CHAPTER - I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
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CHAPTER ONE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

1.1 WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT?

The term ‘empowerment’ is frequently heard today all over the world. It
is clearly connected to the word ‘Power’. The term ‘power’ in turn connotes
control. In the context of human society, it means control over resources. The
resources could be material such as natural resources, financial resources and
human resources such as skills, labour, or intellectual resources including
information, ideas and knowledge etc. Power is relational dynamic between
individual or between groups of people and is often unequally distributed. The
inequality results in control or domination. Many a time the domination is
accompanied by exploitation.

According to the New Oxford Dictionary, the term ‘Empowerment’ is

derived from the word ‘empower’ which means give (someone) the authority or
power to do something; or make (someone) stronger and more confident,
especially in controlling in their life and claiming their rights.1 According to the
World English Dictionary, ENCARTA, the term ‘Empower’ means, inspire
(someone) with confidence; to give (someone) a sense of confidence or
selfesteem.2

The word ‘empower’ arisen in the mid-17th century with legalistic

meaning “to invest with authority, authorize”, is not new. Shortly thereafter, it
began to be used with an infinitive in a more general way, having the meaning
“to enable or permit.” Both of these uses survive today but have been
overpowered by the word’s use in politics and pop psychology. Its modern use
originated in the civil rights movements, which sought political empowerment for
its followers. The word was then taken up by women’s movement. In the
feminist and development literature related to women and poverty issues this
term began to be used in the 1980s. Little by little the idea of empowering
women-mostly poor women in the third world- has been gaining importance in
the agenda of NGOs, national governments and donor agencies like world Bank.
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An idea of empowerment may be invoked virtually in any context in

speaking about human rights, about basic needs, about economic security, about
capacity building or about existence. Empowerment is a process of acquiring
rights, developing one self independently (self-decision-making process). It is in
fact that way of conscience, which paves the way for playing greater active role
in all spheres of life and simultaneously to empower the persons to control and
change the major works. In other words, it is a process which is directly related
to power and to change of power, i.e. the power to control the resources
and concepts.

1.1.1 Definitions of Empowerment -

A) According to the Collins Cobuild English Dictionary,

“The empowerment of a person or group of people is the process of

giving them power and status in a particular situation.”3

B) According to the Merriam Webster New World College Dictionary,

‘To empower’ means-

a. To give power or authority to;
b. To give ability,
c. To enable.4

C) Oxfam (It is an international organization working on poverty

and suffering)

“Empowerment involves challenging the forms of oppression which

compel millions of people to pay a part in their society on terms which are
inequitable, or in ways which deny their human rights.”5

D) Ackerley:

“Empowerment can be considered as a change in the context of a woman

or man’s life that enables her/ him increased capacity to lead a fulfilling human
life, characterised by external qualities such as health, mobility, education and
awareness, status in the family, participation in decision making and level of
material security, as well as internal qualities such as self-awareness and self-
confidence.”6

/
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E) Williams et al.
The idea of ‘empower’ is at the root of the term empowerment. Power
can be understood as operating in number of different ways -
• Power over : This power involves an either/ or relationship of domination/
subordination. Ultimately, it is based on socially sanctioned threats of
violence and intimidation; it requires constant vigilance of maintain, and it
invites active and passive resistance,

• Power to : This power relates to having decision making authority, power to

solve problems and can be creative and enabling,

• Power with : This power involves people organising with common purpose
or common understanding to achieve collective goals,

• Power within : This power refers to self confidence, self awareness and
assertiveness. It relates to how can individuals recognise through analysing
their experience how power operates in their lives and gain the confidence to
act to influence and change this.7

The various understandings to power embedded in the concept of

empowering are shown in the table.

Table -1.1
Definitions of power and empowerment in practice

Understanding of Implications in Practice

Power
Power over Conflict and direct confrontation between powerful and
powerless interest groups or individuals.
Power to Capacity building, supporting individual, decision­
making, leadership etc.
Power with Social mobilisation, building awareness, coalition
Power within Increasing self esteem, awareness raising i.e. confidence
building
Source : ZoeOxaal with Sally Baden (1997)

For some theorists, ‘empowerment’ involves increase in one group’s

power and loss of another group’s power. In a way, the idea of a redistribution of
power is controversial. In this perspective, women empowerment would lead by
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implication to less power for men. But this is not true. To empower women is
not to overpower men. Men would also benefit from the results of women
empowerment with the chance to live in a more equitable society and explore
new roles. The kinds of power described above as power to, power with and
power within can be developed as alternatives to power over.

Above definitions show that empowerment is a multi-layered, multi­

faceted and multi-dimensional concept and has several interrelated aspects.
Empowerment is not only about opening up access to decision making but it also
includes process that lead people to perceive themselves as able and entitled to
occupy that decision making space.

Empowerment is a process and not therefore something that can be given

to the people. The process of empowerment is both individual and collective,
since it is through involvement in groups in which people most often begin to
develop their awareness and the ability to organise to take action and bring
about change.

Empowerment is the desire of people who feel powerless to have more

control over their lives. People feel powerless in many ways. They feel that their
lives are ruled by forces over which they have no control, which are too powerful
for them. People are confronted by powerful figures in their lives who control
them, they also face forces which are far away and which they cannot identify.
Powerlessness causes fear that their lives might be crushed or destroyed or
reduced any time. It kills human spirit.

It has been seen that the poor always experience the feeling of
powerlessness severely, as a result of their constant struggle for existence. This
feeling of powerlessness s not limited to one sphere only viz. economic, social or
political etc. Powerlessness is one sphere begets powerlessness in other spheres.
The process of empowerment enables the poor to eradicate their roots of
powerless aess and to bring favourable changes in their circumstances. It helps
them to get control over their lives. It causes positive changes in the distribution
of power. In the words of Stromquist Nelly, “Empowerment enables the person
to gain insight and have an awareness of what is unfavourable about her current
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situation, perceive a better situation, the possibilities of attaining it and realizing

what is within her reach and what she could do to get to a better situation.”8

1.1.2 What Is Women Empowerment?

Half of the humanity - women have been suffering from disability,

discrimination, injustice and inequality all over the world for almost many
centuries. They receive small share of development opportunities, they are often
deprived of educational opportunities; better jobs; political system or of adequate
health care facilities. For centuries women have been regulated to a secondary
status in the family and the society.

All over the world women are always dominated by men on the basis of
sex, gender and patriarchal views. ‘Sex’ is used to indicate the biological
differences between female and male i.e. female can bear and nurse children and
male cannot. This difference is created by nature but ‘Gender’ represents the
society constructed differences - in terms of accepted attributes, roles and
relationships between women and men and girls and boys in given society. The
concept assumes that the gender differences apparent in every society have been
created and reproduced through socio-cultural, religious,. Political and economic
factors, which are lenses through which biological differences have been viewed
and interpreted. Thus while women’s child bearing abilities are part of their sex,
the confinement of women to the home in many cultures is due to their gender.
The notion of‘biological difference’ is often used to justify discrimination beliefs
about women and men’s relative intelligence, emotional behaviour or suitability
to certain jobs.

Women are commonly portrayed as among the most oppressed people in

the third world. Indeed, the experience of the majority of women of the
subcontinent are grounded in both poverty and patriarchy. Patriarchy means the
rule of father. Patriarchy is used to refer to male domination, to power
relationship by which men dominate women, and especially to the system
through which women are kept subordinate. Patriarchy constrains women in all
facets of life i.e. women’s reproductive abilities, women’s ownership and control
on property and other economic resources including the access to education and
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information etc. Overall structure of patriarchy allows men in general more

mobility, authority and control than women in general.

