioner and so forth. In various
fields and subjects, it is vital for individuals to possess adequate knowledge and augment
their skills and abilities. Therefore, improvements in the system of education and
establishment of training centres are regarded as crucial to upgrade not only academic skills,
but also logical and rational thinking among the individuals so that they generate productive
outcomes. In educational institutions, it is necessary to bring about improvements in the
system of education. Major improvements are brought about by introducing appropriate
teaching-learning methods, instructional strategies, technology, recruitment of qualified and
experienced teachers, development of infrastructural facilities and amenities and creation of
pleasant and amiable environmental conditions.

Augmenting Regional Resources – Rural communities are unique. In rural

communities, individuals form their daily life routine in accordance to their own norms,
values, principles and beliefs. Most of the rural areas share common social and economic
challenges associated with low population density. The governance and the administrative
functions of rural communities should focus upon augmenting regional resources. In this
case, one of the important aspects is alleviation of the conditions of poverty. As it is apparent
that in any region, where individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty and
backwardness, where they are struggling to make ends meet, good governance cannot be
carried out in an appropriate manner. Therefore, it is vital to augment regional resources and
put into operation the measures to alleviate the conditions of poverty. To move towards
prosperity, it is vital for rural communities to collaborate across political borders and benefit
from the region’s competitive advantages.

Providing Equal Rights and Opportunities to Women – In rural communities, in some

cases, more preference is given to the male members and the birth of the girl child is not
appreciated. The individuals possess this viewpoint that girls are liabilities, which would
make demands and not yield any returns on investments. On the other hand, boys are
considered as assets. More attention is paid towards them, regarding provision of education,
health care facilities, good quality food and so forth. Whereas, girls are discouraged from the
acquisition of education and are trained in terms of implementation of household
responsibilities. School education is not given to them as it is believed that in their marital

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homes, they would not be able to make use of educational skills in any manner. Therefore,
good governance and administration of rural communities is characterised by bringing about
changes in the viewpoints of the individuals that they should provide equal rights and
opportunities to girls and women and not discriminate against them.

Strengthening the Competencies of Local Elected Officials – The functions of

governance and administration are not easy and straightforward, particularly within rural
communities, as they are in an underdeveloped state, as compared to urban communities.
Therefore, when the leaders and officials are participating in these functions, they need to
enhance their competency and professionalism. The individuals, who get elected to
participate in governance and administrative functions need to be prepared. These individuals
need to work on a continuous basis to upgrade their competencies. They need to be aware of
policies and procedures that are needed to promote community welfare. They should possess
the essential skills, knowledge and abilities to provide solutions to social problems.
Furthermore, the other areas also need to be taken into consideration, these are, budgeting,
personnel procedures, public safety and liability issues, development questions, land issues
and relationship with media. Small rural communities cannot afford a professional city or
town administrator. Hence, the novices are required to carry out the managerial functions.

Providing Safety and Protection to Individuals – In rural communities, usually girls,

women as well as elderly individuals do not feel safe, particularly when they need to go out
of their homes alone. Elderly individuals need support and assistance from the other
individuals to accompany them, even when they are required to make visits to health care
centres. Whereas, girls and women do not feel comfortable and safe, especially when they
have to go to schools or even market places. The major cause of prevalence of insecurity is,
there has been an increase in criminal and violent acts against girls. In schools, girls have
experienced verbal abuse, physical abuse, rape and sexual harassment, which have even
compelled them to drop out of schools. Hence, appropriate governance and administration is
characterised by formulation of rules and policies, which put emphasis upon providing safety
and protection of individuals. These also involve imposing disciplinary action and severe
penalties upon the doers.

Counselling and Guidance Facilities - In rural communities, individuals normally

possess traditional viewpoints and perspectives and are unable to implement effective
remedies to their problems. Primarily due to the problems of poverty, illiteracy and

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unemployment, they are unable to sustain their living conditions. These have negative effects
upon their physical as well as psychological well-being. The individuals, belonging to all age
groups and backgrounds suffer as a result of these problems. Governance and administration
of rural communities should involve establishment of counselling and guidance facilities. In
these facilities, recruitment of proficient and trained counsellors, which would provide
counselling and guidance to these individuals, with the main purpose of overcoming their
problems. In some cases, they get easily lured by the false promises made to them for
monetary resources, wealth and good employment opportunities by professionals, who are
involved in trafficking of women and children. Hence, counselling and guidance facilities
would not only help them in improving their living conditions, but also in promoting their
safety.

Increase in Infrastructural Facilities and Civic Amenities – In rural areas, the

infrastructural facilities such as, roads, telecommunications, transportation, power supplies,
water supplies, and public services are not in a well-developed state. In rural households,
individuals experience scarcity of water and are dependent upon rivers and nearby water
bodies. Another problem is, they experience is shortage of electricity. As a result of shortage
of electricity, they do not obtain lighting within their homes nor are able to use heating and
cooling equipment in accordance to the weather conditions. Hence, lack of infrastructural
facilities and civic amenities are imposing problems upon enhancing their overall quality of
lives. Therefore, effective governance and administration of rural communities must involve
putting into operation the measures that would lead to an increase in infrastructural facilities
and making provision of civic amenities in households as well as in other places. The major
benefit would be, these would enable the individuals to transfer to other regions and form
connections.

Preservation of the Environment – Rural and tribal communities are dependent upon
the natural environmental conditions to a major extent, particularly for meeting all their daily
needs and requirements. Water is regarded as the major resource that is used by the
individuals for numerous purposes. These include, washing, cleaning, preparation of meals,
rearing of livestock and so forth. As it has been stated above that rural individuals obtain
water from the water bodies, wells and rivers. Hence, one of the crucial factors is, they need
to generate awareness in terms of keeping the water bodies and rivers unpolluted and should
not throw any waste materials into them. Rural individuals should possess adequate
awareness in terms of curbing various forms of pollution, including air, water and land. Apart

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from curbing pollution, the other factors that are implemented to preserve the environment
are, planting more trees, spreading greenery, recycling waste materials and also not throwing
any waste materials on the streets. The rural individuals should be communicated in terms of
keeping the environment clean. Clean and healthy environmental conditions are also regarded
as ways that would promote healthy lifestyles among the community members.

Implementation of Leadership Functions

With the aim of carrying out the functions of governance and administration in a well-
organized manner, it is necessary for the elected officials and governors to possess essential
leadership traits. Furthermore, there has been an increase in the challenges, complexities and
intensity, which requires the need for operative rural leadership that is practical and capable
of addressing multi-faceted issues (Avant, Rich-Rice, & Copeland, 2013). The
implementation of leadership functions are carried out in terms of various areas and these
have been stated as follows:

Decision Making Processes – Decision making is an integral part of lives of the

individuals. When carrying out the functions of governance and administration, individuals
are required to make important decisions. When getting involved in the decision making
processes, they need to ensure that they make decisions, which prove to be advantageous to
the communities. The decisions may be regarding establishment of schools in rural
communities, introducing modern and innovative methods and techniques in the agricultural
sector and farming practices or introducing women and child development programs and so
forth. When they are participating in the decision making processes, they may use their own
discretion, but consulting others to obtain their viewpoints may lead to better outcomes.

Planning – Planning is a function, which bridges the gap between where one is in the
present and where one wants to be in future. In other words, rural development involves
planning of number of tasks and activities to a major extent. There are number of areas, the
development of which require planning. These include, education, generation of employment
opportunities, measures to alleviate societal problems of poverty, illiteracy, and
unemployment, health care and medical facilities, and programs that would lead to up-
gradation of individuals, particularly, belonging to poverty stricken, marginalized and
economically weaker sections of the society. When one has to establish a training centre or a
store, then too, planning is required. In the effective planning processes, there are number of

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aspects that are taken into consideration, i.e. finances, time frame, human resources and so
forth.

Organizing – Organizing means forming and shaping. When the leaders are carrying
out a particular task or function, then it is necessary to formulate programs and procedures
that would render an effective contribution in organizing the tasks in an appropriate manner.
For instance, when in rural communities, there is establishment of the educational institution,
then various aspects need to be taken into consideration in organizing. In the process of
organizing, one needs to integrate the interests, objectives and values of various individuals
and communities into common interests. For instance, the educational institution would
provide classes to the individuals from nursery till eighth in the morning hours. Whereas in
the evening hours, it may function as the adult education centre. Classes may be organized
for the adult individuals, which may include individuals, belonging to the age group of 18 to
80 years.

Directing – It is the job of the leaders to adequately guide the individuals in the proper
direction with the main aim of achieving a particular goal or objective. In the function of
directing, one of the areas that needs to be taken into account is, leaders need to ensure that
their subordinates are carrying out their job responsibilities in an appropriate manner. In some
cases, tasks are difficult to carry out, which may require consultation with leaders on a
regular basis. Therefore, it is their job duty to ensure that processes are carried out in
accordance to the formulated goals. The rules and norms need to be formed within the
society. It is the job of the leaders that these get conveyed to the individuals and they carry
out various tasks and functions in accordance to them. The leaders need to enact and enforce
the rules and norms, to integrate the ends and interests and to control the behaviours and
actions of individuals and communities (Chapter 6, n.d.).

Controlling – When the function of controlling needs to be understood, then it is vital

for the leaders as well as the other individuals involved to ensure that utilization of finances
and other resources need to get carried out in an appropriate manner. In the case of limited
finances, the individuals need to ensure that they make use of them in a satisfactory manner,
with the main purpose of generating productive outcomes. For instance, when a health care
centre has been established in rural communities and scarcity of funds does not allow room to
bring advanced technology and machines, then one introduces only those methods and
strategies, which are indispensable. The leaders also need to make sure that individuals

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involved, work in co-ordination and integration with each other and not get involved in any
disputes or conflicting situations. One needs to put into practice appropriate conflict
resolution methods, in case of occurrence of conflicts.

Co-ordinating – Co-ordinating is the function of instituting such relationships among

the individuals, so they can work in integration, particularly towards the achievement of
desired goals and objectives. It is thus referred to the process of synchronizing and unifying
the acts of the individuals. When any program or strategy or approach is put into operation,
then organizational tasks, operations, decisions, activities and efforts are implemented, so as
to achieve the unity of action, for the purpose of achieving the desired goals and objectives.
The leaders need to ensure that when individuals are rendering their efforts and skills towards
achievement of a particular goal, then they need to form peaceful and amiable terms and
relationships with each other.

Justice and Equality – Leaders need to take into consideration the traits of justice and
equality. As it has been stated that in rural communities, girls and women are in some cases
discriminated against. They are not given equal rights and opportunities and more preference
is given to the male members. It is the job of the leaders and elected officials to ensure that
girls and women should be given equal rights and opportunities as the male members. On the
other hand, when taking into consideration any issues and problems and giving justice, then
too, it needs to be ensured that individuals should be given equal opportunities and there
should not be any discrimination on the basis of factors, such as, caste, creed, race, religion,
age, ethnicity, gender and socio-economic background.

Honesty and Righteousness – Honesty and righteousness are regarded as

indispensable aspects that are needed to achieve a particular purpose. When the leaders as
well as the other individuals are honest in the implementation of tasks and activities, as well
as in dealing with others, then they are able to achieve their desired goals and objectives
effectively as well as generate good outcomes. The traits of honesty and righteousness will
enable the individuals to form connections with each other. In this manner, he is able to
receive support and assistance from others. When the individuals are in a leadership position,
then inculcation of the traits of honesty and righteousness will enable them to work in co-
ordination and integration with each other and form social connections.

Grievance Redresser Procedures – In rural communities, there is prevalence of

criminal and violent acts. In most cases, girls and women are the ones, who become victims

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and experience discriminatory treatment. They are not provided with equal rights and
opportunities. When individuals experience any form of criminal acts, mainly the ones, which
impose unfavourable effects upon their lives to a major extent, then they should be given the
rights to redress their grievances in an operative manner. In some cases, conflicting situations
and disagreements may take place between sellers and buyers over payment of bills or quality
of the products or services and so forth. Whereas in others, girls may be subject to abuse and
mistreatment within their marital homes, for which they need justice. Therefore, the leaders
and the elected officials should formulate proper grievance redresser procedures, which
would provide effective solutions to the problems experienced by the individuals.

Community Building – In the process of leadership, it is their job responsibility to

influence the group of individuals to work as team to achieve the common purpose. Hence,
participation of rural individuals is also encouraged in community building. In rural
communities, number of measures have been implemented towards community building.
These include, establishment of schools and training centres, bringing about modern and
innovative methods and strategies in the agricultural methods and farming practices, creating
empowerment opportunities for women, providing equal rights and opportunities to all,
particularly women and girls and encouraging individuals to put into practice the ways that
would enhance their living conditions. In community building, leaders need to ensure that
they take into consideration, the needs and requirements of all individuals within the
community and ensure they get fulfilled in an appropriate manner.

Conclusion

Governance and administration of rural areas is a comprehensive aspect. It is the

major concern of the Government of India to ensure all the areas within rural communities
need to be well-established, so effective improvements can be brought about within the lives
of the individuals. At the national level, the roles, functions and the administrative
mechanisms of Planning Commission, Ministry of Rural Development and Ministry of
Panchayati Raj have been covered as they render a significant contribution towards rural
development at the central level. In order to promote rural development, there have been
formulation of measures and programs. The major programs under department of rural
development are, PMGSY, SGSY, IAY, training and DRDA. The major areas that need to be
taken into consideration are, alleviation of poverty, development of infrastructural facilities,
improvements in the system of education and health care facilities, promoting empowerment

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opportunities among women and bringing about improvements in the overall quality of lives
of the individuals.

The principles of effective rural governance are, collaboration, participation of rural

individuals, improvements in education and training, augmenting regional resources,
providing equal rights and opportunities to women, strengthening the competencies of local
elected officials, providing safety and protection to individuals, counselling and guidance
facilities, increase in infrastructural facilities and civic amenities and preservation of the
environment. When the individuals are participating in the governance and administrative
functions of the rural communities, they are required to possess adequate awareness in terms
of these principles for the purpose of generating productive outcomes. The functions of
governance and administration also involves the effective implementation of leadership
functions. These are carried out in terms of the areas, which are, decision making processes,
planning, organizing, directing, controlling, co-ordinating, justice and equality, honesty and
righteousness, grievance redresser procedures and community building. In addition to
possession of effective leadership skills, it is vital for the individuals to conduct an analysis of
rural areas and particularly focus upon bringing about improvements in those, which are
imposing unfavourable effects upon the lives of the individuals to a major extent.

Chapter 11. Significance of Agriculture Sector in Rural

Areas

Agriculture renders a significant contribution towards the growth and development of

the country’s economy. It is directly and indirectly linked with the other sectors of the
economy and has the major objective of promoting overall growth and development of the
economy. More than 70 percent of the population of the country is residing in rural areas.
India is an agrarian economy and majority of the individuals are engaged in this sector for the
sustenance of better livelihoods. The economic contribution of agriculture towards Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of the country is declining with the economic growth that is taking

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place within the country. Agriculture with its allied sectors is the largest livelihood provider
within the country. It has been found that three-fourths of the population residing in rural
communities is dependent upon agriculture and allied activities for sustenance of living
conditions. The allied activities include, animal husbandry, fisheries and so forth. The
contribution of the agricultural sector towards economic growth of the country is supportive
(Lone, 2014).

After the middle of 1990s, the agricultural sector began to slow down in terms of
productivity of various cereals and overall progression. The major causes were decline in
demand for staples and weakness observed in Green Revolution. Further, there was an
increase in the demand of commodities, such as, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat and so forth.
Therefore, to sustain effective growth and development of the agricultural sector, it was
emphasised upon that it should involve the production of high value commodities, generation
of income and generation of employment opportunities. The primary role of agriculture is
observed as making provision of low priced commodities, which play an important part
towards the expansion of the industrial economy. It is considered to be an energetic and
leading sector towards economic development. This sector renders an indispensable
contribution in any strategy for economic growth, particularly for developing economies
(Lone, 2014).

The relationships between urban and rural economies is evolving and multi-
dimensional. The food is being provided to the urban population through the agricultural
sector. In the present existence, there has been use of modern and innovative methods and
technology in the agricultural sector and farming practices. The use of these methods and
technology are rendering a significant contribution in enhancing production and profitability.
The agricultural produce is sold through commodity markets, which are undergoing
transformation in recent years. In rural communities, the individuals are experiencing poverty
to a major extent. The agricultural sector contributes effectively in alleviating the conditions
of poverty, providing employment opportunities to the individuals and contributing towards
up-gradation of their living conditions (Lone, 2014).

Significance of Growth of the Agricultural Sector

India is predominantly a rural economy. Rural economy constitutes 46 percent of the

national income. In rural communities, the individuals are primarily involved in the
agricultural sector and farming practices to meet their livelihoods requirements. It is

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estimated that despite the expansion of urbanization and industrialization, more than half of
the population is projected to be rural by 2050. Therefore, the growth and development of
rural economy and population are regarded as major aspects to promote the overall growth
and inclusive development of the country. Traditionally, agriculture is regarded as the prime
sector of the rural economy and rural employment. As per the 2011 census, 68.8 percent of
the country’s population and 72.4 percent of the workforce is residing in rural areas.
Agriculture employed 64 percent of the rural workforce, who were engaged in the production
of 39 percent of the total rural output, during the year 2011-2012. It is estimated that for
bringing convergence in the share of agriculture in total output and employment, 84 million
agricultural workers were required to be engaged in non-farm sectors in rural areas in 2011-
2012. This led to an increase of about 70 percent in non-farm employment (Chand,
Srivastava, & Singh, 2017).

When acquiring an understanding of the significance of growth in the agricultural

sector, it needs to be taken into account that the development of this sector should take place
in such a manner that it should prove to be beneficial to the individuals to a major extent. It
should make provision of food, fibre, and fuel to the population. The increase in productivity
should take place with the implementation of modern and innovative methods and strategies.
The increase in productivity should take place at a faster pace, as compared to the population.
In this sector, there is a need to impose limitations upon unfavourable effects and improve the
beneficial environmental impacts and cause reduction in the wastage of food supply chain. If
the governments are going to pursue the policies and programs that are designed to promote
green growth. In order to bring about desired outcomes, there is a need to put into practice the
measures and policies that can raise awareness, measure progress and identify the potential
opportunities and risks (Diakosavvas, 2016). At the same time, the need to bring about
changes and transformations within the agricultural practices more environmentally
sustainable has acquired prominence to a major extent. Apart from the need to adapt to
changes within the climatic conditions, the production processes need to be made more
advanced (Wiggins, 2016).

Agricultural Diversification towards High Value Commodities and

Rural Development

The difference between the number of new rural workers and the number of new job
opportunities that are created within the agricultural sector is expanding. Therefore, the rural

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employment diversification within the agricultural sector towards high values enterprises and
non-agricultural sector has acquired significance over time. The Government of India has
given consideration and is concerned in terms of widespread poverty and unemployment in
rural areas. There has been implementation of various programs, including Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). There has been an increase in
the contribution of rural non-farm sector towards generation of income as well as
employment opportunities (Lone, 2014).

Diversification of rural agriculture towards high value crops or horticulture means an

increase in the population of high value engagement in horticulture and other activities. The
animal husbandry enterprises, dairy, poultry and livestock are contributing a significant part
in enhancing production and profitability. It is due to the fact that landless, marginal and
small farmers, usually consider rearing of livestock as an important economic activity.
Diversification of agriculture can be regarded as intensification and efficient use of
agriculture, which would lead to an increase in the demand for labour. This would lead to an
increase in rural wages and decline in food prices. This would cause a reduction in the
conditions of poverty. Generation of additional employment opportunities in rural
communities, where the human resources are abundant. It is crucial for the achievement of
widespread poverty and economic growth (Lone, 2014).

The horticulture sector can render a significant contribution to economic growth and
generates employment opportunities for rural individuals. The diversification of the
agricultural sector can affect both the structure and level of employment. Family labour is
substituted by hired labour and changes may take place in the level of labour input as well as
the distribution of labour by gender. When it is stated that the agricultural sector and allied
sectors contribute in alleviating the conditions of poverty, the major cause is, these sectors are
more labour intensive than the production of staple crops. Often horticulture production,
requires twice much and in some cases, even up to four times as much labour than the
production of cereal crops. Research has indicated that commercialization of rural economy
contributes towards effective growth and development (Lone, 2014).

In rural communities, primarily two aspects are vital. These are, land and human
resources. Land can be efficiently cultivated by the use of modern and technical methods. In
rural communities, there has been development of training centres, which are making
provision of knowledge to agricultural labourers and farmers in terms of technology and

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scientific methods. Apart from making use of technology, scientific and innovative methods
in the agricultural sector, the rural individuals also are required to enhance their skills and
abilities in terms of other areas, which include, fisheries, rearing of livestock and so forth.
Apart from augmenting one’s skills and abilities in terms of various areas. The rural
individuals, farmers, agricultural labourers, and fishermen, also need to possess adequate
knowledge in terms of marketing strategies. Furthermore, they should be well aware in terms
of the regions, where they can move to market their products.

In the agricultural sector, the major areas that need to be taken into account are, seeds,
fertilizers, insecticides, cropping techniques, irrigation methods, use of modern, innovative
and scientific methods to enhance production, seed production, seed processing, system of
crop intensification, organic farming, weather parameters, crop-weather advisory and so
forth. The farmers and agricultural labourers need to possess adequate knowledge and
information in terms of these areas, so they could generate productive outcomes and enhance
their living conditions. Within the agricultural sector, the major areas that need to be taken
into consideration to bring about development of rural areas have been stated as follows:

Soil and Water Conservation – In the case of soil and water conservation, the main
aspects that need to be taken into consideration are, soil types, soil fertility, fertilizers, soil
erosion, soil conservation and watershed management (National Bank for Agriculture and
Rural Development, 2016).

Water Resources – In making provision of water resources to augment agricultural

productivity, the major aspect that needs to be taken into account are, irrigation management,
types of irrigation, sources of irrigation, crop-water requirement, command area
development, water conservation techniques, micro-irrigation, use of irrigation pumps, and
major, medium and minor irrigation (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development,
2016).