In this socially constructed, rigid and narrowly defined gender roles, it is

‘woman’ who pays the price in much more obvious way. Above all issues are
women’s issues, they affect women and along with them their families,
communities, economies and societies are also affected. So still more recent is
the growing realisation and recognition all over the world that women
empowerment is absolutely essential for human, national and real global
development. Nobel Laureate Dr. Amartya Sen sees ‘development as freedom’
which in turn empowers. He emphasizes, “Indeed, the empowerment of women
is one of the central issues in the process of development for many countries in
the world today.”9

1.1.3 Definitions of Women Empowerment

A) Srilata Batliwala:

A well known women activist has defined women’s empowerment as,

“the process by which women gain greater control over material and intellectual
resources, and challenge the ideology of patriarchy and gender based
discrimination against women in all institutions and structures of society.”10

B) The Human Development Report 1995, stressed that “Empowerment is

about participation : investing in women’s capabilities and empowering them to
exercise their choices is not only valuable in itself but is also the surest way to
contribute to economic growth and overall development.”11

C) According to Nelly Stromquist -

“Women’s empowerment must include four components : 1) Cognitive,

2) Psychological, 3) Economic and 4) political. The cognitive component refers
to women’s understanding and causes of such conditions at both micro and macro
levels of society. This component involves understanding of gender relations as
well as destroying old beliefs that structure powerful gender ideologies. The
psychological component includes the development of feelings that women can
act on at personal and social levels to improve their condition. The economic
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component requires that let women be able to engage in a productive activity that
will allow them some degree of authority. The political component encompasses
the ability to organise and mobilise for social change. In the view of Stromquist,
an empowerment process must involve not only individual awareness but also
collective awareness and collective action. The author says that empowerment is
a process to change the distribution of power, both in interpersonal relations and
in institutions throughout society.”12

The aim of empowerment of women is to empower women against

patriarchy and its control and not against men. The aim of greater empowerment
of women is the fuller and wholesome development of stereotyped sex roles
which will also free men from the boundaries of their traditional roles and
behavioural patterns. The idea is to provide both men and women with
opportunities for their equal development. The liberalisation of men may mean
they have to let go off their traditional rights and power over women and they
may want to have a relationship with women, which rests on mutual respect for
each others’ rights and responsibilities.

The empowerment of woman begins when she becomes aware of the

socio-psycho-cultural injustice that is being done to her and also how gender
inequality and inequity and gender and socio-cultural, economic and political
forces are affecting her adversely in every sphere of her life. It starts when she
becomes fully aware of her positive self image, self esteem, rights and duties, her
capabilities and potentialities.

Thus to empower women in the real sense is to enable them to flourish

their talents, faculties, abilities and capacities and to realise their hill
potentialities and real identity; it also means to have freedom of thought,
expression and action and to strengthen them to handle every sphere of their
lives. It is not only to make them aware of their capacities but also to provide
them with the opportunities, facilities and external and internal environment to
utilize their inherent qualities and to develop in them self confidence, self esteem
and socio-psycho-economic self reliance and self dignity and the ability to raise
voice and fight against injustice, exploitation and violence done to them.
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To empower women does not mean to give them power to dominate over
others or to use power to establish their superiority over others as it may be
commonly understood. So we can say that women moving to position of power
does not mean that they are going to abuse power; to ill-treat and exploit men.
Women empowerment in reality is to empower themselves and not to overpower
men. It is essential for bringing about prosperity, peace and progress in society.13

1.2 THE NEED OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

While nature has made men and women differently, society and culture
determine the roles that they perform and the value accorded to each. Their
status therefore depends on the attitudes of the society towards men and women
according to the various roles they play at home and in society. For centuries
women have been neglected to secondary status in the family and in the society.
Following some indicators show the secondary status of women in the society.

Indicators of Women’s Secondary Status :

A) Sex Ratio:

This is an important indicator which is used to measure women’s status.

Sex ratio means the number of females per thousand males. In all but few
countries of the world there are 1050 females per 1000 males. In industrialised
countries, the adult sex ratio is 1060 females. However, of the total population of
1.4 billion in the south Asian states, only 48% are girls and women.

Table -1.2
Sex Ratio in South Asia
Country Female/ Male Ratio (000)
Bangladesh 954
Bhutan 981
India 938
Maldives 945
Nepal 973
Pakistan 937
Sri Lanka 1021
South Asia 941
Source : Human Development in South Asia, 2000.
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In South Asia, excluding Sri Lanka, there is evidence of inequitable

feeding practices for boys and girls from infancy.

It is not a mere co-incidence that there are lesser women than men in
India. While the arrival of a male child is celebrated, the birth of a female child
is often seen as an occasion for sorrow and ill luck. In many parts of the country
families go to the extent of killing their daughters before they are bom, by finding
out the sex of the unborn baby through ultra-sound tests. The adverse sex ratio
can be attributed to a number of factors, the most striking being male preference.

B) Literacy and Education :

Education is a process of human enlightenment and empowerment for the

achievement of better and high quality life. Sound and very effective system of
education will result in the unfolding of human potentialities, enhancement of
their competencies, transformation of their interests, attitudes and values.

Actually, literacy rate of females is not satisfactory. The reluctance to

educate girls is rooted in society’s overall perception of the status of women.
While educating the boys is regarded as an investment for future economic
returns, educating girls is understood to give fewer returns. Without education,
the option for further development is restricted for the girls.

South Asia presents a shocking profile of educational deprivation of

women:

• More than half of South Asian adult illiterates are women

• More than two-thirds of South-Asian, out of primary school children, are girls

• Nearly two-fifths of girls enrolled in primary school, drop out before

grade 5.14

In India the female literacy rate according to the 2001 census was 54.03%
as against 75.64% males.

Illiterate girls grow into illiterate women. Without education women are
unable to exercise their rights and access health care services with confidence.
Their opportunities for employment get narrowed and restricted.
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C) Women’s Health:

Studies from developing countries, reveal that women are more prone to
disease than men. Most women generally suffer from chronic energy deficit, due
to insufficient caloric intake, which is 500 to 700 calories less than
recommended. The women are susceptible to many life threatening diseases
including vicious malnutrition - disease cycle, tuberculosis, malaria, HIV/ AIDS
physiological stress etc. They face the risk of malnutrition and disease, right from
infancy and early childhood to reproductive and post-menopausal phases, in
almost all stages of life. Health seeking behaviour varies according to whether
the patient is male or female. Among children too, the male child receives
preference. The girl child gets less nutrition, and health care. Every year, of the
12 million girls bom in India, 1.5 million die before their first birthday and
another 8,50,000 die before their fifth birthday. Only 9 million live to the age
of 15. This discrimination continues throughout adolescence and womanhood.
Women are unable to get access to medical health services for a number of
reasons including neglect of women’s health and sickness.15

According to 1996 World Bank’s report on health, an Indian woman is

100 times more likely to die during or after the childbirth than a woman in the
west. In the low socio-economic rural milieu of our country, boys are 50 times
more likely to be treated for malnutrition than their sisters, even though the
condition is 4 to 5 times more prevalent in girls.

D) Work and Employment:

Though women who previously only used to confine themselves to

household boundaries have started taking up employment outside the home, now
are facing a double burden because of their duel role as homemaker as well as
bread earner. But still the percentage of women working outside the home is
very negligible. In developing countries women have very fewer job
opportunities. The employment participation rates of women are an average 50%
those of men and most of them work in informal sector. In industrial sector,
women are mainly employed as labour. Very few become supervisors or
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managers. Even when women do find work, they tend to get paid much less.
Wage discrimination related to women can be observed in any field.

Women have been traditionally denied role of entrepreneur inspite of

being good managers, persistent, committed and hard workers by nature, on the
basis of gender factors like bias, their lower level of literacy and lack of access
to credit.

E) Violence:

One of the most obvious forms of oppression that women have to face
because of their unequal status is violence which has led to domination over and
discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of women’s full
advancement. The violence against women encompasses following issues :

A) Physical, sexual and psychological violence oceuring in the family,

including beating, sexual abuse of female children in the household,
dowry-related violence, marital rape etc.