Farm and Agriculture Engineering – Farm and agriculture engineering involves the
utilization of technology such as, sources of power, mechanical and electrical, wind, solar,
biomass, bio fuels, water harvesting structures, farm ponds, watershed management, agro
processing, controlled and modified storage, perishable food storage, go-downs, bins and
grain silos (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016).

Plantations and Horticulture – In plantations and horticulture, the individuals

involved need to put into operation proper methods and techniques. The main areas included

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are, cultivation, gardening, propagation, market gardening and truck farming. The job duties
in plantations are regarded as hazardous, but individuals need to possess adequate knowledge
and information to generate productive outcomes.

Animal Husbandry – Animal husbandry is regarded as one of the vital occupations of

rural individuals. In this case, they are involved in rearing of farm animals to produce
products such as, milk, eggs, meat, wool, fibre and so forth. The individuals need to possess
adequate awareness in terms of the aspects that are needed to carry out this task effectively,
such as fodder, classification of breeds of cattle and so forth.

Fisheries – The individuals, who are residing near water bodies and rivers adopt
fisheries as the means to sustain their living conditions. In this case, they need to possess
adequate awareness in terms of significance of fisheries within the country, market demands,
common terms pertaining to the production of fish and the essential strategies and
approaches, which need to be put into operation.

Forestry – The rural communities are dependent upon forests to meet their needs and
requirements. In case of health problems or illnesses too, they obtain herbs and medicinal
plants from the forests. Obtaining food items from forests is common, such as, fruits,
vegetables, and so forth. In this way, they are able to fulfil their nutritional requirements.
Hence, to fulfil their needs and requirements, they need to put into operation the ways that are
needed to preserve forests.

Natural Environmental Conditions – Preservation of the natural environmental

conditions are considered essential in all communities. For this purpose, it is vital for the
rural individuals to possess adequate awareness in terms of various aspects. These are,
curbing various forms of pollution, i.e. air, water and land, planting more trees, spreading
greenery, keeping the water bodies clean, not dumping any types of waste materials in the
water bodies as well as on the roads and streets. The industries and factories should curb the
emitting of gases, which may cause air pollution.

Ecology and Climate Change – In rural communities, primarily in the agricultural

sector and farming practices, the climatic conditions render a significant contribution in
enhancing productivity. For instance, the regions, which obtain adequate rainfall have more
agricultural productivity as compared to the regions, which experience less rainfall. The
changes taking place in the climatic conditions have a major effect upon agricultural
productivity.

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 Agricultural Extensions – In the agricultural extensions, the main areas that need to be
taken into consideration are, significance and role, methods of evaluation of extension
programs, and role of Krishi Vigyan Kendras in the dissemination of agricultural
technologies (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016).

Measures to Improve Agricultural Productivity and Conditions of

the Farmers

The measures that need to be put into operation to bring about improvements in
agricultural productivity and conditions of agricultural labourers and farmers have been
stated as follows:

Efficiency in Marketing of Agricultural Products – In India, rural communities are in

an underdeveloped state, as compared to urban communities. In rural areas, the individuals
are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness. They are unaware of modern and
innovative methods, as a result of which, they are unable to experience an increase in
productivity. When individuals, belonging to rural communities are engaged in the
agricultural sector and farming practices, then apart from possession of adequate knowledge
in terms of the production processes, they need to generate efficiency in the marketing of
agricultural products. Agricultural marketing needs to focus upon four main goals. First, the
agricultural labourers and farmers should get fair prices, which are clearly emerging out of
the market forces. Second, market margins and increase in prices should be within the
acceptable limits. Third, the entire process of marketing should be farmer oriented and
provide the producer required marketing freedom as envisaged in the new APMC Act.
Finally, the infrastructural facilities should be upgraded in a well-organized manner (Lone,
2014).

Infrastructure Development – In rural communities, major focus need to be paid upon

development of infrastructure facilities. These include, roads, transportation,
telecommunications, water supplies, power supplies and so forth. In order to bring about an
increase in the agricultural production, the development of infrastructure facilities is regarded
indispensable. When the agricultural labourers and farmers need to market their produce, then
they are required to transfer to other regions. They also need to make use of technology to
generate awareness in terms of market demand and other strategies and approaches. One of
the aspects that is of utmost significance is, lack or underdevelopment of infrastructural
facilities, especially roads and means of transportation can cause damage to the crops and

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other produce. Therefore, it is vital to pay adequate attention towards the conditions of roads
and means of transportation. Improvements in water supplies would enable them to put into
operation, irrigation methods in an appropriate manner and overall infrastructure
development would lead to progression within their living conditions.

Financial Resources and Credit – Financial resources are regarded to be of utmost

significance. Agricultural labourers and farmers need finances to put into practice, modern
and innovative methods, tools, machinery, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and so
forth into the agricultural production methods. Research has indicated that landless and
marginal farmers need to undergo detrimental effects, as they do not possess sufficient
financial resources. In most cases, the conditions of poverty are severe among them and they
are unable to obtain two square meals per day. On the other hand, wealthy farmers, who
possess land are able to put into operation scientific methods and technology to enhance
productivity and profitability. Therefore, it is vital for them to possess sufficient financial
resources to augment production. In the present existence, attention has been paid towards
upgrading the conditions of the farmers and agricultural labourers. There have been
implementation of programs and schemes that are supporting them through making provision
of financial resources and credit. The availability of credit would render a significant
contribution in improving rural economy.

Training and Other Facilities – The facilities, such as animal husbandry, rearing of
livestock, fisheries, preservation of the environment and so forth are important aspects within
the rural economy. In some cases, individuals are involved in two or more sectors, with the
main purpose of supplementing their income. With the provision of training and other
facilities in rural areas, these individuals are able to obtain adequate knowledge and
information. When they would be able to augment their skills and abilities, then it is apparent,
they would be able to enhance production. Research has indicated that farmers and
agricultural labourers have the major objective to augment production and sustain their living
conditions. When there are establishment of training centres and other facilities, then they get
enrolled in them, pursue the programs and acquire efficient knowledge. The training centres
primarily focus upon providing training in terms of usage of technology, and modern and
innovative methods. The possession of knowledge provides them pleasure and contentment
and they are able to upgrade their living conditions.

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 Promoting Environment Sustainability – Agriculture is based upon the integrated use
of natural resources. These include, water, soil, climate and biological diversity. The
integration of agriculture with the other aspects of land management and conservation of the
ecosystem is considered vital for the promotion of both environmental sustainability and
agricultural production. The natural resources should be accessible primarily to the
individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections
of the society. When these individuals are residing in destitute conditions and are struggling
to make ends meet, then it is vital for them to generate awareness in terms of the measures to
promote environment sustainability. In the agriculture sector too, farmers and agricultural
labourers should secure rights to land, water and other generic resources (Agriculture, n.d.).
In order to accelerate agriculture production and to make effective use of this sector towards
promoting employment opportunities and economic growth, the rural individuals and
particularly farmers and agricultural labourers need to implement measures to promote
environment sustainability. Crucial measures include, keeping the environment clean,
alleviating various forms of pollution, curbing deforestation and so forth.

Promoting Agricultural Sustainability – For the purpose of achieving agricultural

sustainability, the important measures that need to be taken into consideration are,
implementing policies for land and water resource management, protection of biodiversity,
development of infrastructure, use of modern and innovative methods and strategies in the
agricultural sector and farming practices, implementing strategies on institutional market
reforms, reduction of tariffs and phasing out of possible control of the commodities are
regarded as vital aspects that particularly farmers and agricultural labourers need to be aware
of. Sustainability of agriculture though can be observed within the framework of different
agro-climatic zones (Agriculture, n.d.). For the achievement of agriculture sustainability, it is
indispensable to make use of suitable technologies. When the agricultural labourers are
making use of suitable technologies, then they would be able to perform their tasks and
activities in a well-organized manner. For instance, in arid regions, production experiences
setbacks, as water is the major necessity. Therefore, through the use of modern irrigation
methods, individuals will be able to improve the production processes.

Formulation of Rural Development Plans – In rural areas of the country,

improvements need to be brought about not only in the agricultural sector and farming
practices, but also in other sectors. These include, education and training, infrastructure,
roads, transportation facilities, housing accommodation and so forth. In order to improve

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agriculture productivity and conditions of the farmers, it is vital to ensure, all the major
facilities and resources are available to them. When there is just one adult male member
within the households, then women also get employed in the agriculture sector. It has been
found that majority of the agricultural labourers are women. One of the major setbacks of
rural development plans is shortage of financial resources. Therefore, it is necessary to
provide adequate financial resources for integrated rural development plans, programs and
schemes. The rural development plans, programs and schemes should focus upon capacity
building, development of social and economic infrastructure, human resource development
and local governance. Another major aspect that needs to be taken into consideration is,
farmers and agricultural labourers should be well-equipped to cope up with problems and
challenges.

Promote Equitable Distribution and Access – The transition that has taken place from
the utilization of traditional methods to machine-intensive technologies and scientific
methods has rendered an indispensable contribution in enhancing productivity and improving
the standards of farmers and agricultural labourers. When it is stated, promote equitable
distribution and access, then it is primarily in terms with food and grains. In rural
communities, the problem of malnutrition is prevalent, especially among women and
children. This problem is giving rise to health problems and diseases. When individuals,
particularly children will not receive adequate diet and nutrition, then certainly they would
experience impediments within the course of their effective growth and development.
Therefore, it is important to increase the availability of food in communities, particularly
where there is an increase in the rate of malnutrition. When there will be increase in the
availability of food and promotion of equitable distribution and access, then there would be
decline in transportation costs. The individuals would also be able to acquire income-earning
opportunities (Agriculture, n.d.).

Augmenting Food Security – Food security is a physical, environmental, economic

and social issue. Food is regarded as an essential requirement of all human beings. It not just
involves production, but access as well. On the other hand, processes, policies, outputs, and
technologies are put into operation in augmenting food security. The concept of food security
needs to be made more comprehensive. The main purpose of this measure is to ensure that
individuals, particularly belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically
backward sections of the society are able to obtain adequate diet and nutrition. Special
attention needs to be paid towards women and children. In the agriculture and allied sectors,

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individuals are engaged in the performance of manual tasks. In order to carry out manual
tasks, they need energy, which they obtain from the consumption of adequate diet and
nutrition. Consumption of adequate diet and nutrition, not only leads to effective growth and
development of the individuals, but also enables them to achieve their desired goals and
objectives in an appropriate manner.

Reinforcement of Extension and Capacity Building Mechanisms – The reinforcement

of extension and capacity building mechanisms in the agriculture sector is required to focus
upon increase in the productivity of food and fibre. When they would be strengthened, then
farmers and agricultural labourers would be able to perform their job duties in an appropriate
manner and generate desired outcomes. This needs to be carried out in an economically and
environmentally sustainable manner. When the extension and capacity building mechanisms
are put into operation, one of the major aspects that needs to be taken into consideration is,
they do not impose any detrimental effects upon the farmers and agricultural labourers. It is
important to organize education, extension, empowerment and skills development activities
on the basis of intensification, diversification and value addition of farming practices. The
formation of partnerships aimed at reinforcing the knowledge base and bringing about
improvements in the dissemination of information. These include, farm to farm technical
assistance programs. Furthermore, public and private partnerships can be strengthened to
bring about improvements in the agricultural methods and techniques (Agriculture, n.d.).

Promote Awareness and Education Activities – National policies and planning should
recognize that generation of awareness and promotion of education activities among the
individuals would be able to render a significant contribution in promoting sustainable
growth and development of the agriculture sector. In the development of all national program
activities, it is vital to take into consideration, public awareness. National strategies should
identify the objectives and strategies for public awareness and define target audience and
tools for public outreach. Non-government organizations are rendering a significant
contribution in augmenting public awareness. In the agriculture universities, there are long-
term and short-term courses in terms of sustainable agriculture. There is generally
apprehensiveness among the public regarding the consequences of agricultural technology. In
other words, rural individuals normally feel apprehensive in terms of implementation of
technology and scientific methods in the production processes. It is important to organize
public information programs and public discussions that would assist in sharing of pertinent
information of agricultural and biological scientists with the public (Agriculture, n.d.).

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 Application of Research, Science and Technology – In the present existence, research,
science and technology have been rendering an indispensable contribution in all areas.
Research plays an important part in monitoring, evaluation and bringing about improvements
in the non-farm efforts. It should be implemented in a participatory and collaborative manner
to promote interaction between rural individuals and research institutions. The involvement
of research institutions is considered essential, whenever appropriate. Well-designed
information technology packages should be developed that could assist in the marketing
information network, monitoring of weather, pests and diseases, and could be a storehouse
for various farming practices and technologies. When the farmers and agricultural labourers
are educated, then they are able to acquire an efficient understanding of scientific methods
and technologies in a manageable way. It is vital to design the farming systems to enhance
productivity. The important technologies that are used in the agricultural sector include,
biotechnology, information and communication technology, GIS mapping, space technology,
renewable energy technologies, such as, solar, wind, biomass, biogas and management and
marketing technologies (Agriculture, n.d.).

Recognizing the Value of Agriculture Biodiversity – In recognition of the value of

agriculture biodiversity, there should be formation of registers. These registers would help in
the formulation of policies and practices, which would enable the individuals to carry out
tasks and activities in a well-organized manner. It is vital to recognize the intrinsic value of
biological diversity and of its economic, social, scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic
significance. Small number of species makes provision of nutritional requirements globally.
These are carried out either through cultivation or harvesting. Most of the under-utilized
plants have the potential for more widespread use, and their expansion could render an
effective contribution towards food security, agricultural diversification and income
generation. This is particularly within the areas, where cultivation of major crops is
economically marginal. A time-bound program is required to list, catalogue and classify the
vast agro-biodiversity of the country. Major emphasis is put upon conservation of the
indigenous breeds and species (Agriculture, n.d.).

Agriculture and Related Policies – It is vital to develop and strengthen policies and
practices, which have the major objective of promoting sustainable agriculture. In order to
promote sustainable agriculture and rural development, the implementation of policies and
programs are essential. Governments need to take into consideration the aspects of adoption
of policies and programs, in terms of extension, training, pricing, distribution of inputs,

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development of infrastructure, credit and taxation, incentives for crop diversification and the
formation of the markets for bio-diverse food crops. Another aspect is, including standards
for the labelling of foods, which allow for the highlighting of use of non-standard varieties of
crops. The policies should focus upon land reforms, input and output pricing, investment in
irrigation, infrastructure and insurance, legislation for biodiversity, geographic appellation,
varietal protection and rights of farmers. The land rights should be well-defined.
Furthermore, there is a need to ensure equal access to land, water and other biological
resources. These rights are considered imperative particularly for women, indigenous
communities and other individuals residing in poverty (Agriculture, n.d.).

Creation of Favourable Economic Climate – Agriculture is regarded as a profession

which does not generate sufficient income for the individuals involved in it. The major causes
for this are, unfavourable price regimes and low value addition. The situation is likely to be
exacerbated in the wake of the integration of agriculture trade into the global system, unless
immediate corrective measures are formulated. For the augmentation of sustainable
agriculture, the key pillars are, favourable economic environment and supportive public
management system. The major issues that need immediate attention are, capital inadequacy,
lack of infrastructural support, and demand side constraints, such as controls on movement,
storage and sale of agricultural products and so forth. These have an effect upon the
economic viability of the agriculture sector. These issues need immediate attention. In India,
the agriculture sector should have a certain degree of autonomy and flexibility in determining
agricultural policies. The determination of agricultural policies takes place with the main
purpose of bringing about increase in productivity, augment income levels, reduce
vulnerability to market fluctuations, ensuring stability to prices and so forth (Agriculture,
n.d.).

Ensure Participation at All Levels and Protection of Rights – National programmes

are increasingly confronted with policy, legal and institutional issues related to ownership,
intellectual property rights, exchange, transfer and trade of agricultural resources.
Participatory processes and involvement of various stakeholders can help in finding answers
to such concerns. Towards this, it is crucial to develop a framework for a unified national
program to bring about improvements in the diverse efforts within the country to deal with
such issues and concerns. The policies and programs in terms of food and agriculture
activities should involve public and private enterprises and companies, non-governmental
organizations, and communities and individuals, belonging to agriculture, environment and

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development sectors. The role of indigenous and local communities in conserving, collecting,
improving and sustainably using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture needs to be
acknowledged. Furthermore, there is a need to recognize local and community-level
initiatives and participation in programs (Agriculture, n.d.).

Conclusion

Within rural communities, agriculture is regarded as one of the major areas for
employment and sustenance of better livelihoods opportunities for the individuals. Majority
of individuals are acquiring employment opportunities in this sector. In this sector, the
individuals involved need to possess efficient knowledge and skills to enhance production
and profitability. They need to be aware of modern and innovative methods and strategies,
required to be put into operation. Within the agriculture sector, the major areas that need to be
focused upon to bring about development are, soil and water conservation, water resources,
farm and agriculture engineering, plantations and horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries,
forestry, natural environmental conditions, ecology and climate change and agricultural
extensions. In rural communities, farmers and agricultural labourers are getting enrolled into
training centres to acquire efficient knowledge and generate awareness in terms of scientific
methods that need to be put into operation to augment production and effectiveness.

The measures to bring about improvements in agricultural productivity and conditions

of farmers are, efficiency in marketing of agricultural products, infrastructure development,
financial resources and credit, training and other facilities, promoting environment
sustainability, promoting agricultural sustainability, formulation of rural development plans,
promote equitable distribution and access, augmenting food security, reinforcement of
extension and capacity building mechanisms, promote awareness and education activities,
application of research, science and technology, recognizing the value of agriculture
biodiversity, agriculture and related polices, creation of favourable economic climate and
ensure participation at all levels and protection of rights. There have been implementation of
policies and programs, which need to be recognized in an appropriate manner, primarily by
the rural individuals, who are engaged in the agriculture sector and farming practices. Apart
from bringing about improvements in the production processes, the farmers and agricultural
labourers need to ensure that they make use of scientific, modern and innovative methods to
bring about improvements in their living conditions.

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 Chapter 12. Rural Industrialization

Rural industries render a significant contribution in the development of India.

Industrialization of rural communities not only leads to an increase in per capita income and
augmentation of living conditions of the individuals by generating appropriate employment
opportunities for them, but also causes reduction in income disparities between rural and
urban areas. The expansion of industrialization in rural communities is regarded as
indispensable in making use of resources to serve local needs. Rural industrialization has
been regarded as one of the major economic and social roles, leading to economic
development. The major objective of rural industrialization is to generate numerous
employment opportunities for the individuals, so they are able to alleviate the conditions of
poverty and promote better livelihoods opportunities for themselves. Expansion of
industrialization within rural communities is regarded as one of the indispensable factors in
promoting development of rural economy (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

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 When the development of industries are to take place within rural communities, then
it is necessary to ensure that they prove to be beneficial to the individuals to a major extent.
When the rural individuals are obtaining employment opportunities within the industries, then
it is vital to ensure that they possess the required skills and abilities that are needed to
perform the job duties in a well-organized manner. In rural communities, individuals
normally possess low literacy levels or no literacy skills at all. Therefore, within the
industries, it is necessary to implement training and development programs, with the main
purpose of augmenting the skills and abilities of the individuals. Furthermore, within the
workplace, the overall environmental conditions should be created in such a manner that
individuals should feel contented within the performance of their job duties. Apart from
proving to be advantageous to the individuals, rural industrialization should have one of the
major objectives of augmenting rural development.

Significance of Rural Industrialization

Industrialization in rural communities appears to be beneficial in promoting rural

development, when the individuals are able to recognize its significance in an appropriate
manner. The policies, programs and strategies that are formulated with emphasis put upon the
development of rural communities need to ensure that they should not impose any
disadvantages, especially regarding the deprived, poverty stricken and economically weaker
sections of the society. Rural development strategies whether they are technocratic, reformist
or radical, envisages rural industrialization from the point of economic growth, regional
balance and social equity. It is the constructive technical co-efficient, based on their own
resource endowments that augment the additional support and determination for a strategy of
rural industrialization. It is characterized by labour-intensive, energy-saving and foreign
exchange saving technology and organization which will not unfavourably contribute to
environmental pollution (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Rural industrialization may be considered as an aspect of spatial diversification of

industries and is treated as a part of the problem of the location of industries in general. On
the other hand, rural industrialization may be looked upon as a process confined to the
development of rural industries. Rural industrialization fulfils several economic and social
needs of rural communities, such as increasing employment opportunities, diversifying rural
occupations, raising income and living standards, reducing exodus to urban centres,
eliminating regional and economic imbalance and ensuring social justice. A large industrial

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establishment located within rural areas and generating employment opportunities for number
of labourers, who are coming from their village homes to work in the establishment, cannot
be called a rural industry (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).
The word has, therefore, to be treated as conveying the additional idea of the industry,
an enterprise of rural people, carried out mainly in the natural environmental conditions as
distinct from urban or industrial environments. A household industry located in a town or
large factory, located in rural areas, after the formation of an industrial colony, would not be
technically a rural industry. It implies a broadly decentralized growth of industries with a
high employment potential. It is compatible with an efficient technique and the requirement
of the process of development. However, there is prevalence of uncertainties, primarily as to
what the term, rural industry does actually stand for and what exactly the concept of rural
industries is (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Industrial Policy Frame

From the beginning, the government policy went in favour of supporting rural
industries. The National Planning Committee (1938) provided significance to the
development of village and cottage industries. In 1944, Sriman Narayan in his Gandhian Plan
had suggested measures for the development of rural industries. The congress agrarian
reforms committee recommended several policy measures for the development of khadi and
village industries. Article 43 of the Indian Constitution, relating to Directive Principles of
State Policy states that in particular the state shall endeavour to promote cottage industries on
an individual or co-operative basis in rural areas. The Directive Principles of the Constitution
laid stress on certain economic and social values, which can be recognized only through the
development of rural industries. It should be the State Policy to provide for the expansion of
decentralized industries (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).
The promotion of small-scale and cottage industries has been a major plan of Indian
Industries Policy after independence. The development of cottage and village industries had
been receiving continuous attention of the Government of India in various industrial policies
as well as in five year plans. Rural industrialization programme is made an operative
instrument for upgrading rural poverty, for which it is necessary that output, employment and
technological suitability of this sector are well harmonized. The state has envisaged various

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measures in this direction and these have been stated as follows: (Chapter – I. Rural
Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Industrial Policy of 1948

The major objective of the industrial policy resolution of 1948 was that the state must
render an effective contribution in the development of industries. The results of this policy,
while recognizing the importance of rural industries concisely stated that these industries
have an important role to play in the national economy. The reason being, they make
provision of ample scope for better utilization of local resources and achievement of local
self-sufficiency with regards to certain types of consumer goods. Thus, industrial policy of
1948 considered rural small scale industries to be crucial for the economy. This was due to
two reasons, such industries helped in the utilization of local resources, secondly, they helped
to increase the production of essential consumer goods (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in
India, n.d.).