B) Physical sexual and psychological violence oceuring in the community -

including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, trafficking in women and
prostitution.

C) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetuated or condoned by

the state wherever it occurs.16

Worldwide, 20% to 50% women experience some degree of domestic

violence during married life. A quarter of all women are raped during their
lifetime. Depending on the country, 25 to 75% women are regularly beaten at
home. Over 20 million women have undergone female genital mutilation. In
India rape takes place every 54 minute and dowry death every 1000 minute.
There was increase of 169% in dowry deaths from 1987 to 1991.17

F) Women’s participation in Decision Making and Political Activities :

Even when women become economically independent, they are not

assumed responsible for major decisions in the home. Women are generally
restricted to take decisions regarding the traditional spheres, or are allowed to
assume some responsibilities in the latter years of their lives. Relatively few
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women have a say in, how and when the family finances are to be invested, what
crops to grow and what decisions should be taken regarding assets and
property etc.

Majority of South Asian women are illiterate, in poor health, invisible in

the system of national accounts and suffer legal, political, economic and social
discrimination in all walks of life which result into lowest rates of their
participation in governance and decision making posts.

In South Asia - Women occupy only 7% of parliamentary seats, only 9%

of cabinet members are women, only 6% of position in judiciary are held by
women and only 20% members of local government are women. This minimum
share of women shows, Asian women’s poor representation at the decision
making posts.18

It indicates that in most of countries there is a gender discrimination

which is responsible for poor representation of women in political sphere and in
the process of decision making.

13 PROGRESS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AT THE GLOBAL

LEVEL
As a outcome of industrialization, in Europe, women started working in
the factories and also demanded equal treatment as men workers. In a way, it
was the commencement of their journey towards liberalization. But the
declaration of United Nations’ charter in 1945 stressing the principal of equality
for men and women is considered as the first legal step in the journey of women’s
empowerment at global level. In 1967 the Economic and Social Council of
United Nations declared CEDAW and adopted it in 1979. It is, in essence, the
International Bill for women. It provided a working agenda for moving towards
gender equality.

During the time of United Nations’ First World Conference on Women in

1975, at Mexico a world plan of action with equality, development and peace as
its theme was accepted. March 8th, 1975 was observed as International Women’s
Day for the first time by United Nations and the decade 1976-1985 was declared
as ‘the decade for women’s development.’ In 1980, the Second World
 13

Conference on Women was held at Copenhagen to review mid decade progress

of women empowerment. In 1986, the third world conference held at Nairobi
remained significant with its forward looking strategies for the advancement of
women by the year 2000.

International Conference on Population and Development - 1994 for the

first time considered women empowerment as an integral part of development.
The United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women held in 1995 at
Beijing was remarkable for Beijing platform for action. The message of this
conference was that the women’s issues are global and universal. All these are
the landmarks accelerating the pace of women empowerment at the global level.19

Following are the major efforts taken at the International level for making
women economically free and independent.

Before 1975 there was a ‘welfarism’ perspective emphasising delivery of

food, family planning, health care etc. which manifested itself in the forms of
subsidies and ffeeships for girls and women in a few programmes. But with the
1975’s declaration of UNs, ‘Decade for women’ the focus shifted from welfare to
‘equity’ approach. This approach recognised women’s active role in the
development process as reproductive, productive and community workers and
emphasised the fulfillment of their strategic needs through direct state
intervention. Due to its political nature, this approach was not very acceptable to
governments, and it was soon replaced by an ‘anti-poverty’ approach which
focussed on practical needs surrounding women’s productive role.

While recognising the validity of the claim that a country’s development

prospects largely depend on women’s full participation in social, political and
economic life the focus shifted from anti-poverty to ‘efficiency’ approach.

The ‘empowerment’ approach followed by the ‘efficiency’ approach

considers women’s improved condition and position to be ends in themselves,
rather than only a means to broader development goals. This approach focusses
on meeting women’s strategic needs but unlike the equity approach it focusses on
a bottom-up process.20
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1.4 PROGRESS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA

Women Movements in Pre-Independence Era:

During the 19* and 20th centuries, the social reformation movements in
India played a very significant role in changing the status of women through
legislative reforms alongwith a change in social attitudes. Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahatma Phule, Maharshi Karve had fought very
hard for changing some of the traditional values and practices that had been
suppressing women. They had addressed a wide range of issues such as women’s
education, child marriage, widow remarriage and abolition of sati tradition. As a
result of this struggle, some progressive legislations that gave women better
rights were passed.

The freedom movement played a very significant role in creating space

for women and bringing them to the forefront. Mahatma Gandhi encouraged
women to participate in the freedom movement, women came out of their homes
and joined the freedom struggle. During this period several organisations were
established for the advancement of women’s education and empowerment. Then
a strong women’s movement emerged which fought for greater space for women
in the society.

Constitutional Provisions:

The Constitution of India is one of the most advanced constitutions in the

world which have attempted to remove every kind of discrimination against
women in the legal and public domain of the republic. Article 15 prohibits
discrimination against any citizen on the ground of sex whereas article 14 confers
equal rights and opportunities on men ami women in the political economy and
social spheres. The Article 51A(e) imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen
to renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women. Article 39 ensures
equal pay for equal work for both men and women.

The Post-Independence Era:

In India the efforts have also been made through five year plans to attain
women advancement in all walks of life. But its initial journey was not
 15

specifically directed towards women empowerment. The approach in the first

and the second five year plan was developmental, concentrating on women’s
need of education, health and welfare etc. But the government approach till the
5th Five Year Plan was condemned in the report of the Committee on the status of
women in India for having failure in addressing the major problems of poverty,
illiteracy, non enrollment and drop-out rates of women.

At the time of the 6th Five Year Plan (1980-85) women organizations
began to make impact on the planning process. A memorandum submitted by
seven women members of Parliament persuaded the Planning Commission to
incorporate for the first time in Indian planning history a chapter on women and
development. In the 7th Five Year Plan the strategy of organising women around
socio-economic activities was reiterated. The landmarks in the history of women
empowerment in India are the establishment of Department of Women and Child
Development (1986) and National Policy on Education (1986). This policy for
the first time indicated government system to shoulder a major responsibility for
genuine empowerment of women by changing the social construction of gender.
The 8* Plan (1992-99) indicates the gradual shift from development to
empowerment of women. It has been said in this plan that women must be
enabled to function as equal partners and participants in the development process.
The 8th Five Year Plan focussed on violence against women and “Situational
Analysis” highlighting the problems of higher mortality, lower education and
increasing unemployment of women. The most drastic development in this plan
is the passing of the 73rd and 74th (Constitutional) amendment in 1993. It has
given opportunity for women to come into decision making position in
governance by being elected to one third of the membership reserved for women
in Panchayat Raj and Municipalities.21

The 9* Five Year Plan declared the empowerment of women as one of the
objectives of the plan. It caUed for reliance on women’s self-help groups as
a strategy.

Indian government declared the year 2001 as ‘The Year of Women

Empowerment’ which is considered as milestone in the journey of women
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empowerment in India. The National Policy for Empowerment of Women was

declared in this year to prescribe strategies and action which pointed to bridge the
gap between the equal de-jure status and unequal de-facto position of the women
in the country. It also suggested gender mainstreaming perspective to be used at
all levels for the advancement of women.

The contribution of NGOs and various women organisations in women

empowerment movement also cannot be ignored. They have also contributed a
lot to enhance the progress of women empowerment.

1.5 Dr. AMARTYA SEN’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE CONCEPTS OF

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

A) Missing Women:

During his studies on the problems of gender inequality in the process of

development Prof. Amartya Sen coined the concept of ‘Missing Women’ in the
late 1980s to give some idea of the enormity of the phenomenon of women’s
adversity in mortality by focussing on the women who are simply not there due to
unusually high female mortality compared with male mortality rates. In
‘Development as Freedom’ he has discussed gender inequality and missing
women to describe related numbers of women in the world, who are literally not
alive due to the family neglect and discrimination.