Industrial Policy of 1956

Prior to the introduction of Industrial Policy Resolution, 1956, the moments

development had taken place in 1951, when the industries (Development and Regulation) Act
was passed. This act gave powers to the Government to regulate the industries. In 1955, the
socialistic pattern of society was adopted as the national goal. The industrial policy laid stress
on accelerating the speed of industrialization and summarized the role of rural scale
industries. This policy resolution stated, that industrialization may prove to be advantageous
to the economy of the country as a whole, it is vital that disparities in the levels of
development between different regions should be reduced. It is one of the aims of national
planning to ensure that these facilities are steadily made available within the areas, which are
at present lagging behind industrially or where there is greater need for providing
opportunities for employment (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Industrial Policy of 1977

The industrial policy of 1977 was more or less based on previous industrial policies.
In the statement of industrial policy announced on 23th December 1977, the Government put

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emphasis upon the association between agriculture and industrial sectors. This association has
acquired significance that is needed for strengthening of small-scale industries and minute
sectors, the need for reliance on appropriate technology, dispersal of industries, the need for
maximizing employment opportunities and so forth. This policy put emphasis upon the
promotion of rural small-scale, tiny, industries central at the district level to provide
assistance for the promotion of rural scale and cottage industries. The 1977 industries policy,
thus, provided a positive shape to the comprehensive rural industrialization policy by
establishing co-ordination and multipurpose agency to make provision of all assistance for
the promotion of small-scale industries in rural communities (Chapter – I. Rural
Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Industrial Policy of 1980

The industrial policy statement of 1980 was introduced by the Government of India in
1980. It also rendered a significant contribution towards the development of small-scale
industries. The government is putting in efforts and framing policies and programs to
promote such industrialization within rural communities, which can lead to economic
viability to a major extent. Apart from making all the efforts for the promotion of
industrialization, it is vital to ensure that it should also be dedicated towards the enhancement
of skills and abilities among the individuals, so they are able to bring about improvements in
their overall living standards. A dynamic industrial economy is capable of disseminating
benefits to large number of individuals within rural communities (Chapter – I. Rural
Industrialization in India, n.d.).

New Industrial Policy of 1991

The New Industrial Policy initiating far reaching structural reforms to lead Indian
industries away from regulatory and protective regime to a free, market-oriented, competitive
and globalised environment was announced in 1991. The new policy measures for promoting
and strengthening small rural, small tiny and village scale enterprises were submitted to the
Parliament on 6th August, 1991. The main thrust of new policy is to impart more vitality and
growth to employment and exports (Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).
The main features of the new policy are, deregulation, de-bureaucratisation and
simplification of statutes, regulations and procedures, increase in the investment limit in plant

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and machine of the unit, inclusion of industry-related services and business enterprises,
irrespective of their location as rural small-scale industries, ensuring adequate flow of credit
on a normative basis and quality of its delivery for viable operation of the rural small-scale
industry sector, setting up of a special monitoring cell to oversee the genuine credit needs of
rural small sector, introduction of suitable legislation to ensure prompt payment of rural
small-scale industries bills, implementation of the scheme of Integrated Infrastructure,
including technological back-up services for industries, establishment of a Technology
Development Cell in the Rural Small Industries Development Organisation, market
promotion of rural small-scale industry products through co-operative and public sector
institutions, other specialized professional marketing agencies and the consortia approach and
establishment of an Export Development Centre in the Rural Small Industries Development
(Chapter – I. Rural Industrialization in India, n.d.).

Evolution of Small-Scale Industries

The Government of India has initiated the process of industrialization as a conscious

and deliberate growth of the policy in the 1950s. The second five year plan program for
industrialization was based upon the Industrial Policy of 1956. This policy envisaged the
expansion of the industrial sector. Furthermore, there was also expansion of the machine-
building industries, as it was comprehensively understood that with the advent of technology,
machines and other modern and innovative methods, the production and the manufacturing
processes get augmented. In the context of small-scale and village industries, substantial
progress was recorded. In about 60 industrial estates, 1000 small factories were established.
In accordance to the third plan, the maximum rate of investment was recorded in the
reinforcement of the industry, power and transportation networks (Ahamad, & Pandey,
2015).
The rural industries are mostly agro-based. In these industries, the use of technology
has not been made to a major extent. The individuals are mostly involved in the production of
goods manually. In accordance to the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC), any
of the industries or commissions that are located in rural and remote regions, with the
population of 20,000, the net per capita investment that has been made in these industries
account for three to four crores. The major categories of rural industries are, mineral-based
industries, forest-based industries, agro-based industries, polymer-based industries and textile

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industries (Ahamad, & Pandey, 2015). A common classification is made between small
industries, which are making use of traditional methods and procedures. The other industries
classified are the industries, which are making use of modern and innovative methods and
techniques. The rural individuals in the present existence are working towards development
of their skills and abilities, so they can find employment opportunities in industries that make
use of modern and scientific methods in the production processes.

In the Indian economy small-scale and cottage industries occupy an important place.
The main reason being, their employment potential and their contribution towards total
industrial outputs and exports. The number of policies and programs have been put into
operation by the Government of India to promote them. With the formulation of measures
and policies, the small-scale and cottage industries are experiencing competitions, both
internally and externally. Though differences between small-scale and cottage industries have
not been taken into account in an appropriate manner. It is generally believed that cottage
industries are the ones, in which the family members render a significant contribution in the
implementation of tasks and functions. Whereas, in small-scale industries, hired labour is
employed. The industries are generally associated with agriculture and make provision of
subsidiary employment opportunities in rural communities (Small Scale Industries, n.d.).

Small-scale industries have a specific contribution to make towards promoting

economic development of the country. At the initial stage, it can contribute towards the
output of goods, which are in high demand. Contribution of small-scale industries towards
productivity is carried out, without requiring much organization of the enterprises or the use
of much foreign exchange to finance the import of new equipment. The other factor, which
highlights the significance of small-scale industries is, they generate employment
opportunities for the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. It can be stated that small-scale industries
make provision of a training ground for the individuals to spread industrial knowledge over
wide areas (Amjad, 1984).
A significant feature of the Indian economy, since the country achieved its
independence is the rapid growth of small-scale industrial sector. Over the past five decades,
there have been formulation of measures and policies by the government. The primary
objective of these policies is to protect the interests of small-scale industries and facilitate
their rapid development. In the pursuance of the policies, there have been schemes and
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measures initiated by the government, these include, development of infrastructure,
machinery, equipment, tools, financial resources, technology, marketing assistance,
incentives and so forth. The small-scale sector owes its definition to the industries
(Development and Regulation Act, 1951). The sector is defined in terms of value of
investment in plant and machinery. There has been an increase in industrial production by
about five times. This has made India one of the most industrialized countries in the world
(Chapter – II. Evolution of Small-Scale industries in India, n.d.).

Small-scale industries render a significant contribution in the development of the

national economy. Within the course of development of small-scale industries, there has been
shortage of capital resources and unemployment. The main characteristics of small-scale
industries involve, small quantity of the capital requirement, entrepreneurship and
employment generation potential and so forth. The employment opportunities that are
generated in these industries are nine times that of large establishments for an investment of
rupees one lakh in fixed assets. The small-scale industries assume major significance in
lessening the problem of unemployment, in facilitating the expansion of the industrial sector
and in ensuring the all-round development of the economy. Cottage and small-scale
industries are of major significance within the country. When there is scarcity of human
resources and capital, then certainly the development of small-scale industries would
experience barriers within the course of accomplishment of desired objectives (Chapter – II.
Evolution of Small-Scale industries in India, n.d.).
The evolution of small-scale industries have emerged as the vibrant and dynamic
sector of the Indian economy. It renders a significant contribution to about 40 percent of the
total industrial production and more than 34 percent of the national exports. In the present,
about 250 lakh individuals are obtaining employment opportunities in small-scale industries.
These industries are vested with special features, which are proving to be beneficial to the
individuals. These include employment potential, indigenous nature, balanced development
of regions and so forth. The development of the economy is facilitated to a major extent
through the progression of small-scale industries. The major cause is, rural unskilled workers
are obtaining employment opportunities. These individuals are engaged in the production
processes by making effective use of resources and materials. The entrepreneurs, who are
involved in the operation of these industries are regarded as small entrepreneurs (Chapter –
II. Evolution of Small-Scale industries in India, n.d.).

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 Factors Effecting Contribution of Small-Scale Industries towards
Industrial Development

The small-scale sector has been assigned significance in the industrial development
program of the country due to the reasons, which have been stated as follows: (Chapter – II.
Evolution of Small-Scale industries in India, n.d.).

Generation of Employment Opportunities - The amount of capital that has been

invested in these industries makes provision of more employment opportunities to the
individuals, as compared to large capital. This is regarded to be indispensable, particularly in
the country like India, where majority of the population is residing in rural communities.
When the rural individuals are fortunate enough to obtain employment opportunities in small-
scale industries, then they are more likely to feel contented and pleasurable. They may not get
paid much for their job duties, but through the performance of their job duties are able to
augment their skills and abilities.
Assisting Individuals in Generating Supplementary Income – In rural communities,
agriculture and farming practices are regarded as the major occupations of the individuals.
Larger percentage of men and women are engaged in the agricultural sector. But just getting
employed in the agricultural sector does not generate enough income for the individuals to
secure their livelihoods. It is vital for them to get engaged in other employment opportunities
as well to secure their future. Therefore, employment opportunities in small-scale industries
help the rural individuals to generate supplementary income. When the individuals are
employed in the agricultural sector, then they can obtain part-time employment opportunities
in small-scale industries. Even when the individuals are not educated nor possess the basic
literacy skills, then too they are able to find employment in small-scale industries.
Contribution to Capital Formation – In India, the scarcity of resources is regarded as
the major problem, which can be solved by the establishment of small-scale industries. When
the rural individuals find employment opportunities in these industries, then they are not only
able to develop their productive skills, but also are able to augment their managerial skills. It
is essential for the rural individuals, particularly the ones, who are unaware, uneducated, and
belong to underprivileged, deprived and economically weaker sections of the society to
augment their managerial skills. These include, planning, organizing, directing, leading, co-
ordinating and controlling. These skills are primarily regarded as significant in the

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implementation of their job duties, which are, production and manufacturing of products. In
this case, they need to possess adequate knowledge in terms of the production processes, use
of materials and so forth.
Mobilization of Capital – Small-scale industries contribute in the mobilization of
capital, which has not been used earlier. When the mobilization of capital takes place, then
rural individuals are able to make effective use of their skills and abilities as well. For
instance, rural women as well as men are skilled and proficient in the production and
manufacturing of handicrafts. They are working as artisans and craftsmen and are generating
income. The production of handicrafts gets augmented, especially during the time of
festivals. Whereas, in other parts of the year, the productivity gets slow down. Therefore,
securing employment opportunities in small-scale industries, enables the rural individuals to
make effective use of their capital and skills.
Need Shorter Development Periods – One of the important benefits of small-scale
industries is, they need smaller time period to develop efficaciously. When large-scale
industries get established, then it may take long-term time period to develop. But the
development of small-scale industries and the significant role that they play in generating
employment opportunities for rural individuals and bringing about development of rural
communities, usually takes a shorter development period. The major cause of this are, these
industries make use of capital and resources. The capital and resources, which are untapped
are also able to get effectually utilized through these industries.
Less Dependent upon Imported Machinery and Raw Materials – Small-scale
industries are more likely to make use of indigenous materials, equipment, tools and
machinery. The use of technology is rendering an indispensable contribution in enhancing
productivity. The aspects that are used in small-scale industries are of native origin. The use
of machinery, equipment and raw materials, which are imported are utilized to a lesser extent.
The individuals, who are employed in these industries, primarily belong to rural communities
and are not literate. Therefore, they are able to augment productivity through the use of
imported machinery and raw materials. On the other hand, in large-scale industries, the
utilization of imported machinery and raw materials is recognized to a major extent.
Balanced Economic Growth – Small-scale industries render a significant contribution
towards the economic development of the country. They help in the dispersal of economic
power and thus promoting economic growth. When the country achieved its independence, it
was in an underdeveloped state. Therefore, with the establishment of small-scale industries,
improvements began to take place within the economic conditions of the country. It was

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believed that the establishment of small-scale industries is regarded as one of the most
significant aspects in making use of traditional skills and promoting economic growth. Apart
from balanced economic growth, the individuals also are able to attain self-reliance and better
livelihoods opportunities.
Meeting Client Requirements – The small-scale industries render an effectual
contribution in meeting the needs and requirements of the clients. The products which are in
great demand are produced on a large scale in these industries. Hence, this has been the major
reason for significance of these industries, as they produce those products, which are in high
demand. These industries are now one of the rapidly growing sectors within the country and
have made progress in recent years. During the last decade alone, small-scale industries have
progressed from the production of simple consumer goods, such as, soaps, detergents etc. to
leather goods, electronics, television, computers and so forth.
Augmentation of Sources of Demand and Supply Opportunities for Large-Scale
Industries – The small-scale industries are regarded as useful in generating more sources for
the demand and supply opportunities for large-scale industries. Furthermore, they impart
strength and viability to the industrial sector. In other words, with the establishment of small-
scale industries, not only large-scale industries are able to carry out their production
processes in a well-organized manner, but industrialization within the country also gets
augmented. One of the major aspects is, utilization of traditional methods and materials in
small-scale industries will make provision of enhancement opportunities for rural individuals.
Production of Handicrafts – Rural individuals are developing interest and enthusiasm
in the production and manufacturing of various kinds of handicrafts throughout the country.
Individuals, both men and women develop their skills and abilities regarding silk weaving,
pottery making, decoration items, garments, jewellery, bags, and so forth. They are usually
employed in the manufacturing of these items before, the demand for them increases. Some
handicraft items take certain period of time to get manufactured, such as, seven to eight
months, whereas, some may get manufactured in just couple of days. In the production of
handicrafts, the individuals are required to possess adequate knowledge in terms of machines,
tools and production processes. The individuals are able to enhance their skills and abilities
with regular practice.

Effects of Globalization on Rural Industrialization

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 Globalization is regarded as a macro concept and rural industrialization is regarded as
the micro concept. Due to this, it is difficult to establish causal connections, or to quantify the
specific effects of globalization on rural industrialization. However, it is possible for the
individuals to acquire adequate information in terms of various channels, through which
various aspects of globalization can bring about changes within the course of welfare of rural
industrialization (Patel, & Chavda, 2013). The rural individuals need to ensure that they
generate adequate awareness in terms of various methods and approaches, which they need to
put into operation, primarily in the implementation of tasks and activities. It is essential to
make use of modern and innovative methods to improve one’s living standards. The major
effects that are taking place within the lives of rural individuals are, productivity and
efficiency effect, economic growth effect, technological effect, distributional effect and
transformational and insecurity effects. These have been stated as follows:

Productivity and Efficiency Effect

In the past decades, the conditions of rural areas were in an underdeveloped state to a
major extent. The societal problems of poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, malnutrition,
health problems and illnesses and homelessness were prevalent among the rural individuals.
But within the course of time, with advancements taking place, the rural individuals too have
begun to acquire efficient awareness in terms of various areas. Agriculture is regarded as the
major occupation of rural individuals. Majority of them are employed in the agriculture sector
and farming practices. In the past, they were making use of traditional methods. The use of
traditional methods did not cause an increase in productivity. But with the initiation of
modern and innovative methods and scientific approaches, the farmers and agricultural
labourers are able to augment productivity and efficiency. Therefore, it can be stated that with
the impact of globalization on rural industrialization, productivity and efficiency is being
improved in the agriculture sector and farming practices.

Economic Growth Effect

Economic growth is referred to growth in not only the economic conditions of the
individuals, but also in the overall economic conditions of rural communities. In order to
bring about economic growth, it is vital to formulate important measures, programs and
schemes, which should clearly take into account the strategies and approaches that are

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necessary to promote economic growth. The individuals in rural areas are residing in the
conditions of poverty and backwardness. Their major objective is to devise measures to
alleviate the conditions of poverty and bring about improvements in their living conditions.
To attain the objective of economic growth, the individuals need to put into operation various
strategies. These are, generating awareness in terms of policies and programs that are
initiated to enhance their well-being, looking for employment opportunities in accordance to
their skills and abilities, working effectively towards augmenting their literacy levels and
aptitude and they should make effective use of their financial resources.

Technological Effect

The use of technology is rendering an indispensable contribution in enhancing the

living standards of individuals in not only urban areas but in rural areas as well. In rural
communities, individuals are making use of technology in the agricultural sector, farming
practices and in other areas as well, including manufacturing and production of various items,
such as, handicrafts, garments and so forth. Individuals need to be aware of how to make use
of technology in an appropriate manner. In rural communities, there have been establishment
of training centres, which are making provision of adequate knowledge to the rural
individuals in terms of technology and scientific methods. They also migrate to urban areas to
get enrolled in training centres and upgrade their knowledge regarding technology. After
enhancing their technical skills, they return to their villages and make use of them to improve
production. With the increase in the usage of technology, they are augmenting productivity
and are generating appropriate outcomes. In order to make effective use of technology, the
rural individuals need to work towards development of their skills and abilities. Practicing on
a regular basis is one of the vital aspects to enhance skills. They need to ensure that they
make operative use of it to enhance their livelihoods opportunities.

Distributional Effect

In rural communities, the problem of poverty is severe among the individuals. To

alleviate poverty, it is vital to ensure that individuals do not experience problems such as,
illnesses and diseases, malnutrition and so forth. Health problems, diseases and malnutrition
are the major problems that arise as a result of poverty. In rural communities, there have been
establishment of organizations and groups that make provision of food supplies to the

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individuals. Making provision of nutritional food supplies is regarded to be of utmost
significance. When individuals will be in good health, only then they will be able to look for
opportunities to bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives. The distributional
effects need to take into consideration that distribution of food supplies as well as other
materials should be done on an equal basis. For this purpose, it is vital to conduct an analysis
of rural communities and the prevalence of poverty. Furthermore, measures should be
formulated to cater to the needs and requirements of the economically weaker sections of the
society on an equal basis.

Transformational and Insecurity Effects

In some cases, with the advent of industrialization and globalization, rural individuals
feel insecure. The major causes of insecurity are, they are not educated and are unaware in
terms of various aspects. Research has indicated that rural individuals feel insecure, even
when they are required to make use of technology. Therefore, to alleviate their insecurity,
they get enrolled in training centres and acquire knowledge in terms of technology and
modern and innovative methods and techniques. It is up to the individuals themselves to
augment their confidence levels and overcome apprehensiveness and vulnerability. They
usually feel apprehensive, particularly when they are required to make use of technology and
scientific methods in the implementation of various tasks and activities. With the advent of
technology, industrialization and globalization, transformations are taking place in various
areas of rural communities. These include, educational institutions, training centres, health
care centres, medical facilities, agriculture sector, farming practices, infrastructure, roads,
communications, power supplies, water supplies, preservation of the environment and so
forth. It is vital on the part of rural individuals to make effective use of the facilities and
generate awareness in terms of preservation of all factors.

Challenges in Rural Industrialization

The rural individuals are required to experience number of challenges within the
course of rural industrialization. These are related to their families, society, technology,
finances and policies. These have been stated as follows:

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 Family Challenges

In rural communities, normally there is a prevalence of joint family system, i.e. when
two or more nuclear families are residing under the common roof. Within nuclear families
too, there are normally more than two children. Therefore, the individuals are required to
look for opportunities to meet the needs and requirements of all family members in an
appropriate manner. When the individuals are looking for various employment opportunities,
it is vital for them to take into consideration, their family requirements. For instance, when
individuals are vested with the job responsibility of taking their children to school and
bringing them back, then they need to look for employment opportunities that can be carried
out in a manageable manner. Furthermore, they are also required to implement household
responsibilities. Family challenges mostly prove to be impediments, primarily for women
within the course of implementation of household responsibilities and getting engaged in
employment opportunities.

Social Challenges

Rural women are the ones, who are overwhelmed by social challenges more as
compared to men. In rural communities, individuals usually possess traditional viewpoints
and perspectives, particularly in terms of girls and women. They are regarded as liabilities
and more preference is given to male members. It is believed that males would render a
significant contribution in promoting well-being of their families. When a girl is born within
the family, she is discouraged from getting enrolled in school and acquiring educational
qualifications. From the initial stage, girls are trained in terms of implementation of
household responsibilities and taking care of needs and requirements of family members.
They are meant to look after their younger siblings and elderly members of the family,
especially when their parents to go work. Hence, one of the major social challenge is neglect
and discriminatory treatment against girls and women. There have been implementation of
programs that have the main objective of bringing about transformations in the viewpoints of
individuals. Girls and women too can render a significant contribution in promoting well-
being of their families and communities, provided they should be given equal rights and
opportunities as their male counterparts.

Technological Challenges

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 As it has been stated above that the use of technology is rendering an indispensable
contribution in improving the lives of the individuals in various fields and communities. In
the present existence, individuals belonging to rural communities and underprivileged
sections of the society, who are engaged in minority jobs are also making use of technologies
in the implementation of various tasks and activities. It has been researched upon, these
individuals are making use of computers, lap-tops, mobile phones, technologies in the
agricultural sector and farming practices and so forth. In some cases, acquiring an efficient
understanding of technology is a complicated area and rural individuals feel apprehensive.
Therefore, to enhance ones skills and abilities in terms of usage of technology, it is vital for
the individuals to get engaged in thorough practice. In rural communities, there have been
establishment of training centres, which are making provision of efficient knowledge in terms
of technologies, such as computer training centres. The training centres that make provision
of technical knowledge to the individuals in terms of agriculture sector and farming practices
are separate. The trainers employed in these training centres and the curriculum and
instructional strategies implemented, help the individuals to overcome technological
challenges.