According to Sen, the basic idea is to give some rough and ready way to
understand the quantitative difference between 1) The actual number of women
in Asia and North Africa and 2) The number expected to be seen. The survey
done by Dr. Amartya Sen in 1986 disclosed the number of missing women in
India - 37 million and China - 44 million and more than 100 million women were
missing all over the world. For this estimation he took the ratio of women to men
in Subsaharan Africa as the standard. There is relatively little bias against
women in terms of health care, social status and mortality rates. Its female-male
ratio was 1.022 compared to India’s 0.95.

In his advanced research on this work, Amartya Sen found out that the
number of missing women has increased. The reason is that more important and
 17

radical changes have happened in the medical science. As a result of this he

observed two opposite movements - female disadvantage in mortality has been
reduced, but a new female disadvantage that natality through sex specific
abortion aimed against female fetus has been increased. It is happening due to
the availability of modem techniques to determine the sex of fetus which makes
sex selective abortion possible and easy.

The missing women should not be taken to mean that there is no anti
female, bias in the area where women are in the majority (In the United States
and most of Europe). In the words of Amartya Sen, “Excess mortality and
artificially lower survival rates of women in many parts of the world is a crude
and sharply visible aspect of gender inequality, which often manifest itself in
more subtle and less gruesome forms.22

Prof. Amartya Sen suggested remedy to reduce the number of missing

women. This remedy lies in the well being of women ami their power to make
their own decisions and bring about changes in fertility pattern.

B) Amartya Sen On Gender Inequality :

Amartya Sen has said that gender inequality is not a homogeneous

phenomenon, but a collection of disparate and interlinked problems. He has
illustrated different feces of gender inequality.
1) Mortality inequality,
2) Natality inequality,
3) Basic facility inequality,
4) Special opportunity inequality,
5) Professional inequality,
6) Ownership inequality and
7) Household inequality.

Dr. Sen gives the empowerment of women a pivotal role in the decisions
of families and in the genesis of communal norms. According to him, women’s
education has a close connection in reducing fertility rate. It is the key affecting a
woman’s decisional power within the family, affecting on her social standing, her
ability to be independent, her power to articulate, her knowledge of the outside
world and her skill in influencing group decisions. The opportunity of women to
 18

earn independently, the property rights of women, the gender status and standing
of women in social culture and the involvement of women in gainful activities
outside the home, these are important factors in his opinion which affect women
empowerment. For him, individual freedom is the means of development; may it
be development in general sense or development of women.23

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

The earlier discourse on the inequal status of women in society explains

the necessity of women empowerment. Now it becomes essential to see for what
purpose/s, we need women empowerment.

Objectives of women empowerment:

1. To enhance self-esteem and self confidence of women.

2. To increase awareness in women to use their latent talent optimally for

their overall development.
3. To develop the skill of decision making capabilities in women.

4. To create sound and proper environment for women’s pride; prestige, and
healthy, physical and mental development.

5. To make efforts in organizing women to fight against problems and

difficulties related to them.

6. To create awareness among women for becoming truly ambitious and to

dream for betterment.

7. To create an environment through positive economic and social policies

for full development of women for enabling them to realise their full
potential.

8. To ensure equal access to participation and decision making of women in

social, political and economic life of the nation.
9. To eliminate discrimination and all forms of violence against women and
the girl child.
10. To empower women for the sake of total human development.
 19

1.7 METHODS FOR WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT

There are many challenges that confront on the path towards women
empowerment. Some methods have been discussed here which will be helpful to
achieve women empowerment. Common to all these methods is the global policy
of ‘Gender Mainstreaming’ which will help to bring dream of ‘Women
advancement’ into reality.

Gender Mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is a globally accepted strategy for promoting

gender equality and gender equity. Equality between men and women (gender
equality) refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women
and men and girls and boys. Equality does not mean that women and men have
to become the same but it means that women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities
and opportunities will not depend on whether they are bom male or female,
whereas gender equity is a fairness of treatment for women and men in the
context of their respective needs.

Mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy, an approach, a means

to achieve the goal of gender equality and gender equity. Mainstreaming
involves incorporating gender perspective into the planning process of all
ministries and departments of governments.

In promoting, facilitating and supporting the implementation of gender

mainstreaming the United Nations the office of the Special Advisor has taken
greater efforts.24

1.7.1 Women Empowerment Through Economic Activities :

Economic status is one of the criteria of empowerment. Unless women

are economically independent, they cannot progress. Following strategies are
useful for making women economically empowered.

I. Poverty Eradication:

Since women form majority of the population below the poverty line,
poverty eradication programmes need specifically address the needs and
 20

problems of such women. Steps should be taken for mobilization of poor women
and convergence of services by offering them a range of economic and social
options to enhance their capabilities.

D. Micro Credit:

In order to enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and

production, the establishment of new, and strengthening of existing micro credit
mechanisms and micro finance institutions must be undertaken. Other supportive
measures could be taken to ensure adequate flow of credit through extent
financial institutions and banks, so that women below poverty line can have easy
access to credit.

III. Women and Economy :

Women’s perspectives should be included in designing and implementing

macro-economic and social policies. Their contribution to socio-economic
development as producers and workers should be recognized. Equal pay for
equal work and fair working conditions should be ensured. Employment
opportunities for women should be expanded to promote technologies that
promote women’s employment. Women should be involved in planning and
implementation of employment programmes.

IV. Need to Fight Against Negative Impacts of Globalization :

Globalization has created new challenges in achieving the goal of

women’s equality. Wider economic disparities, the feminization of poverty and
increased gender inequality are some of the evils of globalisation emerged from
deteriorating working conditions. Strategies should be designed to enhance the
capacity of women to meet the negative, social and economic impacts of
globalization.

V. Women and Agriculture:

In a view of, critical role of women in the agriculture and allied sectors, as
producers, concentrated efforts should be made to ensure that benefits of various
programmes would reach them in proportion to their numbers. Special training
programmes should be arranged for women in soil consideration, social forestry,
 21

dairy development, horticulture, animal husbandry, poultry and fisheries to

benefit women workers in agricultural sector.

VI. Women and Industry :

The important role played by women in electronics, information

technology, food processing and agro industry, and in textile industry has been
crucial to the development of these sectors. Women in these industries should be
given comprehensive support in terms of labour legislation and social security.

1.7.2 Women Empowerment Through Social Field :

Social sector include health care, education, child care, water and
sanitation, housing and other social needs. Proper attention to these factors from
women’s perspective, add to the well-being of women.

I. By Changing Social Attitudes:

While talking about women empowerment, we have to concentrate on

attitudes regarding women in society and traditional portrayal of them. Women
should not be considered as a commodity saleable in the market. Besides the
roles attributed to them because of their gender, they should be seen as human
beings having independent existence. Then only, we can dream of gender
equality and gender justice, when gender equality and gender justice be achieved
in reality, then only women can be really empowered.

II. Health:

A holistic approach to women’s health including both nutrition and health

services should be adopted and special attention must be given to the needs of
women and girls at all stages of the life cycle. The reduction of infant mortality
and maternal mortality which are sensitive indicators of human development,
should be made priority concern. Measures must be adopted by taking into
account the reproductive rights of women, their vulnerability to sexual and health
problems together with endemic, infectious and communicable diseases like
malaria, TB, waterborne diseases and hypertension diseases etc.
 22

III. Drinking Water and Sanitation :

Special attention should be given to the needs of women, in the provision

of safe drinking water as it consumes maximum time and energy of rural women,
sewage disposal, toilet facilities and sanitation within accessible reach of
households, especially in rural areas and urban slums.

IV. Housing and Shelter:

Special attention should be given for providing adequate and safe housing
and accommodation for women including single women, heads of households,
working women, students, apprentices and trainees.

V. Environment:

Most of the rural women still depend on the locally available non­
commercial sources of energy such as animal dung, crop waste and fuel wood. In
order to ensure the efficient use of these energy, resources should be promoted.
Women should be involved in spreading solar energy, biogas and smokeless
chulahs in order to bring changes in their life style.

VI. Violence Against Women :

The violence against women includes physical, sexual and psychological

violence like beating, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry
related violence, marital rape and other traditional practices harmful to women.
All these forms of violence against women should be eliminated effectively. A
special emphasis should be laid on programmes and measures to deal with
trafficking in women and girls.

Vn. Mass Media:

Media can be used in portraying images of women consistent with their

dignity. The meaning, degrading and negative conventional images of women
should be removed with the help of media. Equal access for women in the area
of information and communication technologies should be ensured to portray
positive image of women.25
 23

1.7.3 Women Empowerment Through Political Rights and Provisions:

Untill gender parity is reached in government, women cannot reach

complete equality with men in any sphere. The unequal participation of women
in power and decision making structures at the local, national, regional and
international levels reflects structural, attitudinal and cultural barriers prevailing
in all societies. Stereotyped gender roles remain a major obstacle in women’s
political empowerment. On one hand women are considered unfit for leadership;
as a result of which political parties are hesitant to select women candidates from
‘winnable seats’ and on the other hand they have been restricted in the household
responsibilities. That’s why they could not enter in the political field. For
actively involving women in defining the political, economic and social agenda
and enhancing the performance and political skills of those women who are
already at decision making positions, government should enhance formal and
informal training facilities for them; which could impart to women the art of
lobbying, raising funds, networking as well as campaigning. Women in senior
positions, those who are already at the zenith of power could act as a role model
and mentors for the struggling ones. It is absolutely essential to have a fixed time
frame for achieving gender parity in political representation, without which
government and political parties cannot be held accountable.

In order to create healthy environment for active political participation of

women, it is not enough that relevant legislation is passed, provisions of
international conferences ratified, quotas instituted or policies adopted. These
kinds of commitments must be translated into action via implementation of
specific strategies.

1.7.4 Women Empowerment Through Judicial and Legal Provisions :

As women’s rights are systematically violated despite constitutional

guarantees of equality, there is a need to review the existing legislative structure
including personal, customary and tribal laws. Strict enforcement of all relevant
legal provisions and speedy redressal of grievances must be ensured with a
special focus on violence.
 24

Recognised local voluntary organisations could be authorized to lodge

complaints and facilitate registration, investigations and legal proceedings related
to violence and atrocities against girls and women. Women’s cells in police
stations, women police stations, family courts, Mahila courts, counselling centres,
legal aid centres and Nyaya Panchayats must be strengthened and expanded to
eliminate violence and atrocities against women.

Widespread dissemination of information on all aspects of legal rights,

human rights and other entitlements of women should be done through specially
designed legal literacy programmes.

1.7.5 Women Empowerment Through Education and Literacy:

There is a direct co-relation between women’s education and women

empowerment. Literacy and education is the gateway to achieve women
empowerment because the denial of access to education is the denial of access to
status and power. Keeping women ignorant and unaware is to keep them
disempowered and subordinate. Education empowers women to take control of
their lives. It increases the economic, social and political opportunities available
to them. It is the key to overcome oppressive customs and tradition.

The difference between the female and male literacy rate reflects the
status of women in society. So special measures should be taken to eliminate
discrimination, eradicate illiteracy and create a gender sensitive educational
system. Attention also must be given on increasing enrollment of girls and
retention rates of girls and improving the quality of education.

Elementary education empowers women by providing information and

confidence, while higher education emboldens them, so that they can be
confident about entering any field or profession not previously open to them.
Opportunities must be created for them in the field of science and technology and
it should also be seen that development projects with scientific and technical
inputs involve women fully. Efforts to develop scientific temper and awareness
among women should also be stepped up. Special measures should be taken for
their training to the areas where they have special skills like communication and
information technology. In a way we can say that education is an important tool
 25

helping women to be responsible house wives, citizens and significant

contributors in the development process.

Chart -1.1

be be have a be participate participate participate

economically self- high self confident in develop- in in social
independent reliant esteem mental decision change
profession making
process

(Source : Empowering the Indian Woman, 2001)

1.8 VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

Women empowerment aims at changing the balance of power between

the sexes for creating a more equitable distribution of power in society. This
overall process of women empowerment has many aspects i.e. dimensions like
social, economic, legal and political. Each of these dimensions is interlinked to
the other and have a bearing on other. Following are the four dimensions of
women empowerment.

1. Economic Empowerment
2. Social Empowerment
3. Political Empowerment and
4. Legal Empowerment

1.8.1 Economic Empowerment of Women :

Economic empowerment assumes gradually increasing control of

poor women over the economic process. This requires transfer of skills of
management and control of economic activities to enable women to feel
 26

confident and empowered. Economic empowerment helps women to raise their

status and the position. As in the patriarchal society men are considered to be
bread-winners, women’s work carries no economic value. Their status has been
reduced to economic non-entities. So once economic empowerment is achieved,
this view will be changed. It would have major implications on the process of
overall empowerment of women.

Women work for longer hours than men, but a lot of work they do is in
the informal sector like caring, nurturing and household maintenance. The
majority of rural women participate in agricultural work but much of their work
is not recognised, patriarchal social structures determine men’s control over
women’s labour without a legal share in the ownership of the means of
production, women are excluded from decision making process regarding the
allocation of material and economic resources, the impact of modem agricultural
technology has not benefitted women. Men have taken over from women those
activities in which technology has substituted machinery for manual labour.
Although women’s participation in formal sector is increasing in most of the third
world countries, women still account for the smallest percentage of employees in
the formal public and private sector workforce. The majority of formal sector
workers are concentrated in unskilled and low-paid works in the industrial and
service sector.

Majority of women work from drawn to dust yet their work is hardly
recognised in the respective system of national accounts. Most of their activities
are associated with their reproductive role.26

The invisibility of women’s work, domestic course and other tasks are
part of cultural attitude which view man as the primary bread winner. Indeed,
women consider themselves as non-workers because they tend to regard their
labour as domestic responsibilities; while second thing is that the reliable,
accurate and comprehensive information about women’s economic activities and
labour force participation is almost not actions existent.
 27

Impact of Globalisation on Women’s Economic Empowerment:

Globalisation is likely to have far reaching impact on social and economic

status of the women all over the world. Though job opportunities for highly
educated women are increasing, still it has done adverse impact on women in
general. These negative impacts of globalization have been shown below.

Negative Impact of Globalisation on Women’s Empowerment:

1. The concerns of women are increasingly marginalised.

2. Due to globalization, more women resorted to the informal sector and

petty trading, as the formal sector could not absorb them.

3. Increasing commercialisation and growing commodification of women

are the results of globalisation. They can be evidenced by higher
incidence of trafficking and sexual exploitation of women.

4. In the process of global migration system started from globalisation

women migrants had become most vulnerable particularly in illegal and
low paying jobs.

5. In the case of illegal migration, trafficking of women not only involved

prostitution but also the sale of women as cheap labour for work at
construction sites and in agricultural sector. They had no specific health
policies and thereby increasing the risk of contacting such diseases as
HIV/ AIDS and transmitting to others.

6. Introduction of subcontracting arrangements and home based work had

led to a growing gap between full-time women working in the high tech,
semi conductor industry and low paid women workers in the consumer
electronics subsectors.

7. With on going Asian economic crisis a growing feminization of

unemployment was noted there.27

In short, globalisation has presented opportunities to some women but has

caused marginalization of many others.
 28

1.8.2 Social Empowerment of Women :

The term ‘social empowerment’ implies a more equitable social status for
women in society. But still this is not reality in a society. Women enjoying same
status as men is a dream for most of the developing countries. The reason is that
from the time immemorial women have been treated as a sort of a thing. Their
placing in the society is not at par with other human beings. This difference has
been made on the basis of ‘Gender’. Biologically men and women are made
differently. But society and culture determine stereotyped roles for them to
perform. Based on this attitude of society to look at male and female gender
differently- a secondary status has been awarded to women. This is true of all
societies across the world. It is as old as civilization itself, this culture of male
domination or patriarchal rule is the root creating all kinds of inequalities in
society. These inequalities are the stumbling blocks in the way of making women
really empowered in the sense of raising their self esteem, confidence and status.