Financial Challenges

Financial challenges are regarded as the most detrimental and have a severe impact
upon the overall lives of the individuals. In rural communities, the conditions of poverty are
prevalent among individuals. In some cases, these conditions are so severe that individuals
are unable to obtain two square meals per day. Therefore, lack of financial resources prove to
be major hindrances within the course of augmenting one’s livelihoods opportunities. In the
establishment of industries within the country, individuals need financial resources.
Industrialization demands financial resources in the implementation of various tasks and
functions. These include, formulating organizational objectives, establishment of
departments, training centres, introduction of training and development programs,
introducing machines, technologies, equipment and infrastructure, recruitment and selection
of personnel, carrying out of other tasks and activities and so forth. When the individuals are
experiencing shortage of finances, then it is apparent that they will not be able to accomplish
their desired objectives. Hence, financial planning is regarded to be of utmost significance.
Research has indicated that individuals belonging to rural communities need to take into

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consideration their financial resources and other sources, such as, transportation, especially
when they are to obtain any employment opportunities within industries. Though, when they
are able to secure employment opportunities in industries, they are able to overcome financial
challenges.

Policy Challenges

The industrialization processes need to get carried out in accordance to the policies
and programs. Within the course of time, there have been number of changes taking place
within the policies, especially concerning rural industrialization. The major policy challenges
that have been experienced are, problems in terms of increase in the equity capital,
availability of raw materials, implementation of modern and innovative methods, increase in
pollution, lack of proper training and development programs and so forth. In industries and
factories, the children are also employed, who are below 18 years of age in hazardous
occupations. The conditions of poverty are regarded as the major causes that compel children
to get engaged in hazardous occupations in return for small amount of money. These include,
gem cutting, diamond polishing, lock industries, beedi rolling, silk weaving, plantations, and
so forth. The major policy challenges in these industries are, children are engaged in
occupations, which are likely to impose detrimental effects upon them. Furthermore, due to
employment in these occupations, they get deprived of all kinds of childhood activities. Not
only children, but when adult men and women are employed in hazardous occupations, then
they too need to acquire proper training and work under the supervision of the supervisor or
manager.

Conclusion
Industrialization in rural areas has rendered an indispensable contribution in making
provision of employment opportunities for the individuals and augmenting their living
conditions. The rural individuals are able to find employment opportunities in industries to
supplement their income. When understanding rural industrialization, it is vital to acquire an
understanding of the industrial policy framework. In this case, the major industrial policies
are, Industrial Policy of 1948, Industrial Policy of 1956, Industrial Policy of 1977, Industrial
Policy of 1980 and New Industrial Policy of 1991. In rural communities, the evolution of
small-scale industries have provided employment opportunities for the individuals, even if

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they are illiterate and unskilled. The factors effecting contribution of small-scale industries
towards industrial development are, generation of employment opportunities, assisting
individuals in generating supplementary income, contribution to capital formation,
mobilization of capital, need shorter development periods, less dependent upon imported
machinery and raw materials, balanced economic growth, meeting client requirements,
augmentation of sources of demand and supply opportunities for large-scale industries and
production of handicrafts.
Another concept that has been taken into account are, effects of globalization on
industrialization. The major effects that are influencing the lives of rural individuals are,
productivity and efficiency effect, economic growth effect, technological effect, distributional
effect and transformational and insecurity effects. The challenges that take place as a result of
rural industrialization are in terms of families, society, technology, finances and policies. In
rural communities, both men and women are employed in the agriculture sector and farming
practices. These are regarded as major sources of generation of income and enhancing their
livelihoods opportunities. Apart from the agriculture sector, individuals are securing
employment opportunities in rural industries. Even though they are not educated, they
undergo training and development programs to acquire knowledge in terms of
implementation of job duties in an appropriate manner and achieve the desired objectives.

Chapter 13. Skills Development among Rural Individuals

The development of skills among rural individuals is regarded as an important

stimulus to alleviate the problems and challenges that they are experiencing. The major
problems that are experienced by rural individuals are poverty, illiteracy and unemployment.
Therefore, the development of skills and abilities will enable them to participate in various
tasks and activities, which would render a significant contribution in alleviating these
problems and leading to improvements within their overall quality of lives. Skills
development facilitates the cycle of high productivity, increase in the employment
opportunities, income and sustainable development (Sanghi, & Srija, 2015). The individuals,
belonging to rural communities focus upon skills development in accordance to their
interests. For instance, when individuals are interested in taking up craftsmanship as a
profession, then they would focus upon development of their skills in accordance to their job

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requirements. Whereas, when individuals are interested in taking up a job as an electrician,
then they would focus upon development of their skills, based on job duties and so forth.
When the rural individuals are engaged in development of their skills, then their major
focus is to bring about improvements in productivity. The improved productivity can be in
the form of real gross domestic product, i.e. economy, increased profit is related to
enterprises and higher wages are related to the workforce. The increase in productivity can be
attributed to number of reasons, such as, new technology, new machines, tools, equipment,
enhanced management practices, investments made in equipment and technology, occupation
safety, improvements in the skill levels of workers, macro-economic policies, labour market
conditions, working environmental conditions and public investment in infrastructure and
education (Sanghi, & Srija, 2015). In order to bring about an increase in productivity, skills
development is regarded as one of the indispensable factors. This is apparent, when
individuals will be skilled and possess efficient knowledge, particularly in terms of
implementation of their job duties. This would be assisting in augmenting productivity and
profitability.

Skills Development for Promoting Entrepreneurship

Skills development is regarded as an aspect that is given utmost significance by the
Government. For the formal sector, it is central, particularly in the generation of employment
opportunities. Whereas, for the informal sector, it renders a significant contribution in
causing reduction in poverty and unemployment. The National Policy on Skills Development
has the major objective to provide training to about 104.62 million individuals. By the year
2022, it has been estimated to provide training to about 460 million individuals. The
development of skills among rural individuals primarily takes into consideration the factor of
self-employment. The skills development strategy among rural individual focus upon self-
employed and casually employed. In accordance to the National Policy on Skills
Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015, emphasis has been put upon the development of
entrepreneurship, as the pathway for generating more employment opportunities (Sanghi, &
Srija, 2015).
The policy has identified the major policy strategies for promoting entrepreneurship.
These are, educating and preparing individuals and novice entrepreneurs, throughout the
country; establishing connections between entrepreneurs and other individuals, including
peers, mentors and incubators; providing support to entrepreneurs through Entrepreneurship
Hubs (E-Hubs); catalyse the transformation in culture transformation to bring about changes

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in entrepreneurship; the entrepreneurship should be encouraged among the deprived,
marginalized and economically weaker sections of the society; these individuals should be
empowered to generate appropriate livelihoods opportunities; women should be given major
focus, particularly when improvements need to be made in entrepreneurship; individuals need
to be aware of strategies and approaches that are essential for carrying out business activities
in an appropriate manner; bringing about improvements, particularly regarding the
accessibility of financial resources, as these are regarded to be of utmost significance in
implementing any task or activity and promoting social entrepreneurship and grassroots
innovations. The development of skills among self-employed individuals are regarded as
crucial to bring about transformations from workers to employers or entrepreneurs (Sanghi,
& Srija, 2015).

Strategies and Approaches for Skills Development

The strategies and approaches in terms of skills development are formulated with the
primary objectives of promoting income generation and local development, emphasising
upon the role of skills and knowledge for the creation of economic and employment
opportunities, for the poverty stricken, unemployed and underemployed individuals towards
sustained economic activities (Rural Skills Training, 2009). The strategies and approaches,
have been stated as follows: (Skills for Rural Development, 2011).
Developing an Integrated Approach to Rural Skills Development
The development of skills, particularly among rural individuals need to get integrated
into the rural development policies and strategies. These include, agricultural policies, private
sector development and entrepreneurship policies. In rural areas, the skills development
training centres should make use of effectual methods and approaches, which would enable
the individuals to develop their skills and abilities in a well-organized manner. Reinforcement
of co-ordination and collaboration with the private sector in skills development have the
major objectives of leading to an increase in the importance of training and improving and
facilitating its delivery. In the development of an integrated approach to rural skills
development, the other agencies that are involved are, non-government organizations,
community groups and other individual workers. They render a significant contribution in the
planning and implementation of programs.
The other areas that need to be taken into consideration are, assessment of the labour
market needs, and economic opportunities. In addition, forming a connection between

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training programs and the skills requirements of the individuals is of major concern. When
the establishment of training centres takes place, it is essential to conduct an analysis in terms
of the areas, in which individuals are required to augment their skills. Development of
diversified skills development policies need to take into consideration, formal, non-formal,
and informal training. Whereas, it is important to acquire formal training that makes
provision of all the relevant information that are essential to rural individuals. In the national
training systems, it is vital to include, innovative, non-formal and informal skills training.
Expanding Access to Quality Education and Vocational Training

In rural areas, there is a need to bring about improvements in quality education and
vocational training. In educational institutions and training centres, the environmental
conditions should be created in such a manner that individuals should take pleasure in getting
enrolled and acquiring education. The major aspects that need to be taken into account are,
improvements in infrastructure, providing heating and cooling equipment in accordance to
the weather conditions, proper furniture, civic amenities and other facilities. Furthermore, it is
vital to put into operation, the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies in an
appropriate manner. Another most important aspect is, when recruitment of teachers and
instructors takes place, it needs to be ensured that they possess appropriate educational
qualifications and experience. With the possession of adequate educational qualifications and
experience, they would be able to achieve the desired objectives.
The technical and vocational training should be implemented, taking into
consideration, certain important areas. These are, development of basic literacy skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic, confidence building, health management and social
awareness. When these aspects are adequately focused upon, then the individuals are not only
able to develop their skills and abilities in terms of concepts, but also would be able to
generate awareness in terms of good health, well-being and preservation of the environment.
Impartment of knowledge and information in terms of career guidance and labour market
information would enable the rural individuals, particularly youth to make informed decisions
in terms of education, training and employment within the rural context.
Promoting Diversified Skills Development Systems
The skills development in rural areas requires various types of skills provisions. These
are carried out through utilizing innovative methods of delivery and capitalizing on the
existing social institutions. The major aspects that are needed to be taken into consideration
are, establishing a connection between formal and non-formal training and combining

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institution-based education with enterprise-based learning. In other words, when the
individuals are acquiring educational skills in educational institutions and training centres,
they should be able to make practical use of them. For instance, when the individuals acquire
information in terms of technical and entrepreneurial knowledge, they should be proficient
enough to make use of them in the implementation of tasks and activities. When individuals
learn computer skills, they make use of them to augment their career opportunities.
When training centres and educational institutions are established in rural
communities, then in some cases, they impart training primarily in terms of one particular
area. For instance, agriculture training institutions may make provision of knowledge and
information to the agricultural labourers, regarding the usage of modern and innovative
methods and approaches in the agriculture sector. When they are to generate awareness in
terms of scientific methods and technologies, they join these centres. On the other hand, there
have been establishment of training centres, which make provision of knowledge to the
individuals in terms of various areas. These include, child development, diet and nutrition,
handicrafts and artworks, home science, cooking, computer training, personality
development, English language skills, counselling and guidance and so forth. The individuals
opt for these programs in accordance to their interests.
Upgrading of Skills for Increased Agricultural Productivity

The agriculture and farming practices are regarded as major occupations of the
individuals in rural areas. Majority of the individuals, both men and women are engaged in
these occupations. Therefore, upgrading of skills for increased agricultural productivity is
regarded to be of utmost significance. In rural areas, there have been establishment of training
centres, which are imparting knowledge and information to the individuals in terms of
scientific methods and technologies. The agricultural labourers and farmers are making use of
modern and scientific methods in augmenting agricultural productivity. Another major area
is, support is provided to small-scale producers in accessing markets, modern and innovative
technologies and value chains, which can help in enrichment of knowledge and information.
It is vital for these individuals to possess adequate knowledge in terms of marketing strategies
and methods to enhance productivity and profitability.
In the agriculture sector, it has been found that women are more as compared to men.
Therefore, it is vital to provide training to women as extension workers, to enable them to
benefit from the extension services in the gender-segregated societies. The expansion of the
reach of rural extension services, through the combination of formal and non-formal

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approaches can render a significant contribution in improving technical knowledge and skills
of small-scale producers and facilitate environmentally sustainable agricultural practices.
Apart from these, it is necessary to possess information in terms of markets and institutions
providing inputs and competence. When women and men are able to acquire efficient
understanding in terms of these areas, they are able to bring about improvements in
agricultural productivity.

Development of Agricultural and Enterprise Skills among Rural

Women
In rural communities in India, women are required to undergo certain problems and
challenges, which enable them to remain subordinates to men. One of the major challenges
that they are required to go through are, discriminatory treatment and neglect. In rural
communities, birth of the girl child is not appreciated and more preference is given to male
children. Girls are regarded as liabilities and individuals possess this viewpoint that they
would only make demands of resources and would not yield any returns upon investments.
The girls are discouraged from getting enrolled in schools and acquiring education. They
usually remain confined within homes and are trained in terms of implementation of
household responsibilities. These include, cleaning, washing, fetching water, preparation of
meals, and taking care of the needs and requirements of younger siblings and elderly family
members, particularly in the absence of their parents. When the parents are involved in a
family business of production of handicrafts, artworks or food items, then they provide
training to their girls, so they can enhance their skills and assist their parents in the
production processes.
The male children of the family are send to schools, so they are able to enhance their
academic skills and make use of them to promote well-being of their families and
communities. The rural individuals, mainly belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society possess the viewpoint that educating their
male children and paying adequate attention towards the development of their skills and
abilities would bring about their well-being. But measures are being formulated to bring
about changes in the viewpoints and perspectives of rural individuals, particularly in terms of
women and girls. When equal rights and opportunities are provided to women and girls, they
too can render a significant contribution in promoting well-being of their families and
communities. Hence, in the present existence, it has been researched upon that girls and

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women in rural areas are also getting enrolled in educational institutions and training centres
and developing their skills and abilities. In rural communities, majority of women are
employed in the agriculture sector. The skills development opportunities that women acquire
are primarily based upon the occupations in which they are employed.
In the development of agricultural and enterprise skills among rural women, the major
aspects that need to be taken into consideration are stated as follows:
Integrating Agricultural Training with Enterprise Training – Integrating agricultural
training with enterprise training can help women in carrying out the agricultural and farming
practices in an efficacious manner. Agricultural training enables them to acquire knowledge
in terms of practices and procedures that are needed to be implemented in augmenting
agricultural productivity. Whereas, enterprise training is the training that enables the
individuals to generate awareness in terms of marketing policies and strategies. Enterprise
training makes provision of assistance to the farmers to undertake and manage the risks by
introducing progressive production technologies. It can also help women in diversifying the
productive activities by participating in non-farm enterprises (Collett, & Gale, 2009).
Introduction of Capacity Building Training – The training programs should have the
major objective of enhancing the skills and capacities among the individuals. The capacity
building training is considered vital for women to identify their own problems and
challenges. When they experience problems and challenges in the implementation of tasks
and activities, then they acquire training to develop their capacities. When one has acquired
efficient information and generated awareness in terms of various areas, then they should be
able to effectively make use of their capacities and skills to achieve professional and personal
goals. In rural areas, the introduction of capacity building training programs have proven to
be meaningful to the individuals to a major extent.
Skills Development with regards to Occupations – Rural women focus upon the
development of their skills, primarily in terms of the occupations in which they are employed.
When they are employed in the agriculture sector and farming practices, then they need to
upgrade their skills and abilities in terms of innovative and scientific methods, with the main
objective of augmenting production. On the other hand, rural women are mostly employed in
the manufacturing and production of various items, such as, handicrafts, artworks, jewellery,
garments, food items and so forth. Therefore, they get enrolled into training centres to
develop their skills and abilities. The rural women pay adequate attention towards the
development of their skills on a continuous basis.

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 Provision of Opportunities to Select Training Programs – The women in rural
communities need to be given equal rights and opportunities as their male counterparts and
should not be discriminated against. All individuals have their own interests and preferences.
They make selection of their career opportunities and employments in accordance to their
interests. In rural areas, women should be provided with rights to make selection of the
training programs. In some cases, women are even engaged in two or more occupations at a
time. They work in the agriculture sector as well as are engaged in family business, such as
production of handicrafts or food items. In addition, they are also involved in the
management of household responsibilities. Hence, to upgrade their skills and acquire
knowledge in terms of their areas of work, they make selection of training programs.
Participation in Larger Communities – In rural areas, in some cases, women merely
are confined within the house and implement household responsibilities. Discriminatory
treatment against women and girls is regarded as a major barrier that discourage them from
participating in larger communities. Therefore, for the effective development of rural
communities, it is vital to promote participation of women in larger communities. The
women render an effective contribution in social, economic, political, cultural and religious
functions. On the other hand, when they are involved in the production processes, then too
participation in larger communities would enable them to market their produce and generate
awareness in terms of advanced strategies and methods.
Participation in Technology Development – The use of technology in the
implementation of various tasks and functions are not only considered essential in urban
communities, but also in rural communities. In rural communities as well, individuals have
recognized the significance of technology and its benefits. When it is stated, participation in
technology development, then it primarily is referred to making use of technology in the
implementation of various tasks and activities. In the present existence, women are making
use of technology and scientific methods in the agriculture sector. Whereas, they are also
making use of technology in production of handicrafts. In addition, they are getting enrolled
in training centres to upgrade their computer literacy skills. In rural communities, the use of
digital technology has become widespread.
Promoting Teamwork – When rural women are self-employed, then in some cases,
they even open up their workshops and hire other women. Research has indicated that rural
women in some cases, open up training centres, in which they make provision of adequate
knowledge in terms of embroideries, needlework, and so forth. Women get enrolled in these
centres to develop their skills, which they can effectively make use of to sustain their

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livelihoods. When there is an increase in enrolment of women, then recruitment of trainers is
required. When trainers are recruited, they need to work in integration and co-ordination.
Therefore, promoting teamwork and co-ordination is regarded as an essential aspect in
achieving the desired goals and objectives.
Improvement in Long-term Security – When it is stated improving long-term security,
then mostly consideration is given to financial resources. In rural areas, the individuals are
residing in the conditions of poverty. Financial problems among them are regarded as the
major impediments within the course of attainment of better livelihoods opportunities.
Therefore, rural women are engaged in jobs and work towards development of their skills and
abilities with the main objective of enhancing their financial position to promote long-term
security. The participation of women in projects and other activities for the well-being of the
community are also vital in the formation of supportive attitude towards changes in the
productive work of women.
Promoting Family and Community Welfare – Women render a significant
participation in promoting family and community welfare. Their role towards the
implementation of family responsibilities is indispensable. When they are employed in other
occupations, then too they pay adequate attention towards management of household chores
and family responsibilities. They are required to carry out various household responsibilities,
and pay adequate attention towards child development, health care and in taking care of the
needs and requirements of elderly family members. In rural communities, some of the
women, who possess the basic literacy skills even make provision of free tuition classes for
children, belonging to poverty stricken, marginalized and socio-economically backward
sections of the society. When they are engaged in the production of goods, then too they have
the main objective of supplementing family income.
Enhancement of Livelihoods Opportunities – In the enhancement of livelihoods
opportunities among rural communities, one of the aspects that is of utmost significance is,
women and girls should be provided with equal rights and opportunities. There should not be
any type of discriminatory treatment against women. In the implementation of this objective,
it is vital to get engaged in employment opportunities. In order to acquire good jobs in
organizations or training centres and educational institutions, women need to possess efficient
knowledge and upgrade their skills and abilities. Another vital aspect that needs to be taken
into consideration is, when individuals possess limited finances, they need to ensure to make
use of them in an appropriate manner.

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 Benefits of Skills Development

For rural individuals, the development of skills prove to be beneficial in a number of

ways and these have been stated as follows:

Alleviating Poverty and Backwardness – As it has been stated that rural individuals
within the country are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness. They have the
main objective of alleviating the conditions of poverty and backwardness and attain better
livelihoods opportunities. But they are unaware of certain measures and ways, which are
required to alleviate poverty and backwardness and help them to sustain their livelihoods
better. One of the common ways is taking up employment opportunities in rural or in urban
areas. In order to attain this objective, the individuals work efficiently towards the
development of their skills and abilities. Before, taking up any form of employment
opportunities, or before getting engaged in the agriculture sector, it is vital for the individuals
to put emphasis upon the enhancement of knowledge and development of aptitude.
Reinforcement of Agricultural Production – Making investments in the education and
training of rural individuals has acquired even more significance. The reason being, the
challenges associated with the implementation of sustainable production methods and
establishing connections between the agricultural production and marketing opportunities in
the modern value chains are increasing. At the same time, increase in the competition and
more demanding quality standards at the market side and more competition over the scarce
natural resources, including land from the production side, imply the need for those rural
individuals, to develop the skills and knowledge that have not been put into practice in the
agricultural production. The main objective of development of skills and knowledge in terms
of the agriculture sector is to put into operation, modern, scientific and innovative methods
and processes (Developing the Knowledge, n.d.).

Acquisition of Higher Educational Qualifications – In rural areas, individuals have

recognized the significance of education. Even when they are not educated, they aspire to get
their children enrolled in schools and provide them good-quality education. In the present
existence, there has been a transformation in the viewpoints and perspectives of rural
individuals, particularly in terms of educating their girls. With the changes of perspectives,
they are also getting their girls enrolled in schools and contributing towards honing their
academic skills. The development of academic skills will enable the individuals to get

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enrolled in higher educational institutions and obtain masters and doctoral degrees. Research
studies have indicated that both men and women, belonging to rural communities are
migrating to urban areas to get enrolled in reputed educational institutions and acquiring
Bachelors, masters and doctoral degrees. These individuals are getting engaged in various
professions, such as, law, engineering, education, medical, health care, management,
administration and so forth.