Women always experience male domination in patriarchal societies.

Family, religion, legal system, economic system and economic institutions, media
are the institutions controlling women’s reproductive, social, economic and
political rights. Women’s labour power, reproductive rights, sexuality, mobility,
economic resources are always seen to be under patriarchal control.

The goal of achieving social empowerment of women by eradicating male

dominance on their lives is enshrined in the Nairobi forward-looking strategies
for the advancement of women in 1985, Jakarta declaration for the advancement
of women in the Asia and Pacific -1994 and in the Beijing Declaration and the
platform for action in the 1995.

1.8.3 Political Empowerment of Women :

The issue of women’s political empowerment, while attracting

considerable attention earlier, actually came to the forefront of the global debate
for women’s rights at the time of the Fourth World Conference on Women held
at Beijing in 1995.
 29

It has been seen that women have been denied equal participation in
decision making as well as access to power for ages. As a result of it women’s
issues are always marginalized, if not ignored totally. Discovering the
significance of political empowerment of women the Beijing Platform for Action
incorporated women’s perspectives at all levels of decision making. According
to BPFA political empowerment of women does not limit itself only within the
purview of public governance but also includes the power relations which are
found at various stratas of society. The political empowerment of women is not a
destination to be reached at, it is a process. It is a means to address the various
needs of women from education, health care to employment etc.

Women’s political empowerment is permised on three fundamental and

non-negotiable principles. They are :

1. The equality between women and men.

2. Women’s right to the full development of their potentials, and
3. Women’s right to the self representation and self determination.

Various positive impacts of BPFA on political empowerment of women

have been recorded which could be seen in the form of increase in women’s
electoral political participation. They have started participating in public offices.
Many of them have been elected at various decision making levels. Quotas and
reservation for women is now becoming an agenda in the meetings of political
parties. All leading parties have been responding positively to the BPFA’s call
for Action, the political parties as well as NGOs are trying to develop rationale
of women in politics and are also trying to provide necessary skill building
training to them. But unfortunately there are still some terriers which impede the
progress of political empowerment of women. They are :

1) Pervasive influence of traditional gender roles

2) Persistent institutional barriers to women’s access to power.28

It appears from above review that women’s political empowerment is the

central issue of all discourses on women’s issues at the international level.
Corresponding to these international efforts various initiatives have been taken at
the national level for the purpose of political advancement of women. Actually
 30

countries in the regions have not recorded of dramatic increases in women’s

political participation. Women’s equal access to power and decision making
remains of little or no priority. Following information shows women’s overall
poor participation in a political sphere.

Table -13
Representation of Women in Parliament

Year Females Males

1998 5.9 (7.2) 761
1999 67 (8.5) 723
2001 70 (8.5) 750

Source : Xth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) (VoL II)

(Figures within parentheses indicate % to total)

Although the number of women in Parliament has increased from 59 in

1998 to 70 in 2001, their share continues to be very low representing only 8.5%
of total members in parliament in 2001.

Table- 1.4
Representation of Women in the Central Council of Ministers
(1985 and 2001)

Year Women Men

1985 4 (10.0) 36
2001 8 (10.8) 66

Source : Xth Five Year Plan VoL II

(Figures within parentheses indicate % to total)

The number of women in the Central Council of Ministers continues to

remain extremely low but with a marginal increase of 0.8% between 1985
and 2001.

Organisation at the grasssroot level allows people to contribute

significantly on the governance of their communities. For women, successful
grassroot experience has meant a chance to form a coherent voice, to be heard
and to make a difference in their community.
 31

In India, the government called as Panchayat Raj functions at the

grassroots level. This system covering the village, tahsil and district has brought
government to the doorsteps of masses.

In 1992, the Government of India enacted the 73rd and 74th amendments to
the Constitution of India to provide one third representation of women in local
government. The aim was to correct the existing gender imbalances - in local
government. As a consequence in all the 2,23,000 Panchayats across India only
13% members were women. However, the one set of the silent revolution in the
form of these constitutional amendments, the number of women rose to 33% or
one million.29

There is a need to promote women’s full and equal participation in

decision making position to ensure that their needs are prioritized and are
addressed. It is not enough that relevant legislation is passed, provisions of
International Conferences are ratified or policies are adopted. These kinds of
commitments must be translated into action via implementation. This strategy
further implies that women can and should take control of their future instead of
being dependent on the action of others. Women can set and pursue their agenda.
Increased political participation of women is, after all, not only an end in itself
but also a means to address issues that are of important to them.

1.8.4 Legal Empowerment of Women :

Legal empowerment differs from the more general notion of

empowerment. It involves the explicit and implicit use of the law by women.
Women who are informed of their rights and about available legal services are
increasingly motivated and empowered to seek assistance in addressing their
legal problems. Legal awareness helps women gain the confidence to assert
their rights.

Women’s lack of access to information about their rights and

opportunities continues to be a key constraint in developing their capacity and
obtaining legal redress. It also prevents them from gaining an authoritative voice
in community affairs and policies.
 32

Laws are the basic tool which is needed by women to carry out their
struggle for equal and fundamental rights. Similarly unless laws that give women
certain rights on paper e.g. equal property rights are brought into existence,
women cannot even begin to struggle and ask for their de-facto rights.

Though inequality and discrimination are still prevalent in the society, it

is necessary to refer to the journey of legal empowerment of women from
commencement to the development to understand the overall growth of legal
aspect of women empowerment.

With the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the 18th and 19,h centuries,
women were drawn into work in the factories. With the foundation of Trade
Unions the problems of women workers like maternity leave, child care facilities
were also brought in the flow of limelight. Women also started asserting then-
equality with men and theory of feminism emerged and established
women’s rights.

In the Second International Socialist Women Conference held at

{Copenhagen in 1910, the proposal was presented by Clara Zeticin to observe 8th
March, as ‘International Women’s Day’ in the memory of strife given by women
tailor workers on 8th March, 1857 in New York. The United Nations started
observing it from 1975. Around 1930, Britain conferred on women the right to
vote as a result of their ‘Suffragette Movement’ for equal rights with men. In
India women were given the right to vote in 1950 and the last country to give its
women right to vote is Kuwait in 1998.

The Charter of the United Nations published in 1945 is the first legal
document that forcefully affirms equality of all human beings and pronounces
against discrimination on the basis of sex. The Commission on the Status of
Women established by Economic and Social Council of United Nations in 1946
decided to work to raise the status of women irrespective of nationality, race,
religious and language to promote equality with men and to eliminate
discrimination against women in the provisions of statutory, interpretation or
customary law.
 33

According to the convention on the Political Rights of Women, 1952, it

was decided that -

1. Women shall be entitled to vote in an elections on equal term with men,

without any discrimination.

2. Women shall be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies,

established by national law on equal terms with men without any
discrimination.

The Convention for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW) was adopted in the 1979. It commits governments to take all
appropriate measures including legislation to ensure the hill development and
advancement of women and to guarantee them the exercise and enjoyment of
human right ami fundamental freedoms on the basis of equality with women.
India ratified the convention in 1993. The United Nations’ Four World
Conferences for women also proved helpful to gain legal rights for women. The
fourth World Conference on women took place at Beijing in September 1995.
The special attention given on girl child is the unique feature of this conference.30

On 26th January, 1950, the Constitution of India came into force. The
Indian Constitution proved as a vehicle of social transformation for women.
Equality for all irrespective of gender, caste, religion, race etc. are the comer
stones of the constitution.

Recently in 1993, the 73rd and 74th amendments to the constitution

provided reservation of one third of the membership in the Panchayat and
Municipalities to women.

Following are some important legislations made in India for safeguarding

women’s interests and issues.

I. Social Legislations Relating to Women

Even before gaining Independence, in India laws were passed to give

women their rights. From the early 19th century, social reformers like Raja
Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar, Mahatma Phule took efforts to
 34

bring legal reforms of various social practices. These legislations were the Sati
Regulation, 1829 followed by those passed in Madras and Bombay in 1830.

Block -1.1
Significant Social Legislation Relating to Marriage

1. Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

2. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
3. Special Marriage Act, 1955
4. Indian Divorce Act, 1869
5. Converts Marriage Dissolution Act, 1986
6. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
7. Family Court, 1984
8. Married Women’s Property Act, 1956
9. The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
10. Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956

II. Legal Provisions Relating To Violence Against Women

Block- 1.2
Crimes Against Women Listed Under the Indian Penal Code (IPC)

• Rape
• Kidnapping and abduction for different purposes
• Homicide for dowry, dowry deaths or their attempts
. Torture, both mental and physical
. Molestation
• Sexual harassment
• Importance of girls
 35

III. Legal Safeguards For Women

Block-1.3
Legal Rights of Women Under the Criminal Procedure Code

• In the case of arrest by Police Officer, the accused has the right to
ask for the reason of arrest.
• The accused 1ms the right to contact a legal practitioner for assistance
in the case.
• Women cannot be arrested after sunset.
• Women cannot be searched except by women Police Officer
. While the women is in custody in a police station, it is compulsory
that a lady police officer or another lady should be present in the
police station.

IV. Legislation Relating To Working Women

Block -1.4
The Important Laws for Working Women

• The Minimum Wage Act, 1948

• Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
• Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
• The Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
• Employees’ State Insurance (General) Act, 1950

Inspite of all these legal provisions women who have internalised and
accepted the inequality and discrimination prevalent at all levels of their lives
have themselves began to realise that neither laws nor their practice are impartial
processes. Discriminatory and gender insensitive laws generate and reinforce
inequalities, perpetuate the subordination of women in the family and society,
and contribute towards creating an insecure environment for them. That is why
women ought to assert to their rights and laws related to them.31
 36

1.9 OBSTACLES IN THE PROCESS OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

As a result of efforts taken for women empowerment, there has been

significant advances for women in many regions of the world in realization to
health, education in and employment over the past few years. However, some
obstacles are still persistent in some fields, like increasing incidence of violence
against women, the under representation of women in decision-making in all
areas, the persistence of discriminatory laws and new challenges like HIV/ AIDS
and addressing trafficking in women etc. The following are some obstacles faced
by women’s empowerment process in various fields. These overwhelming
obstacles to the advancement of women are in practice caused by varying
combinations of political and economic as well as social and cultural factors.

1.9.1 Obstacles in the Economic Empowerment :

While measuring women’s empowerment or making the introspection of

journey of women’s empowerment, we can confront with some barriers or
obstacles in the process of women’s empowerment.

1. Though considerable progress has been achieved in increasing recognition

of gender dimensions of poverty, poverty is still one of the main obstacles in the
economic empowerment of women. Lack of own productive resources, capital,
education, skill, knowledge, mobility etc. are main causes which thrown women
into poverty. It is said that Poverty creates poverty. So women are poor because
they are poor, they are disempowered because they are disempowered.

2. Inequality is another obstacle which controls economic empowerment of

women. There are many factors contributing for widening economic inequality
between men and women. It includes income inequality, unemployment and
deepening poverty levels of the most vulnerable and marginalized groups. In
addition, gender inequalities and disparities in economic power sharing, unequal
access, man controlled capital resources particularly land and credit affect on
women’s economic empowerment.
 37

3. Unequal distribution of unremunerated work between women and men-

women are always tradition-bound e.g. traditionally women’s household work is
always women’s work and it is not measured at all.

4. All harmful traditional and customary practices have constrained

women’s economic empowerment.

5. Equal pay for women and men for equal work or work of equal value has
not yet been fully implemented.

6. Progress in the profession is still more difficult for women due to the lack
of structures that take into account maternity and family responsibilities.

7. Lack of family friendly policies regarding the organisation of work

increases different family responsibilities of women.

8. Discrimination promotes an uneconomic use of women’s talents and

wastes the valuable human resources.

9. A deterioration of general economic situation in the last years of decade

in developing countries is having a negative impact on an already unbalanced
distribution of work which affects women’s economic empowerment.

10. Insufficient awareness and understanding of the complex and multifaced

relationship between development and advancement of women has continued to
hamper economic empowerment of women.

In a number of countries, inadequate financial and human resources and a

lack of political will and commitment are main obstacles confronting national
machineries.

All above factors impede the economic empowerment of women.

1.9.2 Obstacles in the Social Empowerment:

Women enjoying same status as men is a dream for most of the

developing countries. The reason is that since the time immemorial women have
been treated as a sort of a thing. Their placing in the society is not at par with
other human beings. Following are some impediments stumbling social
advancement of women.
 38

A) Inequality:

Inequality to a great extent persist everywhere and causes all types of

discrimination against women.

1. The traditional stereotype of daughter as a source of misery while the son

as seviour of the family, such view of society causes and enlarges
inequalities among boys and girls from their birth.

2. Major inequality stemming from mass poverty and the general

backwardness of majority of world’s population causes unfavourable
status of women by de facto discrimination in the ground of sex.

3. The sharp contrast between legislation changes and effective

implementation of these changes is a major obstacle to the full
advancement of women in society.

4. The lack of dissemination of information of women’s rights and the

available resources to justice has hampered the social empowerment of
women.

5. The continuation of women’s stereotyped reproductive and productive

roles - justified primarily on the physiological, social and cultural grounds
has subordinated women in all spheres of life.

6. Various other obstacles in women’s social empowerment include

malnutrition, hunger, illhealth, increasing morbidity unsafe environment
and their exclusion from the mainstream etc.

7. Inadequacy of education system to reach out the girls and women is the
main obstacle in the educational advancement of women. Not having a
school within easy reach of home is often a barrier to girls enrolment and
retention.

8. The concept of the daughter as a “someone else’s wealth” which can be

best benefit another household, reduces the incentives of sending daughter
to school.
 39

B. Violence Against Women :

Violence against women whether occuring in public and private life is a

human rights issue. There is an increased awareness and commitment to prevent
and combat violence against women but it is seen that violence against women is
increasing and still they continue to be victims to the various forms of violence.
Violence results into bad impact on women’s social status and turns down their
dignity; confidence and full enjoyment of life.

1. Inadequate understanding of the root cause of violence against women

hinders efforts to eradicate violence against women.

2. Inadequate data on violence impede in the form on policy making and

analysis.

3. There is a lack of comprehensive programmes to control violence against

women.

4. Socio-cuhural attitudes which are discriminatory and economic

inequalities reinforce women’s subordinate place in society. This makes
women and girls vulnerable in many forms of violence such as physical,
sexual, psychological including beating, sexual abuse of female children
in the household, dowry related violence and marital rape etc.

5. Domestic violence including sexual violence in marriage is still treated as

a private matter.

6. There is an inadequate awareness regarding how to prevent it and the

rights of victims.

7. The use of new information and communication technologies for sexual

exploitation is another hindrance on the path of preventing violence
against women.

C) Health:

Women and their health is the comer pillar of the social dimension of
women’s empowerment. Policy makers at international level have been
highlighting the need for health programmes to cover all aspects of women’s
health problems. Inspite of this, little success has been gained in the area of
 40

women’s health. Following are the elements distracting the success of health
programmes related to women.

1. High mortality rates among women and girls as a result of water-borne

disease and communicable disease is a issue in front of policymakers and
government.

2. Efforts are proving inadequate to create awareness regarding sexually

transmitted infection including HIV/ AIDS and other sexual and
reproductive health problems.