Acquisition of Employment Opportunities – Acquisition of employment opportunities

is regarded as one of the major objectives of individuals, belonging to all categories and
backgrounds. Rural skills are traditionally associated with the workplace (Jacobs, & Hart,
2012). In order to get engaged in various employment opportunities, it is vital for the
individuals to possess the essential skills. The implementation of various job duties to
produce the desired outcomes, requires individuals to upgrade their skills. When the
individuals are working in a reputed organization, it is essential for them to develop their
communication skills and possess adequate knowledge and information in terms of various
areas. On the other hand, when individuals are working as electricians, then too, they are
required to possess essential skills. Possession of teaching skills and suitable qualifications
will enable the individuals to apply for teaching jobs. Therefore, it can be stated that
individuals need to work effectively and on a continuous basis to upgrade their skills to
acquire appropriate employment opportunities.

Management of Household Responsibilities – Management of household

responsibilities is regarded as an essential aspect, mainly on the part of women. The
individuals need to upgrade their skills and abilities in the implementation of household
chores. These include, cleaning, washing, preparation of meals, fetching water, rearing of
livestock and so forth. In rural areas, normally the households experience shortage of water.
They are required to obtain water either from the wells or rivers located nearby. In some
cases, they are even required to travel long distances with their earthen pots to fetch water.
Preparation of meals is another important task, in terms of which rural individuals are
required to develop their skills. The possession of basic literacy skills of reading, writing and
numeracy will enable the individuals to make purchases of various items from the
marketplace. Girls are usually trained in terms of preparation of meals and implementation of
other household chores, from the stage of early childhood. As rural individuals possess the
viewpoint that in their marital homes, they will be able to effectively make use of these skills
and abilities.

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 Child Development – Child development is regarded as one of the essential aspects,
towards which both men and women need to pay adequate attention. The development of
essential skills in terms of child development will enable the individuals to carry out this task
in a well-organized manner. With regards to child development, the major factors in terms of
which individuals need to develop their skills and generate awareness are, diet and nutrition,
health care and medical, provision of education, encouraging children to participate in play
and other childhood activities, inculcating the traits of morality and ethics among them and
facilitating their socialization with family and community. When the child reaches the age of
two plus, then parents need to ensure that they get them enrolled in play schools, so that they
generate awareness that beyond their home also there is a world, with which they need to
socialize.

Health Care and Well-being – Health care and well-being of the individuals is
regarded to be of utmost significance. When the individuals will possess good health, then
they would be able to get involved in various tasks and activities. Possession of abilities,
services and assistances and acquisition of knowledge will enable the individuals to take care
of their health care requirements in an appropriate manner. In order to take care of health care
requirements, the individuals need to possess adequate knowledge in terms of diet and
nutrition, physical activities, establishing positive thinking, forming good terms and
relationships with others and forming a pleasant and an amiable home environment. In rural
communities, the prevalence of the conditions of poverty are regarded as major hindrances
within the course of maintenance of good health and well-being. Another vital aspect is,
individuals need to acquire medical check-ups on a timely basis. Hence, it is necessary for the
individuals to be aware of medical and health care facilities available and be informative in
terms of aspects that are crucial to maintain good health and well-being.

Socialization – In order to sustain one’s living conditions in an appropriate manner

and meet one’s livelihoods, it is essential for the individuals to socialize and form appropriate
links with others. For the purpose of socialization, it is vital for the individuals to develop
communication skills. Communication may take place in a verbal form or written form.
Verbal communication usually takes place either face to face or over the phone. Whereas,
written communication may take place through letters, notices, emails, messages, or in any
other written form. When one is focusing upon the development of communication skills,
then it is vital for them to take into account certain aspects, these are being clear and
expressive, making use of polite and decent language, ensuring one is providing sufficient

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facts, information and other details and implementing the traits of morality and ethics. The
development of communication skills among rural individuals will enable them to form links
and bring about improvements in their overall quality of lives.

Resolution of Conflicts – The occurrence of conflicts and disagreements sometimes do

take place within the households as well as outside the households in educational institutions,
workshops, offices and so forth. It is believed that well-educated individuals normally
implement their skills and resolve the conflicting situations in a peaceful manner. On the
other hand, lack of skills, knowledge and awareness would enable the individuals to get
involved into conflicting situations. The possession of conflict resolution skills would be of
major benefit to the individuals. The conflict resolution skills enables the individuals to
conduct an analysis of the causes, due to which conflicting situations have taken place. When
conflicts and disagreements takes place among the individuals, then it is vital for them to
implement the traits of morality and ethics and come to a conclusion in a peaceful manner.
The resolution of conflicts in a peaceful manner would enable the individuals to form
effective terms and relationships with each other and achieve personal as well as professional
goals. These skills are vital to implement within the household as well as outside the
household.

Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment – The contributions of women

in agriculture, implementation of household responsibilities, and promoting well-being of the
family and community are regarded to be of utmost significance (Skills Development for
Rural People, 2005). In spite of major contributions of women, they are subjected to abuse,
and mistreatment. They are discriminated against and more preference is given to the male
members. It is necessary to eliminate discriminatory treatment against women and promote
empowerment opportunities among them. In order to promote women empowerment,
adequate attention needs to be paid towards enabling them to acquire educational
qualifications. It is believed that educating a woman is educating the entire nation. When
rural women are educated and skilled, then they would be able to render an effective
participation in all tasks and activities, such as, management of household responsibilities,
agriculture and farming practices, production of various items, health care and well-being and
so forth. Therefore, it can be stated that development of skills are crucial in promoting gender
equality and women empowerment.

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 Measures to Improve Skills Development
The measures, which are considered vital to bring about improvements in skills
development are stated as follows:

Improvements in the System of Education – The individuals, belonging to rural

communities, possess either less literacy skills or no literacy skills. Lack of educational
opportunities are regarded as major impediments within the course of attainment of
employment and better livelihoods opportunities. In rural communities, the system of
education is also not in a well-developed state. There are shortage of qualified and
experienced teachers, the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies are not well-
developed, lack of infrastructure, amenities and facilities and so forth. Hence, it can be stated
that due to these factors, the individuals are experiencing barriers within the course of
acquisition of education. Improvements in the system of education is indispensable. For the
achievement of this objective, there have been implementation of policies and programs that
are encouraging the enrolment of individuals in educational institutions and training centres.
This will enable the individuals to augment not only their academic skills and abilities, but
also inculcate the traits of morality and ethics among them, to bring about improvements in
their overall quality of lives.
Improvements in Training and Development Programs – The improvements taking
place in training and development programs are primarily regarded as significant with regards
to acquisition of employment opportunities. In rural areas, agriculture is regarded as the
primary occupation of the individuals. Majority of men and women are employed in this
sector. When the individuals are employed in this sector, then, their major objective is to
enhance production and profitability. For this purpose, they are making use of modern,
innovative and scientific methods in their production processes. In rural communities, there
have been establishment of training centres, which are initiating training programs, with the
main objective of developing knowledge and skills among the individuals to augment
agricultural productivity. In rural communities, there have been establishment of small-scale
industries, which are providing employment opportunities to the individuals. When they get
employed, they are required to attend the training and development programs. These
programs provide knowledge in terms of industries, goals and objectives, job duties,
production processes, personnel and so forth. Normally, rural individuals are employed in
more than one job simultaneously.

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 Skills Development for Self-Employment – The rural individuals normally experience
problems in finding employment opportunities. The conditions of poverty, backwardness,
illiteracy and unawareness are the major factors, which are responsible for their
unemployment. These individuals have the major objectives of acquiring employment
opportunities, generating income and bringing about improvements in their living conditions.
When they experience problems in acquiring employment opportunities, then they get
engaged in self-employment and focus upon development of skills. The major areas in which
they are self-employed include, handicrafts, artworks, pottery making, jewellery making,
food items, weaving, repair work, plumbing, carpentry, electric work and so forth. The
individuals make selection of one or more of these areas in accordance to their interests. For
instance, when individuals aspire to enhance their artistic skills, then they may work towards
honing them and make effective use of them to upgrade their living standards. The rural
individuals may develop their skills in terms of various areas by either joining training
centres or may learn from their family members. Children normally get engaged in similar
employment opportunities, as their parents.
Reinforcement of Teaching Methods and Instructional Strategies – When it is stated,
reinforcement of teaching methods and instructional strategies, these aspects are mainly
concerned with educational institutions and training centres. In these areas, particularly when
they are established in rural communities, it is vital to ensure that teaching-learning methods
and instructional strategies prove to be advantageous to the individuals in every manner.
These methods and strategies are normally put into operation in accordance to the subject
area. For instance, when individuals are acquiring computer training, then it is vital to ensure
there is availability of computers, projectors and other forms of technologies, which would
facilitate learning among individuals. On the other hand, when individuals are augmenting
their skills and abilities in terms of embroidery, then the learners will be able to effectively
learn, when they are provided theoretical as well as practical knowledge. In this case, they are
shown pictures via usage of technology and provided theoretical information and the
instructor provides them practical training through the use of materials, such as, cloth,
threads, needle etc.
Recruitment of Qualified and Experienced Trainers – In making provision of training
to the individuals in an appropriate manner, it is vital to recruit qualified and experienced
trainers. When the trainers recruited will be qualified and experienced, then they would
possess adequate knowledge and information and will be able to carry out their job duties in a
well-organized manner. When the trainers are contributing towards skills development of the

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individuals, then there are number of aspects, which need to be taken into account. These are,
possessing efficient knowledge in terms of the concepts, effective communication skills, and
pleasant and an approachable attitude. When the individuals are provided training in terms of
various skills, then they make use of them to generate productivity and enhance their
livelihoods. When they are able to carry out the production processes in a well-organized
manner and form the viewpoint that development of skills have really proven to be
advantageous to them, then appreciation goes out to the trainers. When the trainers are well
aware and knowledgeable, they are able to render an effective contribution in development of
skills among individuals.
Possession of Financial Resources – Possession of financial resources is regarded to
be of utmost significance for the progression of individuals, employment opportunities,
schools, educational institutions and training centres. When the individuals will possess
adequate finances, then they may migrate even to urban areas and get enrolled in reputed
educational institutions or training centres. As it has been stated above that in rural areas, the
system of education is not in a well-developed state. Therefore, improvements in all aspects
can be brought about with the possession of adequate financial resources. In rural educational
institutions and training centres, there is a need to promote infrastructural facilities,
equipment, tools, technology, furniture, civic amenities and so forth. In order to acquire
education and develop skills, the environmental conditions need to be amiable. It is vital to
make provision of proper materials, infrastructure and technology. Therefore, it can be stated
that will the possession of sufficient financial resources, improvements can be brought about
in the environmental conditions of training centres, educational institutions, employment
settings and even homes.
Usage of Technology – In the present existence, technology is regarded to be
rendering an indispensable contributing in enriching the lives of the individuals. In urban
areas, individuals are dependent upon usage of technology for the implementation of
numerous tasks and activities. Some of these include, making purchases, paying bills,
communicating, sending messages, pictures, videos, recreational purposes, generating
awareness, developing information and so forth. In rural communities too, individuals have
recognized the significance of technologies and are making use of them to a major extent. It
has been recognized by rural individuals that if they would upgrade their skills in terms of
usage of technologies, then they would be able to sustain their living conditions better. For
generating awareness in terms of usage of technology, they are getting enrolled in training
centres. Research has indicated that rural youth are developing keen interest and enthusiasm

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in terms of technology and are even opening up their workshops, such as mobile repair shops,
lap-top and computer repair shops and so forth. Development of technical skills even enable
the rural individuals to find employment opportunities in reputed organizations.
Possession of Effective Communication Skills – One cannot work towards
development of skills and augmenting ones capability levels in isolation. When one is making
use of internet or reading a book or document to acquire knowledge, but to put that
knowledge into practice and to make effective use of skills, it is necessary for the individuals
to develop effective communication with others. A more accurate way of looking at the
process of communication is a dynamic and circuitous process, in which the elements of non-
verbal behaviour and individual styles of interpreting and attributing meaning to events have
a significant influence (Dixon, & O’Hara, n.d.). To augment ones skills and abilities in terms
of various areas, it is essential for the individuals to possess effective communication skills.
These need to be developed with family and community members. In rural homes, when
children acquire knowledge and information from their parents and other family members in
terms of the production processes, then they need to develop these skills. Whereas, when they
get enrolled in training centres, then it is vital for them to form these skills. As their
implementation would enable the individuals to listen, when the trainer is speaking and then
give their responses.
Involvement in Continuous Practice – When the individuals have worked hard in the
inculcation of skills and abilities among them, then it is vital for them to get engaged in
practice on a continuous basis. Involvement in continuous practice is primarily regarded as
significant, when the individuals aspire to make use of their skills and abilities to upgrade
their living conditions. For instance, when individuals have developed their skills and
abilities in terms of rearing of livestock and animal husbandry, and possess the viewpoint that
they are going to adopt these as modes of earning their livelihoods, then they would get
involved in continuous practice. In some cases, rural individuals develop their skills in terms
of particular areas, such as, carpentry, plumbing, cooking, driving, gardening and so forth.
They make use of these skills in earning their livelihoods, usually in urban communities. But
in some cases, they get effected by certain factors, mostly family and household
responsibilities that they get compelled to leave their jobs and return back to their villages.
Hence, in some cases, other factors may compel individuals to take up other jobs.
Co-ordination among Various Stakeholders – In the present existence, there is a
disconnection among various stakeholders, leading to skill mismatch. The organizations,
ministries and agencies are required to develop co-ordination among themselves to bring

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about enhancement of skills development opportunities among individuals. The important
areas that need to be taken into consideration is designing of the policies and programs. When
skills development programs are initiated, then it is vital to formulate proper measures,
policies and procedures that would be beneficial to the rural individuals, primarily belonging
to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society. When it
is talked in terms of co-ordination among various stakeholders, then major emphasis is put
upon the fact that they should work in collaboration and integration to implement the
programs, which would be advantageous to the individuals in the best possible manner.
Another aspect of establishing co-ordination among various stakeholders also takes into
consideration the generation of employment opportunities. As when individuals are working
towards development of their skills, then it is vital for them to make effectual use of them
within employment settings.

Conclusion
The development of skills among rural individuals are not only considered
indispensable in acquisition of employment opportunities, but they are also vital in sustaining
the overall living conditions of the individuals. Skills are required to be developed for
promoting entrepreneurship. The strategies and approaches of skills development are,
developing an integrated approach to rural skills development, expanding access to quality
education and vocational training, promoting diversified skills development systems and
upgrading of skills for increased agricultural productivity. Development of agricultural and
enterprise skills among rural women takes into account the following factors. These are,
integrating agricultural training with enterprise training, introduction of capacity building
training, skills development with regards to occupations, provision of opportunities to select
training programs, participation in larger communities, participation in technology
development, promoting teamwork, improvement in long-term security, promoting family
and community welfare and enhancement of livelihoods opportunities.
The development of skills are beneficial to the individuals in number of ways. These
are, alleviating poverty and backwardness, reinforcement of agricultural production,
acquisition of higher educational qualifications, acquisition of employment opportunities,
management of household responsibilities, child development, health care and well-being,
socialization, resolution of conflicts, promoting gender equality and women empowerment.
When the rural individuals will possess adequate knowledge in terms of these aspects. Then

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they would be able to make use of their skills in a well-organized manner. The measures
which are required to be formulated to improve skills development are, improvements in the
system of education, improvements in training and development programs, skills
development for self-employment, reinforcement of teaching methods and instructional
strategies, recruitment of qualified and experienced trainers, possession of financial
resources, usage of technology, possession of effective communication skills, involvement in
continuous practice and co-ordination among various stakeholders. Programs and policies
have been initiated to promote skills development among rural individuals. When their skills
would prove to be worthwhile, then they would not only promote their well-being, but also
welfare of the community.

Chapter 14. Problems and Challenges in Rural Areas

Problems and challenges are integral to the existence of the individuals as well as the
communities. In rural areas, individuals and communities are experiencing number of
problems and challenges, which are proving to be major impediments within the course of
meeting livelihoods opportunities. The major problems are, poverty, illiteracy,
unemployment, homelessness and crime and violence. The individuals get effected by either
one or more of these problems, which are having unfavourable consequences within their
overall quality of lives. Poverty is characterized by lack of resources, when the individuals do
not possess adequate financial resources, they are unable to fulfil their needs and
requirements. The prevalence of illiteracy is common among rural individuals, apart from
poverty, there are number of causes, leading to illiteracy. Lack of literacy skills, education
and awareness leads to an increase in unemployment. Homelessness among rural individuals
takes place due to unaffordable housing, when they lose property, wealth and housing due to
the occurrence of natural calamities and disasters and so forth. Prevalence of crime and
violence is common in households as well as in other places, such as, schools, market places
and so forth.

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 There have been implementation of policies and programs by the government and
organizations that have the major objective of promoting well-being of rural communities.
Building of capacities and skills among stakeholders for promoting success of the program is
considered as an indispensable factor, which is crucial for the success of the program. The
component of capacity building is considered to be an inadequate link of most of the rural
development programs. Since the stakeholders are not being equipped with knowledge,
information, awareness, skills and attitudes that are required for the successful
implementation of the program (Chapter – V. Emerging Issues in Rural Development, n.d.).
The organizations, agencies, individuals, and communities, that are working towards the
implementation of programs, policies and strategies to promote welfare of the rural
individuals and communities, need to possess adequate awareness in terms of problems and
challenges. Furthermore, apart from possession of skills and abilities, they need to possess the
attitude that would enable them to accomplish the desired goals and objectives.

Poverty

India comprises of one-thirds of the poverty stricken individuals. Indian poverty is

primarily rural. In rural communities, landless labourers and casual workers are the
individuals, who are residing in the conditions of poverty. The individuals, who are required
to experience unfavourable effects as a result of poverty are, scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes, the families, in which women are the heads, elderly individuals and children. The
conditions of poverty among rural communities are characterised by lack of financial
resources, land, assets, property and other resources. Due to lack of these resources, the
individuals experience problems in sustaining their livelihoods in an appropriate manner. The
vast majority of the poverty stricken individuals are employed in the agriculture sector,
farming practices, and other activities, such as, animal husbandry, fisheries and so forth
(Chapter – 2. Rural Poverty in India, n.d.).

Poverty is considered to be a complex phenomenon. It manifests itself within the

range of overlapping and interlinked political, economic and social deprivations. These
include shortage of assets, monetary resources, malnutrition, social and economic hardships,
unawareness, backwardness, discrimination and incapability. The living conditions of these
individuals are also in a deprived state. This is apparent that when the individuals will not
possess adequate resources, then they would not be able to meet their livelihoods
opportunities in an appropriate manner. Poverty stricken individuals belonging to rural

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communities usually migrate to urban areas in search for better opportunities. In urban areas
too, they are either residing in urban slums or are homeless, as they cannot afford housing
accommodation. Hence, it can be stated that the conditions of poverty are proving to be
disadvantageous to the individuals to a major extent (Chapter – 2. Rural Poverty in India,
n.d.).

Causes of Poverty

The major causes of poverty in rural communities have been stated as follows:

Unemployment – Unemployment is the condition, when the individuals are not

engaged in any work or occupation, either within their homes or outside the home. This is
apparent that individuals get engaged in employment opportunities to generate income.
Therefore, when they are unemployed, they would not be able to generate a source of income
and as a result would experience poverty. When the individuals are unemployed and do not
possess sufficient financial resources to meet the living requirements of their families, then
there is prevalence of the conditions of poverty among them.

Participation in Minority Jobs – The agriculture and farming practices are regarded as
the major occupations of the individuals in rural communities. Apart from these, they are
engaged in activities, such as, fisheries, animal husbandry, production and manufacturing of
handicrafts, and so forth. These jobs are regarded as minority jobs, which do not generate
much income. In some cases, they are even required to wait for the season, when the demand
for their products would be high and they would market their produce. Throughout the year,
they are making use of materials to manufacture their products and have to experience
poverty.

Illiteracy and Unawareness – When the individuals do not possess the basic literacy
skills of reading, writing and arithmetic and are unaware of certain aspects, particularly the
ones, which are required to sustain better livelihoods, then they experience poverty. Lack of
literacy skills are regarded as major impediments within the course of taking up any work or
employment. When the individuals are illiterate and unaware, then they would experience
barriers in even marketing their products. Hence, when they are unable to get engaged in any
occupation, due to illiteracy and unawareness, then they ultimately experience poverty.

Occurrence of Natural Calamities and Disasters – The occurrence of natural

calamities and disasters, such as, earthquakes, floods, draughts, Tsunamis are detrimental to

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the lives of the individuals to a great extent. As a consequence, the individuals experience
immense loss of life, wealth and property. Therefore, when they experience natural calamities
and disasters, then loss of wealth and property causes poverty.

Inadequate Financial Management – Rural individuals mostly are illiterate and

unaware. They do not possess adequate knowledge in terms of effective management of
finances. In some cases, they do not make savings and investments and spend the available
monetary resources on things, which are not necessary. Hence, when they do not make
savings or investments in meaningful schemes, then they experience scarcity of funds, at the
time of need. Hence, inadequate financial management leads to prevalence of poverty.

Borrowing Loans – When the rural individuals borrow loans from the moneylenders,
and when they are unable to repay the loans, then they may end up as being bonded
labourers. The bonded labourers usually are required to work long hours and get either very
less pay or no pay at all. When they work hard, just for the purpose of repaying the loans,
then they are unable to generate income to sustain the living conditions of themselves and
their families. The ultimate outcome is poverty.

Large Families – In rural communities, individuals mostly have large families. In one
nuclear family, there are usually more than two children. Whereas, in some cases, there are
even up to six children in a family. When the individuals are engaged in the agriculture sector
or farming practices, or in other occupations, then their income is not sufficient to meet the
needs and requirements of all family members, hence, when they experience scarcity of
funds, then they are unable to meet the needs and requirements of all family members and
have to experience poverty.

Health Care Needs – The rural individuals, belonging to all age groups and
backgrounds pay adequate attention towards their health conditions. The elderly individuals
are required to make visits to health care centres on a regular basis to get their check-ups
done. But in the case of severe health problems and illnesses, individuals are even required to
make visits to urban areas. When the individuals spend their savings on medical treatment,
then they do experience financial constraints in meeting other requirements. Hence, taking
care of health care needs may use financial resources, thus giving rise to poverty.

Migration – The rural individuals in most cases, possess the viewpoint that in urban
communities, they would be able to access better livelihoods opportunities. When the poverty
stricken and underprivileged individuals migrate to urban communities, then they experience

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poverty. They do not possess adequate resources to obtain housing accommodation and are
homeless, they do not possess the skills to get engaged in any occupation or activity, hence,
experience problems and difficulties within the course of generating a source of income.

Participation in Other Activities – The participation in other activities by the poverty

stricken individuals may augment the conditions of poverty, especially when they incur
losses. In rural areas, apart from agriculture and allied activities, individuals are engaged in
the production of handicrafts, food items and so forth. Hence, when they make investments in
the purchase of materials and in the implementation of production processes and do not incur
much sales, then they experience losses. On the other hand, when the cost price is higher than
the selling price, then they experience losses and are unable to bring about improvements in
their living conditions.

It is vital for the government and other organizations and agencies to put into practice
the policies and programs, which have the main aim of alleviating the conditions of poverty.
On the other hand, the rural individuals too need to generate awareness in terms of causes of
poverty and formulate measures to lead to its alleviation. For instance, schools and training
centres have been established in rural communities, but it is crucial on the part of the
individuals to recognize the significance of education and hone their literacy skills. After the
acquisition of education and augmentation of literacy skills, they should make effective use
of them to alleviate the conditions of poverty and promote better livelihoods opportunities.

Illiteracy

Illiteracy is referred to the inability of the individuals to identify, interpret,

understand, create, communicate, and compute, using printed and written materials,
associated with the varying context. In 1930, the U.S. Bureau of Census defined the person as
an illiterate, who is unable to read and write in any language. By the next census in 1940, the
concept of functional illiteracy was adopted. Any individual with less than five years of
schooling is considered as functionally illiterate. Such individuals would also experience
problems in getting involved in any activity, in which, adequate literacy skills are regarded as
indispensable (Qamar, 2017).

Illiteracy is a social issue that is prevalent among rural individuals, especially

belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the
society. This social problem is not only detrimental upon the lives of the individuals, but

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impose impediments within the progression of the entire community. When the rural
individuals are illiterate and do not even possess the basic literacy skills, then they not only
experience problems within the course of implementation of their tasks and activities, but
also remain unaware of their rights and duties. The individuals are unable to understand the
causes of problems and challenges that may take place within the course of their daily lives.
They are unable to acquire employment opportunities. As a result of illiteracy, they also
remain unaware in terms of policies, programs and strategies that have been put into
operation to promote their well-being.

Causes of Illiteracy

In rural communities, there are number of causes that lead to illiteracy among
individuals. These have been stated as follows:

Lack of Financial Resources – Financial resources are regarded as significant,

especially when the individuals are required to get enrolled in schools or training centres. In
Government schools, education is provided free of cost to the children and there is not any
fees. But the individuals are required to incur expenses on bags, books, stationary, uniforms,
transportation and other expenses involved in the acquisition of education. When the
individuals are residing in the conditions of poverty and do not possess adequate financial
resources, then they are unable to meet the expenses that are involved in the acquisition of
education. Hence, as a consequence are required to experience illiteracy.

Parental Illiteracy – Lack of literacy skills on the part of parents is also regarded as
one of the major causes of illiteracy among children. When the parents are illiterate, then they
possess this viewpoint that their children, especially girls should also be discouraged from
getting enrolled in schools. Instead, they should remain within homes and be trained in terms
of implementation of household responsibilities. This viewpoint is the major cause of the
prevalence of illiteracy among rural children, especially girls. On the other hand, boys are
usually enrolled in schools and also engaged in jobs to supplement family income. The male
children are enrolled in schools, as their parents possess the viewpoint that acquisition of
education would enable them to get engaged in good employment opportunities and enhance
family status.

Lack of Educational Facilities – In rural communities, the system of education is not

in a well-developed state. The school environmental conditions are not amiable and suitable
to the needs and requirements of the students as well as other members. In schools, there are

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lack of facilities and amenities that are required to facilitate acquisition of education among
students in an appropriate manner. These include, clean drinking water, restrooms, cooling
and heating equipment in accordance to the weather conditions, furniture, teaching-learning
materials and so forth. The classroom environmental conditions do not possess the essential
materials and equipment, which would facilitate learning. Hence, due to lack of educational
facilities, teachers and students experience problems in the implementation of teaching-
learning methods.

Lack of Teaching-Learning Methods – The teaching-learning methods and

instructional strategies are not in an appropriate form in rural schools. The teachers need to
put into operation, the teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies in accordance to
the needs and requirements of the students. They need to be aware of what methods would be
suitable in accordance to the subjects and class standards. For instance, when students are
able to acquire an adequate understanding through giving verbal explanations and notes, then
the teachers need to provide verbal explanations as well as notes. But lack of proper teaching-
learning methods and instructional strategies is one of the major causes of illiteracy.

Lack of Interest in Studies – Learning academic concepts is not easy. In the pursuance
of academic goals, students are required to pay adequate attention and get engaged in
continuous practice. When they are unable to pay adequate attention towards their studies or
when are unable to obtain assistance in acquiring an efficient understanding of the academic
concepts, then they usually experience setbacks. Students usually lack interest in their
studies, when they do obtain the desired academic outcomes. In rural schools, normally
students experience problems in obtaining help as well, either from teachers or fellow
students. As a consequence, they are unable to pursue academic goals and ultimately drop out
from schools.

Transportation Problems – In rural areas, mostly schools are located at a distance

from home. When the students experience problems in transferring to schools, then they are
unable to pursue academic goals. It has been researched upon that girls normally experience
problems in transferring to schools and are depended upon their family members. In the case
of transportation problems, parents are vested with the responsibility of taking their children
to school and bringing them back home. When they are able to carry out their responsibilities
in an appropriate manner, then children are able to acquire education. Whereas, when they do
not have family members to provide them assistance in terms of transportation, then they are

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unable to acquire education. As a result, they either get discouraged from getting enrolled in
schools or drop out, before their educational skills are honed.

Shortage of Teachers – The primary job duty of the teachers focus upon making
provision of academic knowledge and information to the students. Apart from academic
knowledge, they need to generate awareness among students in terms of various aspects in
order to facilitate their effective growth and development. In rural schools, shortage of
teachers is the major problem that is also a primary concern in the development of the system
of education. When the schools will not recruit qualified and experienced teachers, then
certainly there would be occurrence of impediments in the achievement of academic goals.
When there are shortage of teachers in schools, then it also leads to a decline in the enrolment
of students.

Engagement in Employment Opportunities – Rural individuals are usually residing in

the conditions of poverty to a major extent. They have the primary objective of alleviating the
conditions of poverty. Due to this, they give more preference to employment opportunities.
From the stage of early childhood, they train their children to get engaged in various forms of
employment opportunities in accordance to their skills and abilities. For instance, when they
are in family business, then they provide training to their children in terms of production
processes. Whereas, in other cases, children are involved in other jobs as well, such as,
plantations, factories, industries and so forth. Hence, due to engagement in employment
opportunities, they are unable to get enrolled in schools and pursue education.

Child Labour – In India, there has been prevalence of child labour. The individuals,
belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society
are the ones, who mostly encourage their children to get engaged in various forms of labour
practices, thus depriving them from acquisition of education. The children are even engaged
in hazardous occupations, including diamond polishing, gem cutting, silk weaving, beedi
rolling, plantations, agriculture, lock industries and so forth. To carry out their job duties
appropriately in these areas, it is vital for them to possess adequate knowledge and acquire
proper training. The children are usually employed in these industries and factories on a full-
time basis. Therefore, they are unable to hone their literacy skills.

Social Disputes – In rural communities, social and cultural disputes normally take
place with regards to education of girls. The individuals, primarily the ones, who are poverty
stricken and belong to economically weaker sections of the society, usually possess the

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viewpoint that girls are liabilities. They have to eventually get married and go to their marital
homes. If they are educated, they would not be able to make use of their educational skills in
any manner, the reason being, they need to carry out the household chores. Due to the
prevalence of this viewpoint, girls are discouraged from getting enrolled in schools and are
trained regarding the implementation of household responsibilities. This social dispute is the
major cause for a high rate of illiteracy among girls.

To alleviate the problem of illiteracy, it is vital to put into operation the policies, and
programs with regards to improvements in the system of education. In addition, there should
be improvements made in the teaching-learning methods, instructional strategies,
infrastructure and facilities and transportation. The rural individuals need to bring about
changes in their viewpoints, especially regarding the education of girls. They need to
understand that girls and women too can bring about improvements in the livelihoods
opportunities of their families and communities, when they are provided with opportunities.
Children should get enrolled in schools and parents should create an amiable environment
within home that would help the individuals to hone their educational skills.

Unemployment

Unemployment is referred to as the state, when individuals are not engaged in any
form of work or occupation or task, primarily to generate a source of income. When the
individuals are jobless and idle, then they are stated to be unemployed. In rural communities,
the problem of unemployment is severe among the individuals. When they are unemployed,
they experience number of problems and challenges, which are regarded as major barriers
within the course of attainment of better livelihoods opportunities. When the rural individuals
are unemployed and are struggling to make ends meet, then they are continuously looking for
employment opportunities or means to generate a source of income. When the individuals are
looking for employment opportunities, they need to ensure that they possess adequate skills
and abilities to put into practice their job duties in a well-organized manner.

When searching for employment opportunities, the individuals need to take into
consideration number of factors. These are pay and reimbursements, location of the
workplace, working environmental conditions, job duties, other members within the
workplace, possession of qualifications, skills and abilities, organizational goals and
objectives, family and household responsibilities, availability of materials and equipment
within the workplace, especially required in the implementation of job duties and terms and

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relationships with the other individuals within the working environment. When the
individuals feel that these factors are satisfying to the individuals, then they get engaged in
jobs. Whereas, when any of these factors are not satisfying, then the individuals experience
problems in looking for employment opportunities.

Causes of Unemployment

The major causes of unemployment have been stated as follows:

Increased Education Expectations – In the present existence, there has been an

increase in education expectations, especially in terms of reputed jobs in organizations (Das,
2018). Well-paid and reputed jobs require the individuals to possess educational
qualifications of Bachelors, masters or doctorate. When the individuals are illiterate and do
not possess the basic literacy skills, then it is apparent that they are unable to meet the
education expectations. Hence, inability to meet the increased education expectations is an
impediment within the course of acquisition of employment opportunities.

Lack of Basic Literacy Skills – Basic literacy skills are the skills of reading, writing
and numeracy. When the individuals lack the basic literacy skills, then too they experience
problems within the course of implementation of household responsibilities, as well as in
carrying out other tasks and activities. When the individuals are making purchases of items
from the market, then too they need to possess the basic literacy skills, especially in making
monetary transactions and analysing usefulness of the product. In rural communities,
individuals usually lack the basic literacy skills, which are barriers within the course of
acquisition of employment opportunities.

Family and Household Responsibilities – The implementation of family and

household responsibilities usually require the individuals to put in all their time and effort,
that they are unable to get engaged in any employment opportunities. This usually applies to
women and girls. They are trained from the initial stage in terms of management of
household responsibilities. These include, cleaning, washing, preparation of meals, fetching
water, rearing of livestock and looking after the needs and requirements of younger siblings,
and elderly family members. Therefore, when women and girls are engaged in family and
household responsibilities, then they are unable to participate in employment settings.

Decent Work Deficit – Decent work deficit is referred to shortage of employment

opportunities, which are civilized and ethical and which require the individuals to make use

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of their skills and abilities in an appropriate manner. The rural individuals aspire to get
engaged in decent work. Lack of education among them is a major cause of occurrence of
problems in acquiring reputed employment opportunities. But they possess the skills and
abilities to get engaged in minority jobs, such as cleaning, domestic labour, construction work
etc. In some cases, they are able to obtain work in domestic households, offices or other
places, but in others, they experience decent work deficit, which causes unemployment.

Lack of Information – The employment of rural individuals in the agriculture sector

and farming practices do not generate much income for the agricultural labourers and
farmers, especially landless and marginal farmers. The income is primarily meant to sustain
their living conditions in an appropriate manner. Hence, it is vital for individuals to look for
employment opportunities to supplement their income. Lack of information regarding various
employment opportunities, programs and schemes that are implemented to promote their
well-being is one of the major barriers within the course of acquisition of employment
opportunities.

Health Problems and Illnesses – The individuals are required to maintain their good
health and well-being to get engaged in any task or activity. Due to the prevalence of the
conditions of poverty, individuals experience malnutrition and health problems and illnesses.
In case of health problems and illnesses, the individuals are unable to get engaged in any
tasks or activities, or look for employment opportunities. The rate of unemployment is mostly
high among the individuals, who experience permanent disabilities or health problems.

Temporary Contracts – Research has indicated that rural households normally send
their children to urban areas to find employment as domestic helpers. In such cases, mostly
they are hired on a contract period of two years. After the completion of their contract period,
they are send back home. The domestic helpers are trained in terms of all household chores,
such as, cleaning, washing, preparation of meals, purchasing groceries and other items from
the marketplace and so forth. In return, they are given pay, food, clothes and in some cases,
even get enrolled in schools to develop academic skills. But after the contract period is over,
they are unemployed. Hence, temporary contracts lead to unemployment.

Skills Mismatch – The individuals are required to possess the essential skills in
accordance to the job requirements. For instance, when an individual is working as a
carpenter, then it is vital for him to possess adequate knowledge in terms of his job and so
forth. When the skills possessed by the individuals are not in accordance to the job

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requirements, then they experience problems in looking for jobs. Therefore, it can be stated
that skills mismatch is one of the major causes of unemployment, especially among the
poverty stricken, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society.

Lack of Training for Work – The rural individuals, normally are illiterate and
unskilled. When they are engaged in employment opportunities, then they aspire to obtain
sufficient training and augment their skills and abilities in the implementation of job duties.
But lack of training for work prevents them from honing their skills and abilities, and thus
they are unable to generate the desired academic outcomes. Even though the individuals are
experienced, but when training is provided in terms of employment opportunities, then the
desired academic outcomes can be achieved in a manageable manner. On the other hand, lack
of training for work is an impediment within the course of acquisition of employment
opportunities.

Social Restraints upon Women – In rural communities, as it has been stated above that
social restraints are imposed upon women. They are considered inferior to men and are not
given equal rights and opportunities. The prevalence of discriminatory treatment against
women not only is an impediment within the course of acquisition of literacy, but also within
the course of attainment of employment opportunities. They are compelled to remain within
the households and carry out the household responsibilities. The other social restraints that
have been imposed upon them are, lack of participation in the decision making processes,
social, cultural, political, economic and religious functions and so forth. Hence, these
restraints prevent them from acquiring employment opportunities.

In order to alleviate the problem of unemployment, it is vital to take into

consideration various aspects. These are, formulation of policies and programs, focusing
upon development of skills and generating employment opportunities for the individuals;
making improvements in the system of education and vocational training programs, policies
and measures for controlling the growth of population; generating awareness within rural
youth in terms of utilization of modern and innovative methods and approaches in
agriculture, farming practices and in other tasks, such as production and manufacturing
processes; enabling the individuals to hone their technical skills and appropriate planning
needs to be done, regarding the utilization of human resources. When these aspects are
adequately taken into consideration and measures are formulated to put them into practice in

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an appropriate manner, then solutions would be brought about regarding alleviation of
unemployment.

Homelessness

Homelessness in rural India is a relatively hidden and an unknown phenomenon. This

phenomenon is comprehensive and is continuing to grow with the increase in the country’s
population. Homelessness is a condition, when the individuals do not have any form of
shelter or housing accommodation. Homeless individuals are residing in temporary shelters,
pavilions, on the roadside or within homes of friends or relatives. It is regarded as one of the
major problems that individuals experience within the course of acquisition of better
livelihoods opportunities. When the individuals are homeless, they experience problems and
challenges in fulfilling major requirements that are considered imperative in improving the
overall quality of lives. These include, education, employment opportunities, health and well-
being, diet and nutrition, hygiene and sanitation and so forth.

Research has indicated that in rural communities, the rate of homelessness is lower as
compared to urban areas (Wardhaugh, n.d.). The major reason for this is, in rural
communities, individuals are mostly residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness.
They have the major objective of alleviating the conditions of poverty and bringing about
improvements in their living conditions. In order to achieve this objective, they migrate to
urban communities. When they do not possess adequate resources to obtain a housing
accommodation, they end up being homeless. Lack of secure, permanent and appropriate
shelter leads to homelessness among individuals. The term ‘homeless’ is often replaced by
the term ‘houseless’. Emphasis is put upon those, lacking any form of shelter, rather than the
ones, who do not have a real home.

Typology of Rural Homelessness

The typology of rural homeless individuals have been stated as follows:

Displaced Individuals – The displaced individuals are the individuals, who lose their
homes, as a result of occurrence of natural calamities, disasters, communal riots,
infrastructure development and political conflicts. They usually reside in relief camps, after
becoming homeless for months or even years. The relief camps are established by the
government and other organizations and agencies, with the main purpose of making provision
of help to these individuals (Wardhaugh, n.d.).

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 Migrants – Migrants are the individuals, who migrate to other regions and cities in
search for better livelihoods opportunities. Poverty and landlessness are the major causes that
lead to migration of the individuals. When the individuals migrate to urban areas, they may or
may not receive assistance in the form of night shelters, food and so forth. In most cases,
when the individuals migrate to urban areas, their families continue to remain in rural areas
(Wardhaugh, n.d.).

Inmates of Institutions – These are the individuals, who are normally affected by
disabilities, illnesses and diseases. They are normally incapacitated and reside by the
roadsides. Apart from the roadside, they are residents of beggar’s settlements or state homes
for beggars. They are normally involved in begging for alms to meet their living
requirements. They experience unfavourable conditions to a major extent (Wardhaugh, n.d.).

Living in Other Households – When rural individuals migrate to urban areas in search
of better employment opportunities, then in some cases, they are able to obtain housing
accommodation within other households. These include, friends, relatives or other
individuals, such as, domestic employers. Within the house of the domestic employers, they
carry out certain job duties and obtain housing accommodation. In some cases, they render
their domestic responsibilities on a full-time basis, whereas, in other cases, they take up
another job and work in domestic households on part-time basis.

Urban Slums – Individuals, residing in urban slums too are regarded as homeless. In
slum areas, the living conditions are in a deprived state. The individuals experience lack of
civic amenities and facilities and are residing in the conditions of poverty. These individuals
are engaged in minority jobs, such as cleaners, sweepers and so forth. Their income is meagre
to sustain their living conditions and as a result are required to experience severe poverty.

Itinerant Groups – Itinerant groups are the ones, who do not have a fixed location.
These individuals are normally religious mendicants or gypsy groups. These individuals
normally travel from one place to another in search for opportunities to improve their
livelihoods. Officially, they are not regarded as homeless and due to this, they are not eligible
for any assistance. They are usually dependent upon non-government organizations or
informal assistance (Wardhaugh, n.d.).

Causes of Rural Homelessness

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 The major causes of homelessness are, poverty, landlessness, natural calamities and
disasters, wars, communal riots and political conflicts (Wardhaugh, n.d.). Poverty is regarded
as one of the major causes that imposes barriers upon individuals to obtain adequate
livelihoods opportunities. The individuals residing in the conditions of poverty experience
lack of resources, which are necessary for an effective living. Influenced by the conditions of
poverty, when individuals are unable to afford housing accommodation, then they end up
being homeless. Landlessness is the state, when the individuals do not possess land or
property, which they can effectively make use of to make provision of adequate and secure
housing. The occurrence of natural calamities and disasters, such as, earthquakes, Tsunamis,
floods and so forth, cause immense loss of life and property. When the effects of natural
calamities and disasters are experienced on a large extent, then the individuals end up losing
their homes and become homeless. The occurrence of wars, communal riots and political
conflicts also render an important contribution in leading to an increase in homelessness
among individuals. The occurrence of these situations, not only lead to loss of life, but
individuals lose their housing and property as well.

Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY)

Indira Awaas Yojana is a flagship scheme of the Ministry of Rural Development. IAY
is the largest and the most comprehensive rural housing program that has ever been put into
operation within the country. It has its origin in the wage employment programs of the
National Rural Employment Program (NREP), (1980) and the Rural Landless Employment
Guarantee Program (RLEGP), which was initiated in 1983. Construction of houses in rural
communities was the main objective of this scheme. It has been making provision of
assistance to the families, who are living below poverty line (BPL). These individuals are
either homeless, or they have inadequate housing facilities for constructing a safe and a
durable shelter. This effort has been part of the larger strategy of the Ministry in the
alleviation of poverty and assisting in the development of environmentally appropriate
habitats with adequate provisions in alleviation of the problem of homelessness. Making
provision of housing accommodation is one of the major aspects in alleviating poverty (Indira
Awaas Yojana, 2013).

India’s Ministry of Rural Development has undertaken the IAY as part of the Bharat
Nirman undertaking to improve rural infrastructure. The IAY program has been implemented
to make provision of rural housing to the individuals and to replace the kutcha i.e. inadequate

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housing. The intended recipients of this accommodation in most cases belong to the
marginalized, underprivileged and economically weaker sections of the society (Wardhaugh,
n.d.).

Under the IAY scheme, around 11.5 million rural houses were built in between 1985
and 2004. They are designed to provide new housing accommodation to the individuals as
well as replace kutcha housing. The primary recipients of this scheme are the individuals,
living below poverty line and economically weaker sections of the society. The main
objective of Bharat Nirman program was to end homelessness in rural India. During the first
four years, there has been establishment of 7.176 million houses. Furthermore, measures were
formulated to build 12 million houses, during the first five years from 2009-2010 to
accommodate 54 million individuals (Wardhaugh, n.d.).

Kutcha and Pucca Housing

Kutcha is a hindi term, which means temporary or which has not been built in an
appropriate manner. Whereas, pucca means of good quality or something that is of reliable
quality. In the establishment of kutcha houses, the materials that are made use of are not of
good quality and the methods of construction have also not been put into operation in an
appropriate manner. On the other hand, in pucca housing, the materials and the construction
processes that have been implemented are of appropriate standard. In the case of occurrence
of natural disasters, kutcha houses get affected easily, whereas, pucca houses may not get
effected easily. The problem of homelessness is a major barrier not only within the course of
progression of individuals, but country as a whole. Hence, policies and schemes need to be
implemented to build pucca housing accommodation, particularly in rural areas.

Crime and Violence

In rural communities, there have been prevalence of criminal and violent acts. All
individuals, irrespective of gender, age, caste, creed, race, religion, ethnicity and socio-
economic background have been victims of crime and violence. The major cause behind the
prevalence of these acts is poverty. The individuals residing within the conditions of poverty,
normally lack the resources, which are needed to promote better livelihoods opportunities.
When they experience problems and impediments within the course of fulfilment of their
daily requirements, then they get prone to crime and violence. Inability of the individuals to
sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner, usually arouse the feelings of anger

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and frustration among them. Due to these attitudes, they get involved in criminal and violent
acts, within as well as outside the home.

In rural communities, girls and women are the ones, who get subjected to abuse and
mistreatment more as compared to their male counterparts. The birth of the girl child is still
not appreciated and preference is given to male children. Girls are regarded as liabilities, and
families, primarily belonging to underprivileged, deprived and socio-economically backward
sections of the society possess the viewpoint that they would make demands and not yield
any returns upon investment. Hence, they are discouraged from acquisition of education,
trained from the initial stage in terms of implementation of household responsibilities and are
get married. On the other hand, more attention is paid towards the male children, particularly,
their education, health, diet and nutrition, participation in other activities, making of
important decisions and so forth. Therefore, in this manner, girls and women experience
neglect and discriminatory treatment. They are not given equal rights and opportunities as
compared to the males. In some cases, they usually carry out their daily routine in the
management of household responsibilities and are discouraged from participating in any tasks
and activities.

Types of Crime and Violence

The various types of crime and violence normally are classified into five categories,
violent interpersonal crimes, including verbal abuse, physical abuse, trafficking and
exploitation; property crimes, including theft and robbery and crimes against women,
including sexual harassment, dowry deaths, domestic violence, rape and acid attacks.

Verbal Abuse – Verbal abuse is the form of abuse which involves making use of
obscene language, meant to degrade the individuals. This form of abuse is prevalent within
the household, among family members as well as outside the household. This abuse does not
cause any physical injury, but has a negative influence upon the mind-sets of the individuals.
It normally involves name-calling, blame, criticism, with-holding, isolation, condescension,
manipulation, degradation, arguments and threats. It is usually believed that harsh words
leave a scar upon the mind-sets of the individuals, particularly the ones, who experience
them. Therefore, it is stated that severe verbal abuse has a major impact upon the
psychological well-being of the individuals.

Physical Abuse – Physical abuse is the form of abuse, which involves physically
hurting the person. In some cases, men and boys too experience this form of abuse, but girls

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and women usually, experience this form of abuse in their marital as well as natal homes. The
various forms of physical abuse include, beating, pushing, hitting with an object, shaking,
force feeding, kicking, strangling, choking, denying of food, physically restraining, pinning
against the wall, reckless driving or inflicting burns. When the individuals experience
physical abuse, then they not only experience injuries and hurt, physically but also
psychologically. Experiencing major extent of physical abuse also contribute in
incapacitating the individuals to get involved in the implementation of any tasks or activities.

Trafficking – Trafficking among women and children have been a major concern,
both nationally and internationally. In India, there has been an increase in trafficking of
women and children. The prevalence of conditions of poverty are stated to be the major
cause. The professional criminals, who are involved in trafficking, often lure women and
children of employment opportunities and prosperous lives. Hence, due to conditions of
poverty, illiteracy and unawareness, they give their consent and send their children. Mostly,
women and children, who experience trafficking are kidnapped and sold. They are beaten,
burned, deprived of food and rest, are made to work long hours and are required to undergo
various unfavourable consequences, augmenting misery and pain.

Exploitation – Exploitation is the form of criminal act, which normally both men and
women experience. It is carried out by individuals upon others, against their consent. In rural
communities, women and girls are the ones, who are exploited more as compared to males.
They are compelled to get involved in the implementation of tasks and activities, which they
may not be willing to perform. For instance, they are compelled to prepare meals and carry
out other household chores, against their desires. Elderly individuals also experience financial
exploitation. When the individuals are unable to get engaged in any jobs or work and earn
income, then they may exploit their elderly parents in terms of financial resources.

Theft and Robbery – Theft and robbery are the acts that are prevalent among the
individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections
of the society. These involve, stealing, burglary, shop-lifting, and larceny. The individuals
may commit these acts in terms of valuables, jewellery and finances or in obtaining basic
necessities, such as, food or water. The major causes for the involvement of individuals in
theft and robbery are poverty, unemployment and illiteracy. When they are illiterate and
unskilled, due to which they are required to undergo challenges and problems in finding

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employment opportunities. On the other hand, lack of resources needed in the sustenance of
their living conditions, compel them to get involved in the acts of theft and robbery.

Sexual Harassment – Sexual harassment is referred to the gross violation of the rights
of women to equality and dignity. This form of criminal act is usually experienced by women
within the workplace. When women are involved in various forms of employment
opportunities, then they are not given equal rights as the male counterparts. In terms of
wages, they are discriminated against. They are given less wages as compared to men, for the
same work performed. In order to alleviate sexual harassment, there are formulation of
policies and programs, which have the main objective of treating women with respect and
dignity and providing them equal rights and opportunities.

Dowry Deaths – Dowry is referred to the bride price, which the bride’s family is
required to pay to the groom’s family at the time of marriage. It normally involves giving
financial resources, jewellery and other valuables to the daughter at the time of her marriage.
This is apparent that individuals, belonging to poverty stricken, marginalized and
underprivileged sections of the society experience problems in paying sufficient bride price.
When the groom’s family is unsatisfied with the bride price, then they impose harm and
injuries upon the bride. Dowry deaths involve killing as well as suicide. When the brides are
unable to bear the harassment, then they end up committing suicide.

Domestic Violence – Domestic violence is the violence that is inferred upon women
within the house. The major causes of domestic violence are, possession of feelings of
antagonism and hatred, dowry demands, when women are unable to meet the needs and
requirements of the family members or when the implementation of tasks and activities does
not meet expectations. Verbal abuse of women is common in the case of domestic violence,
but in some cases, women may also experience physical abuse. Among rural households,
domestic violence in most cases takes place over trivial issues, which can be solved
peacefully. The development of feelings of anger and frustration gives rise to domestic
violence.

Rape – Rape is a type of sexual assault, usually involving sexual intercourse. It is

inflicted by one or more persons upon the other person, without the person’s consent. The act
may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or against the person, who
is incapable of valid consent. The women and girls, who are incapable of valid consent, are
unconscious, incapacitated and below the legal age of consent. This is regarded as the major

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crime not only against the individuals, but the entire society. It is unfortunate that girls, who
are below 10 years of age are also subjected to rape.

Acid Attacks – Acid attack is referred to throwing of acid upon the individuals, with
the main purpose to mutilate, deface or to kill. Women and girls mostly have been victims of
acid attacks. One of the major causes was, just because they expressed interest and
enthusiasm towards acquisition of good education, getting engaged in employment
opportunities and rejected the marriage proposals of men. Out of the feelings of anger and
frustration, acid was thrown upon these women and they experienced long-term detrimental
consequences. Research has indicated that these women and girls, belonged to the age group
of 15 to 25 years.

The prevalence of crime and violence is regarded as a major impediment within the
course of progression of not only individuals and communities, but also country as a whole.
Women and girls are the ones, who are mostly subjected to these acts. It is vital to formulate
programs and policies to combat crime and violence against women. The individuals need to
bring about changes in their viewpoints and perspectives and make provision of equal rights
and opportunities to girls and women. Furthermore, it is vital to formulate measures to
alleviate the conditions of poverty. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) guarantees 100 days of minimum wage employment to every
rural household (Iyer, & Topalova, 2014). This would help the rural individuals in sustaining
their livelihoods in an improved manner. In addition, they also need to recognize the
significance of education and enhance their academic and literacy skills.

Conclusion

In rural areas, the major problems are, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment,

homelessness and crime and violence. Poverty is the condition, when the individuals do not
possess sufficient financial resources to sustain their living conditions. The major causes of
poverty are, unemployment, participation in minority jobs, illiteracy and unawareness,
occurrence of natural calamities and disasters, inadequate financial management, borrowing
loans, large families, health care needs, migration and participation in other activities.
Illiteracy is the inability of the individuals to identify, interpret, understand, create,
communicate, and compute, printed and written materials. Causes of illiteracy are, lack of
financial resources, parental illiteracy, lack of educational facilities, lack of teaching-learning
methods, lack of interest in studies, transportation problems, shortage of teachers,

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engagement in employment opportunities, child labour and social disputes. Unemployment is
the condition, when individuals are not involved in any job or activity, primarily to generate
income. The major causes of unemployment are, increased education expectations, lack of
basic literacy skills, family and household responsibilities, decent work deficit, lack of
information, health problems and illnesses, temporary contracts, skills mismatch, lack of
training for work and social restraints upon women.

The state of homelessness is characterized by lack of housing accommodation or

shelter. The homeless individuals live in various areas, including roadsides, temporary
shelters, or with relatives and friends. These are, displaced individuals, migrants, inmates of
institutions, living in other households, urban slums and itinerant groups. The major causes of
homelessness are, poverty, landlessness, natural calamities and disasters, wars, communal
riots and political conflicts. In rural communities, the various forms of criminal and violent
acts are, verbal abuse, physical abuse, trafficking, exploitation, theft and robbery, sexual
harassment, dowry deaths, domestic violence, rape and acid attacks. Women and girls mostly
experience various forms of crime and violence, within and outside the household. The
difficulties that individuals are required to experience depend upon the extent of these
problems. There have been formulation of measures, policies and programs by the
government, organizations and agencies, which aim to alleviate these problems and facilitate
education, health care and employment opportunities among the individuals.

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 Chapter 15. Rural Development Approaches and
Strategies
When one is researching upon the concept of rural development, then it is referred to
the overall development of rural communities. It is a multi-dimensional and a comprehensive
concept, which takes into consideration, number of aspects, these include, agriculture and
allied activities, village and cottage industries, farming practices, system of education,
training centres, health care and medical facilities, environmental conditions, housing
accommodation, infrastructure, technology, skills development opportunities for the
individuals, administration and management practices, employment opportunities and human
resource development. When the individuals are researching upon the aspects, which promote
backwardness of rural communities, then it is vital for them to take into consideration
measures, policies and programs that would promote development of all the above stated
aspects. In rural communities, the individuals are experiencing the problems of poverty,
illiteracy and unemployment to a major extent. Therefore, measures and policies also need to
put emphasis upon alleviation of these problems.

The development of rural communities is the ultimate outcome of the transactions

between physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. The

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approaches and the strategies need to be designed to bring about improvements, primarily in
the living conditions of the individuals, belonging to deprived, marginalized and socio-
economically backward sections of the society. To promote the development of rural areas, it
is necessary to represent an intersection between agricultural, social, managerial, behavioural
and engineering sciences (Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and Strategies in
India, n.d.). When there are implementation of policies, practices, strategies and approaches
aiming at rural development, then the individuals need to generate awareness in terms of
deficient areas and challenges, which the rural individuals are experiencing. The
organizations and agencies are required to work in collaboration and integration with each
other to achieve the desired goals and objectives. Many developing countries have been
working effectively towards development of rural communities and have received significant
outcomes.

Development Objectives of Rural Areas

When acquiring an understanding of rural development approaches and strategies, it is

essential to acquire an efficient understanding of areas in rural communities, which are in a
backward and underdeveloped state and which need to be improved. When the individuals
are involved in the implementation of strategies and approaches, then they need to be aware
of major objectives of rural individuals. These have been stated as follows: (Chapter 4.
Effective Approaches for Rural Development, n.d.).

Improvement of Economic Capabilities

In order to bring about improvements in the living conditions and overall quality of
lives, it is necessary to generate a source of income. In rural areas, agriculture and farming
practices are stated as the major occupations of the individuals. Apart from these, they are
engaged in the production and manufacturing of handicrafts, silk weaving, pottery making,
and so forth. Therefore, it can be stated that involvement in employment opportunities and
occupations are the major objectives of not only individuals residing in urban communities,
but also rural individuals. In the agriculture sector, strategies need to focus upon bringing
about improvements in agricultural productivity and marketing of agricultural products. It is
vital for the farmers and agricultural labourers to put into operation, innovative and scientific
methods to augment production. Agricultural income can be increased through the
implementation of two comprehensive methods. These are, stabilizing the prices of

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agricultural products and intermediary exploitation and improving agricultural productivity
and infrastructure.

To bring about improvements in agricultural productivity, one gets involved in the

production of multiple crops, by making use of advanced agricultural techniques.
Introduction of modern irrigation methods is regarded as one of the strategies of improving
agricultural infrastructure. The main aspects that need to be taken into consideration to
improve agricultural productivity are, development of small-irrigation systems, i.e.
construction of irrigation systems and development of water user associations; capacity
building for agricultural extension workers, i.e. improvement of cultivation techniques,
improvements in the production of crops and vegetables and agroforestry; empowerment of
community based activities for farming, i.e. organization of shipping and distributive co-
operatives and rice banks and comprehensive rural and agricultural development, i.e.
integrated projects with the development of small-scale irrigation, capacity building for the
agricultural workers and strengthening of the community-based activities for farming. The
improvements made in these areas, would render an effective contribution in augmenting
productivity and profitability through engagement in agriculture and farming practices.

Improvement of Human Capabilities

When improvement of human capabilities is taken into consideration, then emphasis

is put upon one’s health conditions and educational levels. In rural communities, health
conditions of the individuals are regarded to be in a deprived state. When the individuals are
experiencing health problems or illnesses, then they would certainly experience problems in
getting involved in any tasks or activities. Therefore, improvements need to be initiated in
rural communities, and bringing about developments in the health care and medical facilities
is regarded to be of major significance. In rural communities, health care and medical centres
are not in a well-developed state. The individuals in most cases are required to migrate to
urban areas to obtain medical treatment. When the elderly individuals or other individuals
within the family experience illnesses, then the other family members are required to leave
their work and take care of ailing members. Hence, due to this, they experience a decline in
productivity. Therefore, augmentation of medical and health care centres is crucial for rural
development.

For the purpose of generating income, it is vital to bring about improvements in the
educational standards. Literacy skills enable the individuals to read manuals on agricultural

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techniques and equipment, thus leading to an increase in agricultural productivity. When the
individuals possess the basic literacy skills, they can easily acquire information in terms of
policies, measures and programs that have been put into operation, leading to their well-
being. Furthermore, they are able to carry out various tasks and activities in a manageable
manner, including the implementation of household responsibilities, health care, diet and
nutrition, child development and so forth. When they are engaged in the production
processes, then they would be able to acquire satisfactory information in terms of marketing
strategies and approaches and able to enhance productivity and profitability. In rural
communities, the system of education is not in a well-developed state and major cause for
this is inadequate financial resources. For bringing about improvements in educational
standards in rural communities, it is necessary to recruit skilled and qualified teachers,
enhance teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies, improve infrastructure and
overall school environmental conditions.

Improvement of Protective Capabilities

The protective capabilities are referred to the capabilities of the individuals to protect
them from various problems and difficulties. These are particularly the ones, which prove to
be impediments within the course of their progression. These problems are poverty,
malnutrition, illiteracy, unemployment, natural disasters and crime and violence. In rural
communities, when there are occurrence of natural calamities and disasters, then rural
individuals are required to experience detrimental effects to a major extent. The cultivated
land gets easily damaged from floods, erosion, earthquakes etc. The rural individuals, who
are residing in the conditions of poverty, do not possess adequate resources to sustain their
living conditions sufficiently. Therefore, it is vital for them to be aware of the measures and
strategies that are needed to preserve the natural environmental conditions and their well-
being. The protection of forests is not only effectual in the alleviation of natural disasters,
such as, floods, but also protecting land from top-soil erosion and generating awareness in
terms of financial management, hygiene and sanitation.

The rural individuals need to recognize the significance of education. It is vital for
them to get enrolled in educational institutions and training centres and generate information
in terms of various strategies and concepts. Acquisition of education in terms of various
strategies and concepts, would help the individuals to differentiate between appropriate and
inappropriate, provide solutions to various problems, look for employment and income

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generation opportunities and sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner. In order
to eliminate illiteracy, there have been establishment of adult education centres in rural
communities, to provide training to adults. These adults, have either never been to school
before, or have dropped out, before their educational skills are honed. There have been
implementation of programs and measures, which aim at promoting welfare of the rural
individuals. The main areas, upon which these measures are focused upon include,
agriculture and farming practices, education and training opportunities, employment
opportunities, skills development, law and order, management and administration,
infrastructure development, development of civic amenities, environmental preservation
methods and so forth.

Improvement of Political Capabilities

Political capabilities are the capabilities that facilitate the participation of the
individuals in policy-making and in the making of decisions, on an independent basis in
situations, where human rights are guaranteed. The rural development approaches have the
main objective to make the development plans corresponding to the various conditions of the
rural communities and to implement the projects through community participation.
Development assistance, which responds rapidly to the local needs and requirements, needs
to work in integration and co-operation with the governments. For this reason,
decentralization is regarded as an important factor in the local community development.
Appropriate decentralization measures are required in the rural development activities. The
major activities include, capacity building of the central governments and improvements in
laws and financial management for decentralization. The rural development projects should
be consistent with the local government development plans. If there are differences, then
impediments would take place in the achievement of the desired objectives.

The improvements in the administrative capabilities of the local governments is

required for policy making and sustainability, based upon local conditions. The formulation
of development plans requires the incorporation of local opinions, community participation
and utilization of existing local resources. The administrative officers, who are involved in
the implementation of management and administrative functions, need to possess the
essential skills and abilities. One of the major aspects is, individuals need to be aware in
terms of areas, which are deficient and are required to get improved. The development of
political capabilities among rural individuals, also focus upon their participation in the

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decision making processes and other political activities. The management and leadership
capabilities of the administrators and leaders should be improved. The individuals, who are in
charge of planning and administrative functions need to augment their skills and capabilities
on a continuous basis. For leading to improvements in skills and capabilities, there have been
provision of training opportunities. The location of training centres in terms of administrative,
managerial and leadership skills are mostly in urban communities.

Components of Rural Development Policy

The policies that are formulated to bring about rural development are required to
incorporate the components, which have been stated as follows:

Environmental Conditions - The first component is the individual and his

environment. The individuals need to develop the skills and abilities to make effective use of
resources that the natural environmental conditions are providing. On the other hand, the
individuals are required to generate awareness in terms of various strategies and approaches
that are required for the preservation of the environment. Curbing various forms of pollution
is regarded to be of utmost significance. The rural individuals need to be aware of various
strategies and methods for keeping the water bodies and environmental conditions clean.
Furthermore, they should be aware of making effective use of resources to improve the living
conditions.

Ecological Settings - The second component focuses upon ecological setting.

Ecological setting refers to the principle biophysical characteristics at multiple scales that
have a strong influence upon the composition, structure, and function of the particular
ecosystem, over a long period of time and serve to describe and distinguish it ecologically.
The major aspects that need to be taken into account in the case of ecological settings are,
wetness, soil depth, temperature, solar exposure and wind exposure that define the ecological
characteristics (Conservation Assessment and Prioritization System, n.d.). It is vital for the
rural individuals to possess adequate information, in terms of these traits, particularly when
they are engaged in agriculture and farming practices.

Technology - The third component of rural development is making use of technology.

The rural individuals have recognized the significance of technology. They are aware that
making use of technical methods would make their tasks and activities manageable. In the
present existence, they are making use of technical methods in the agriculture sector, farming

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practices and production and manufacturing of goods. In addition to the use of technology in
the implementation of tasks and activities, individuals are also making use of it, in the form
of mobile phones and computers to augment their knowledge and information. The elderly
individuals and home-makers usually make use of it for leisure and recreational purposes.

Infrastructure - The development of infrastructure is integral to the development of

rural areas. The infrastructural facilities that need to be developed in rural communities are,
roads, transportation, communications, power supplies, water supplies, public services,
broadcasting and telecommunications. In rural households, individuals experience shortage of
power supplies and water supplies. They are required to fetch water from the wells or water
bodies, located nearby. The conditions of roads and modes of transportation are not in a well-
developed state, which are imposing problems for the individuals in transferring from one
place to another. Therefore, developments made in the infrastructural facilities are integral to
rural development.

Self-Reliance – When focusing upon rural development, the development of

individuals is regarded to be of utmost significance. The rural individuals are mostly illiterate
and unaware. They are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness and possess
traditional viewpoints and perspectives. Their lives are primarily based upon their
perspectives and viewpoints. In order to promote their well-being, it is necessary to promote
self-reliance among individuals. This can be brought about through mobilization of resources,
local initiatives and participation of the individuals in various tasks and activities, which may
be social, political, cultural, economic and religious (Chapter III. Rural Development
Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

Law and Order – In rural communities, the establishment of law and order enables the

individuals to organize tasks and activities in accordance to the rules and policies. Law and
order is referred to the maintenance of peace and tranquillity, which the citizens are required
to put into operation for obeying the law of land (Chapter III. Role in Maintenance of Law
and Order of District, n.d.). For instance, there has been prevalence of discriminatory
treatment and criminal and violent acts within rural communities. Through the
implementation of law and order, the individuals, who are doers, get subjected to disciplinary
action. Therefore, the main objective of law and order is to ensure the individuals make
provision of equal rights and opportunities to both males and females. Furthermore, there
should not be any kind of discrimination on the basis of any factors, including, caste, creed,

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race, religion, ethnicity, gender and socio-economic background. The individuals should
inculcate the traits of morality and ethics among themselves, for leading to progression of
themselves as well as the community as a whole.

Education – The education is regarded as the main instrument that lays the foundation
for the individuals to lead to progress in all areas and enrich their overall quality of lives. In
rural communities, the system of education is not in a well-developed state. In schools, the
teaching-learning methods and instructional strategies are not put into practice in an effective
manner, there is lack of infrastructure, facilities and amenities and shortage of qualified and
experienced teachers. Measures need to be formulated to bring about improvements in these
aspects, so there would be an increase in the enrolment of students in schools. Acquisition of
education would enable the individuals to augment their skills and abilities, so they can carry
out tasks and activities to sustain their living conditions in an appropriate manner.

Training Programs – The development of training programs among rural

communities is essential for the progression and well-being of the individuals as well as to
enable them to augment productivity and profitability. Agriculture is regarded as the major
occupation of the individuals in rural areas. In order to enhance productivity, it is vital for the
individuals to get enrolled in training programs and acquire knowledge in terms of modern
and innovative methods and strategies. There have been establishment of training centres,
which are providing knowledge and rendering an effective contribution in the up-gradation of
skills of the individuals. The different areas include, health care, diet and nutrition, child
development, handicrafts and artworks, and so forth.

Distributive Justice – The distributive justice involves operationalization of the value

of access entails exercises of power and authority. It follows both the matter of common
sense and empirical observation. The creation, structuring, reinforcement and boundaries of
access opportunities will be related to the main features of distribution of management and
power within society. To the extent, power needs conversion into authority, the value of
access by itself will not be ignored. On the other hand, considerations of power, in the here
and now sense will not be sacrificed in the pursuance of the desired goals and objectives. The
legal systems make provision of access institutions, rather than dispute institutions (Baxi,
1976).

Medical and Health Care – The establishment of health care centres are regarded to
be of utmost significance, as individuals, belonging to all age groups and backgrounds are

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required to take care of their health care needs and requirements. When the individuals are in
good health, then they would be able to effectively get involved in the implementation of
various tasks and activities. These include, management of household responsibilities, child
development, agricultural and allied activities, taking care of needs and requirements of
elderly family members, participation in social, political, religious, economic and cultural
programs and carrying out daily routine activities. In old age, individuals are required to pay
adequate attention towards one’s health care and obtain regular medical check-ups.

Approaches for Rural Development

India has acquired vast experience in the implementation of rural development

programs. Within the course of time, there have been changes made in the approaches to rural
development and transformations have also been taking place in area planning. The main
purpose of these approaches is to bring about developments of various areas that would
render an effective contribution in making the lives of the individuals productive. The
important areas include, education, training programs, employment opportunities, skills
development programs, technology, modern and innovative methods, management and
administration and housing. When these approaches are implemented, then it also needs to
ensure that they produce the desired outcomes in a rapid manner and accelerate the growth
and development of rural communities. When the resources available are limited, then the
rural individuals need to make sure that they make adequate use of them and not cause any
wastage (Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

India has a long history of experimenting with various approaches of rural

development. It is been believed by the individuals since the past that effective growth and
development of the communities and nation, as a whole will take place, when developments
of vital areas will take place in rural communities. Since the country achieved its
independence, there have been introduction of several programs to initiate development of
rural communities. The planning for rural development has acquired the attention of policy-
makers, along with the national plan for economic development. India adopted both the
centralized and the decentralized planning models in the process of planned economic
development (Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

The approaches to rural development that have been stated in the five year plans have
been stated as follows: (Chapter III. Rural Development Approaches and Strategies in India,
n.d.).

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 The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956), adopted the Harrod - Domer model of capital
accumulation and saving mobilization as a methodological approach. The Community
Development Program (CPD) was put into practice to achieve the desired objective.

The Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961) was based upon the Feldman - Mahalnobis
model of sectorial growth. This strategy invested in the strategies to achieve industrialization,
which is considered as the main aspect of economic development.

In the Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966), all round agricultural development was
envisaged. The increase in the agricultural production and allied activities received top
priority during this plan period. Agricultural programs such as, Intensive Agricultural Area
Development Program (IAADP) and High Yield Varieties Program (HYVP) were
implemented within the country.

During the annual plans (1966-1969), few more programs were implemented to
achieve all round development. The important programs were, Farmers Training and
Education Programs, Rural Works Program (RWP), Tribal Development Block, Rural
Manpower Program and Composite Program for Women and Child Development.

During the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974), efforts were initiated in the name of
“Growth with Social Justice” towards uplifting the deprived, marginalized and economically
weaker sections of the society. The important rural development programs were, Small
Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
Development Agency (MFAL), Drought Prone Area Program (DPAP) and Tribal Area
Development Program (TADP).

The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979) was based on the inter-sectorial transactions
model of Leontif, which has put emphasis upon the strengthening of the inter-sectorial
linkages for balanced growth of the sectors. The major programs that were introduced are,
Command Area Development Program (CADP), Hill Area Development Programs (HADP),
Minimum Needs Program (MNP), Food for Work Program (FWP) and 20-Point economic
program.

The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985), aimed at the removal of poverty, growth,
modernization, self-reliance and social justice. To attain the all-round development of rural
communities, one single program, which was called the ‘Integrated Rural Development
Program’ (IRDP) was introduced. IRDP is regarded as the multi-sector, multi-level and

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multi-section concept of rural development. The other programs that were introduced are,
National Rural Employment Program (NREP), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Program (RLEGP), Economic Rehabilitation of Rural Poor (ERRP), Training of Rural Youth
for Self-Employment (TRYSEM), Self-Employment for the Educated Unemployed Youth
(SEEVY) and Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA).

The important objectives of the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) were to build an
independent self-reliant economy, establishment of social system, based on equity and
justice, reduction of regional imbalance and implementation of advanced technologies. Some
of the rural infrastructural programs that have been introduced during this plan period are,
Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY), Integrated Rural Energy Planning Program (IREP), Jawahar
Rozgar Yojana (JRY) and Million Wells Scheme (MWS).

In the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997), the important objectives were, generation
of employment opportunities, universalization of elementary education, provision of safe
drinking water and primary health care facilities and reinforcement of the infrastructural
facilities. The programs that were introduced were, Intensified Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
(IJRY), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Operation Black Board (OBB) and District
Primary Education Program (DPEP).

The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) aimed at generating employment opportunities
in the secondary sector, all round development of the agriculture sector, strengthening of the
rural economy through the establishment of agro-based industries, small-scale industries,
cottage industries and alleviation of poverty. The important anti-poverty programs include,
IRDP, TRYSEM, IAY, JRY, IJRY, DPAP, EAS and so forth.

Changes are required to be brought about in the rural development strategies in

accordance to the needs and requirements of the community. In the Tenth Five Year Plan
(2002-2007), the participatory strategy has been introduced by the Government to promote
rural development. Measures have been formulated to augment the social and economic
opportunities for the individuals by encouraging their participation in the decision making
processes. The Government of India has launched the ‘Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme’. In addition, attention has been paid towards development of rural infrastructure and
rural health. The important programs that were introduced to achieve these objectives are,
Gram Sadak Yojana and National Rural Health Mission (Chapter III. Rural Development
Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

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 The approaches for rural development need to focus upon making provision of
remedies to the problems, experienced by rural individuals. These problems mainly include,
poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and homelessness. When improvements need to be made
in rural communities, then it is vital to pay adequate attention to urban communities, as they
are regarded as the main consumers of agricultural produce. In order to bring about effective
solutions to these problems, it is vital to formulate measures, programs and schemes, which
are dedicated towards alleviating these problems and bringing about improvements in the
overall living conditions of the individuals. Therefore, it is clear that improvements need to
be brought about in the traditional rural development approaches (Chapter 4. Effective
Approaches for Rural Development, n.d.).

Development of rural areas is dependent upon assistance from the international

countries. However, there have been restraints upon the external inputs, due to the deprived
financial conditions of the donors. As a result, the augmentation of rural development
requires effective external inputs to generate significant outcomes and is capable of
endangering further improvements. Development issues must therefore be comprehensively
understood, as appropriate understanding would facilitate the achievement of desired
objectives. In rural communities, it is vital to make maximum use of human and material
resources (Chapter 4. Effective Approaches for Rural Development, n.d.). The approaches to
effective rural development have been stated as follows: (Chapter 4. Effective Approaches
for Rural Development, n.d.).

Endogenous Development

Endogenous development is the development that puts emphasis upon the

comprehensive local development for human rights advocacy, human development and
qualitative progress of the living standards, based on environmental conservation and
sustainable social development. To implement a developmental approach that promotes inter-
industrial relationships, it is necessary to take into consideration, comprehensive utilization of
human resources, techniques, industries, methods, financial resources, materials, equipment,
cultures and networks that have the main objective of leading to progress. In addition,
necessary regulations and instructions are also required to promote co-operation between
cities and local economy. Furthermore, the participation of the community is also regarded as
indispensable in the formulation of measures and policies. The establishment of local
autonomy is required through community participation, decentralization and self-governance.

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Another aspect to promote endogenous development is carried out through the project
implementation bodies.

Participatory Development

The development of human and physical resources in rural communities requires

recognition of the fact that local individuals themselves are the main implementers of
development projects. The rural individuals are in a backward state, therefore, when they
would make provision of ideas and perspectives, then they would be able to generate
awareness and acquire information in terms of various aspects and would improve their
overall quality of lives. When the rural individuals are participating actively, then their
participation would be productive. On the other hand, when they would participate passively,
then they would be more dependent upon the external inputs. Projects that rural individuals
plan and implement on their own is given priority as local materials and human resources are
required to get organized in more operative manner. Local independence and sustainable
development of the project outcomes are improved by the effective use of local resources.

Strategies of Rural Development

The strategies for rural development are based upon rural development approaches.
Improvements have been brought about in these strategies, after the country achieved it
independence. These have been stated as follows: (Chapter III. Rural Development
Approaches and Strategies in India, n.d.).

The Multi-purpose Strategy

The rural development approach within the country began with the multi-purpose
approach. The Community Development Program (CPD) began in 1952. It had the main
objective of promoting development of material and human resources through the co-
operative efforts of the individuals and assistance available from the state. It was regarded as
an educational and an organizational process. Since, it also aimed at bringing about changes
in the practices and procedures, which proved to be barriers within the course of
implementation of desired objectives. The major objective was social and economic
improvement. The rationale of the approach was, all aspects were linked with each other. The
activities of CPD included, agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation, water resources, co-
operation, village and small scale industries, health and sanitation, communication, housing

235
and so forth. Therefore, it can be stated that development of welfare and livelihoods
opportunities was one of the primary objectives of multi-purpose strategy.

Growth Oriented Strategy

The growth oriented strategy was based on rural individuals. Though rural individuals
are residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness, but they also possess sharp mind-
sets and can make wise decisions. In order to participate in effective decision making
processes, they should be provided with rights and opportunities. The main objective of rural
individuals is to enhance their living conditions and to achieve this purpose, they are looking
for employment and income generating opportunities. Therefore, it can be stated that the
implementation of opportunities that would promote growth of the individuals in an
efficacious manner are referred to as growth oriented strategies. Agricultural sector is the
major area of employment and livelihood opportunities for the rural individuals, therefore,
the implementation of programs, such as, Intensive Agriculture District Program (IADP),
Intensive Cattle Development Program (ICDP) and High Yielding Varieties Program
(HYVP) was launched. This gave rise to Green Revolution. But this strategy provided
assistance to wealthier farmers. On the other hand, the deprived farmers remained in a
backward state.

Target Group Strategy

In the target group strategy, a particular group is undertaken and researched upon.
Normally, as in this case, strategies for rural development are being researched upon.
Therefore, conditions may be analysed of small and marginal farmers, as well as wealthier
farmers. The conditions of small and marginal farmers are not in an improved state. They are
residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness and therefore are unaware of modern
and innovative strategies and methods that are considered essential to augment production.
They are instead making use of traditional farming practices and methods in the production
processes. On the other hand, wealthy farmers are making use of technical and scientific
methods to enhance production. It has been studied upon that farmers are getting enrolled in
training centres and educational institutions to develop their knowledge and generate
awareness in terms of scientific, modern and innovative methods and practices. The
Antyodaya Schemes is the target approach. This approach produced the client-oriented design
and the ultimate goal is to transfer the responsibilities of planning and development to the
clientele themselves.

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 Area Development Strategy

Under the area development strategy, emphasis has been put upon the development of
backward regions. This strategy presumes that the growth centres have a geographical spread
effect that the regions, which are deficient in terms of resources or infrastructure etc. needs to
be adequately developed. The major programs that have been formulated under this strategy
are, Drought Prone Area Program (DPAP), Tribal Area Development Program (TADP),
Command Area Development Program (CADP), Hill Area Development Program and so
forth. The tribal population is scattered throughout the country. They are mostly residing in
hilly and mountainous regions. They are dependent upon the natural environmental
conditions for their survival. Therefore, it is vital to implement measures and formulate
strategies that are focused upon the development of tribal areas. In order to generate the
desired outcomes, it is necessary to allocate the resources in an appropriate manner, so
development of backward regions can promote well-being of the individuals.

Spatial Planning Strategy

The spatial planning strategy is the strategy that demands for implementation of
special programs in their respective locations, induction of the production plans, employment
programs and supply of basic needs of rural population. In order to achieve these objectives,
the programs and the strategies need to be rural oriented. In the fifth five year plan, multi-
level planning is the planning that was focused upon to a large extent. In addition to multi-
level planning, it was vital for the individuals to generate awareness in terms of techno-
economic, socio-political and administrative functions. As it is apparent, when improvements
need to be made or when transformations need to be brought about, then emphasis need to be
put upon the implementation of modern and innovative methods. In some of the areas, when
there is lack of materials and resources, then it would lead to hindrances within the course of
achievement of desired objectives. On the other hand, shortage of techniques need to be
analysed and plans should be efficiently put into operation to promote welfare and goodwill
of rural population.

Integrated or Holistic Strategy

Integrated or holistic strategy has been formulated, taking into consideration the
perspective that development should be an integrated one. There is an integration in the
development of areas, regions, infrastructure, education, employment opportunities, human
resources, training, skills development programs and the overall quality of lives of rural

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individuals. There are connections established between all the programs, provided they are
infrastructural development programs, human resources development programs, sectorial
development programs, and social welfare programs. The different programs influence the
functioning of others through connections. The integrated strategy combines all the features
of the previous strategies and is structured to achieve the goals and objectives of growth,
welfare, equity and community participation. This paradigm takes an integrated but
comprehensive perspective of major problems that occur within rural communities, including,
poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy. The goals of this strategy are expected to get
accomplished by building the capacity of the community to participate in the development
processes in partnership with the Government. The anti-poverty programs that have been
initiated, i.e. IRD program, National Rural Employment Program, and Training of Rural
Youth for Self-Employment were intended to follow this standard.

Participatory Strategy

During the past two decades, various new approaches like the top-down planning,
planning from below, bottom up planning, micro-level planning and multi-level planning,
have been put into operation within the framework of involving the individuals in the phase
of development. As the name implies, participatory strategy is concerned with the
involvement of individuals in the formulation of strategies and approaches. In the tenth five
year plan, the government has devised participatory strategy to promote the development of
rural communities. Provision has been made to augment social and economic opportunities
for the individuals and groups, by encouraging their participation in the decision making
processes. In the decision making processes, the individuals are required to conduct an
analysis of the alternatives and put into operation the one, which is most meaningful and
beneficial. When the individuals are participating in the decision making processes, then they
are required to implement rational and logical thinking. The rural individuals are well-aware
in terms of opportunities, which would lead to improvements in their living conditions.

Other Strategies Promoting Rural Development

The other important strategies that have the main purpose of promoting rural
development have been stated as follows: (Chapter 4. Effective Approaches for Rural
Development, n.d.).

Anti-poverty Measures

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 Poverty is regarded as one of the major problems experienced by rural individuals.
The conditions of poverty are characterised by scarcity of resources, due to which,
individuals experience problems even in fulfilling their basic needs of food, clothing and
shelter. The alleviation of conditions of poverty is given utmost consideration for the purpose
of promoting effective living. The increase in rural poverty has been observed with the
increase in national poverty (Rural Development Strategy, n.d.). In the development and
progression of rural development activities, primarily for the purpose of alleviation of
poverty, it is essential for the individuals to adequately conduct an analysis of the poverty
levels. Furthermore, it also needs to be taken into consideration, how the levels of poverty are
causing unfavourable effects upon the lives of individuals. The government, agencies and
other organizations are paying attention to the problem of poverty and are implementing
programs and measures to alleviate it. The commitment of these organizations and agencies,
accumulation of the know-how applicable to other areas and training of human resources are
some of the crucial measures that need to be taken into consideration. The training of human
resources is regarded as an indispensable approach to achieve the desired objectives.

Food Production

There are cases of project implementation in terms of development of food areas. For
alleviating the problem of malnutrition and for improving food supply, it is necessary to put
into operation, a comprehensive approach. The formation of the system, which transmits the
lessons to other rural communities and development of agricultural practices need to be
implemented. To augment food production, it is apparent that measures should be put into
practice to improve agricultural productivity. One of the vital measures to augment
agricultural productivity is by making use of modern and innovative methods, scientific
approaches and technologies. The farmers and agricultural labourers get enrolled in training
centres and also pursue educational programs, which may generate awareness among them in
terms of these areas. In addition, there should also be formation of a system to transmit
lessons to other areas that have been learned from model projects. There should be co-
operation between the production plans and agricultural development plans to achieve the
desired goals. The important role of agriculture has been acknowledged in leading to growth
and causing a reduction in rural poverty and malnutrition has been highlighted in the World
Development Report of 2008 (Sector Approaches in Agriculture and Rural Development,
2008).

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 Conservation of the Natural Environment

The rural individuals are dependent upon the natural environmental conditions for
meeting their daily needs and requirements to a major extent. They normally experience
shortage of water within their homes. Water is considered as the basic necessity and hence,
they obtain it from the wells and water bodies located nearby. Rural individuals, in some
cases are also dependent upon natural environmental conditions for treating their wounds and
illnesses. They obtain herbs and medicinal plants from the forests. Another important benefit
of the forests is, individuals obtain fruits and vegetables for satisfying their nutritional
requirements. In addition, the promotion of effective forest-resource use and the combination
of alternative techniques, such as the use of biogas and cow manure are also required. As in
rural households, individuals usually make use of mud stoves and require wood, which they
obtain from forests. Hence, after acquiring information in terms of these aspects, it is vital for
the rural individuals to formulate measures in terms of preservation of the natural
environment. The efforts to promote local or indigenous agricultural systems, increasing
awareness regarding biodiversity conservation, food security and contribution to natural
landscape and cultural heritage are significant factors in promoting livelihoods security and
sustainable development of rural individuals (Participatory and Negotiated Territorial
Development, 2005).

Reconstruction Support

The term ‘reconstruction’ is primarily related to the construction of houses, shelters,

schools, training centres, hospitals, medical centres, market places and other public places.
These areas are vital in not only leading to effective growth and development of the
individuals, but also community as a whole. When there would be establishment of schools,
educational institutions and training centres, then individuals would recognize the
significance of education and augment their academic skills. The availability of health care
and medical centres, would support the individuals in taking care of their health and well-
being. Market places will enable individuals to make purchases of various items. Public
places are referred to the places, which are visited by public. These include, parks,
playground, theatres, religious places and so forth. Apart from the construction of these
places, it needs to be ensured that in rural communities, infrastructural facilities and civic
amenities need to be developed in an appropriate manner. Policies need to be formulated, so
the households should not experience scarcity of water and electricity. Water, electricity and

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lighting facilities within households are regarded to be of utmost significance, which would
enable the individuals to implement their tasks and sustain their living conditions in an
efficient manner.

Administrative Capabilities

The administrative capabilities within rural communities need to take into

consideration the aspect that administrative functions and law and order practices need to get
carried out in an appropriate manner. Most of the developing countries are in the process of
decentralization. It is crucial for the local administrative officers to possess skills and
aptitude, particularly in terms of policy making in multi-sectorial local development and on
industrial development, including agriculture and farming practices. Capacity building of the
local administrative officers is regarded to be a prominent area and is implemented through
mutual co-operation with the governments. The administrative functions cannot be carried
out in isolation. When administration and managerial policies need to be formulated, then the
governments, organizations and agencies are required to work in collaboration and
integration. Furthermore, the dispatches of the policy advisors to the central governments are
also considered important to a major extent. The reason being, sending individuals to the
number of local governments is required to be put into operation by donor agencies. The
administrative capabilities also focus upon maintenance of law and order. Women and girls
should be provided with equal rights and opportunities. There should not be any
discriminatory treatment between individuals on the basis of factors, such as, gender, caste,
creed, race, religion, ethnicity, age and socio-economic background.

Conclusion

The primary objective of acquiring understanding in terms of rural development

approaches and strategies is to recognize the effective contributions that they make towards
leading to effective growth and progression of rural communities. Generating information in
terms of rural development objectives is the first and foremost aspect. These are,
improvement of economic capabilities, improvement of human capabilities, improvement of
protective capabilities and improvement of political capabilities. The components of rural
development policy are, environmental conditions, ecological settings, technology,
infrastructure, self-reliance, law and order, education, training programs, distributive justice
and medical and health care. When the rural development policies are initiated, then they
have the major objective of ensuring that the components are taken into account in an

241
appropriate manner. The main purpose of approaches is to promote development of various
areas. These include, education, training programs, employment opportunities, skills
development programs, technology, modern and innovative methods, management and
administration and housing.

The five year plans included the implementation of programs and schemes that
focused upon development of rural communities. The strategies for rural development are,
multi-purpose strategy, growth oriented strategy, target group strategy, area development
strategy, spatial planning strategy, integrated or holistic strategy and participatory strategy.
The other strategies promoting rural development are, anti-poverty measures, food
production, conservation of the natural environment, reconstruction support and
administrative capabilities. In rural communities, individuals have recognized the
significance of education. They have also generated information that making use of modern
and scientific methods and technology in the production processes will lead to increase in
productivity and profitability. But the conditions of poverty, malnutrition and scarcity of
resources are proving to be major impediments within the course of achievement of the
desired objectives. Hence, the main purpose of other strategies is to form the overall rural
environmental conditions in such a manner that would lead to effective growth and
development of individuals and communities.

242
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