3. The absence of political approach to health and health care of women and
girls based on women’s right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable
standard of physical and mental health throughout the life cycle has
constrained the progress of women.

4. Insufficient attention is given to the role of economic determinants of

health.

5. Lack of access to clean water, adequate nutrition and safe sanitation affect
women’s health.

6. Unequal power relationship between women and men where women often
do not have power to insist on safe and responsible sex practices and lack
of understanding between men and women affect on women’s health
needs and endanger women’s health.

7. Adolescents particularly girls continue to lack access to sexual and

reproductive health information.

8. There continues to be a lack of information on availability and access to

appropriate and affordable primary health services of high quality
including maternal and emergency obstetric care as well as a lack of
prevention and treatment for breast, cervical and ovarian cancers.

9. Lack of implementation of CEDAW and national constitutions,

discriminatory legislation, harmful traditional and customary practices
and negative stereotype of women continue to cause threat to the
enjoyment of women of their rights related to health.
 41

10. Mental disorders related to marginalization, powerlessness and poverty

alongwith overwork and stress and the growing incidence of domestic
violence as well as substance abuse affect on women’s health.

11. Along with all these reasons, in developing countries women themselves
are found unwilling to disclose or to treat their sexual diseases or other
gynaecological problems. If they are in severe need of treatment for these
kinds of diseases, they prefer female gynaecologist only. Their mind set
up proves to be enemy of their poor health. Early-age marriages as well
as inequality of mothers in breast-feeding to their girls also result into
poor health of them.32

12. Religious customs like successive fasts (Upvaas) in Hindu and Islamic
women also make them weak and cause many health problems.

All these obstacles hinder the social empowerment of women.

1.9J Obstacles In the Political Empowerment:

Women in political arena are given little support as well as they are also
trained poorly. If they are represented, it is only as a gender token rather than
real political force. Women do not feel comfortable while working in combative
and harsh political environment is one of the perceptions which deny them
political access. The other obstacles are -

1. Women are regarded as unsuitable for leadership position.

2. By tradition, it is understood that the public sphere is a male domain.

3. The demand of traditional gender roles and economic and social

obligations leave women little time and energy to pursue political
participation.

4. There is stereotype of women as followers not leaders. Family is

considered as women’s priority. They are not supposed to be qualified to
take on leadership positions. They are deprived of opportunities for
leadership skill training.

5. Lack of Political Will: A strong political will on the part of government,

political parties and other organisation’s is needed to create an

14683
A
 42

environment conductive to women’s political empowerment. But it is

mostly found absent in all developing as well as developed countries.
Exclusion of women from policy making and decision making made it
difficult to promote effective political participation of women

6. Lack of critical mass of women in politics.

Individual women leaders at the top are token with no real weight; while
the lack of an articulate and active base at the bottom makes for an
organisation without focus.

7. Exclusion of women from policy making and decision making continued

to retard their political participation.33

These obstacles obstruct the progress of women in the political sphere.

1.9.4 Obstacles In the Legal Empowerment:

1. An equitable legal framework never guarantee the equitable treatment of

women in society.

2. Lack of education, low social status and limitations on women’s public

mobility impede the speed of women’s legal empowerment.

3. The lack of uniform Civil Code in which fundamental human rights take
precedence over gender discriminatory religious customs remains a main
obstacle to the achievement of women’s legal empowerment.

4. Women’s rights are systematically violated despite constitutional

guarantees of equality.

5. Women who have internalised and accepted the inequality and

discrimination are one of the main obstacles in the legal empowerment of
themselves.
6. Cultural traditions, ignorance of the law and especially a lack of will
among enforcement agents and judiciary obstruct the enforcement of
many protective and promotional laws.
7. In many countries, women have insufficient access to the law resulting
from illiteracy, lack of information and resources and lack of awareness
 43

of the human rights of the women work as barriers in the legal

empowerment process of women.
8. Women are often most heavily affected by discriminatory personal laws.34

1.10 MEASURES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

For overcoming above mentioned obstacles, the Nairobi Forward Looking

strategy has suggested some measures which can prove beneficial for achieving
women’s empowerment.

Measures to be implemented at -

A. The Economic Level

B. The Social Level
C. The Political Level
D. The Legal Level

1.10.1 Measures to be implemented at the Economic Level:

1. Governments, international and regional organisations should intensify

their efforts to enhance the self reliance of women in a viable and
sustained fashion. Because economic independence is a necessary pre­
condition for self reliance.

2. The actual and potential impact of women on macro-economic process

should be assessed and change should be made accordingly.

3. Freely chosen employment should be made available for women.

4. Steps should also be taken to promote women’s equitable and increased

participation in industry and tertiary sector.

5. Efforts should be made to encourage enterprises to train women in

economic sector that traditionally have been closed to them.

6. Measures should be taken to avoid exploitative work in part-time work, as

well as the tendency towards feminization of part-time, temporary and
seasonal work.
 44

7. The public and private sector should do concentrated efforts to diversify

and create new employment opportunities for women in the traditional
and non-traditional sectors, high productivity areas and sectors in both
rural and urban areas.

8. The working condition of women should be improved in all formal and

informal areas as well as job security should be enhanced. Appropriate
measures should be taken to prevent sexual harassment in jobs.

9. Animal husbandry, fishery, food processing and forestry programmes

should give greater attention to the effective participation of women in
these fields as contributors and beneficiaries.

10. Tax structure should be revised so that the tax liability on the combined
earnings of married couples does not constitute a disincentive to women’s
employment.

11. Emphasis should be placed on strategies to assist women in income

generating activities by improving their access to credit. Such strategies
must focus on strengthening women’s capacity to use existing credit
systems.

12. Concrete steps should be taken to quantify unremunerated contribution of

women to agriculture, food production, reproduction and household
activities.

1.10.2 Measures to be implemented at the Social Level:

1. The obstacles to the equality of women created by stereotypes should be

totally removed.

2. The sharing of domestic responsibilities by all members of the family and

equal recognition of women’s informal and invisible economic
contribution in the mainstream of society should be developed as
complementary strategies for the elimination of women’s secondary
status, which has fostered discrimination.

3. Marriage agreement should be based on mutual understanding, respect

and freedom of choice.
 45

4. The value of house work should be considered equivalent of financial

contributions.

5. Future parents, young people and children should be educated to bring

changes in attitudes towards women at all levels of society.

6. High priority should be given to substantial and continuing improvement

in portrayal of women by mass media.

7. NGOs should intensify their efforts to enhance the self-reliance of women

because economic independence is a necessary precondition for
self-reliance.

8. Gender bias evident in most development programmes should be

eliminated and prejudices hindering the solutions of women’s problems
be removed.

9. The vital role of women as providers of health care both inside and
outside of the home should be recognised.

10. Education is the basis for full promotion and improvement of the status of
women. It is the basic tool that should be given women in order to fulfill
their roll as foil members of society. Government should strengthen the
participation of women at all the levels of national educational policy.

11. Government should encourage and finance adult educational programmes

for women.

12. The enrollment of women in publicly operated mass communication

networks and in education and training should be promoted. The social
developmental and health consequences of HIV/ AIDS and other sexually
transmitted diseases should be tackled from a gender perspective.

13. Public expenditure towards health care, child care training and education
services for women should be increased.

14. Create or strengthen institutional mechanisms so that women and girls

can report acts of violence against them in a safe and confidential
environment, free from the fear of penalties or realization, and
file charges.
 46

1.10.3 Measures to be implemented at the Political Level:

1. Political parties should intensify efforts to stimulate and ensure equality

of participation by women in all national and local legislative bodies.

2. Special activities should be undertaken to increase the recruitment,

nomination and promotion of women, especially to decision making and
policy making positions.

3. Awareness of women’s political rights should be promoted through many

channels, including formal and informal education, political education,
the media and NGOs etc.

4. Women should be encouraged and motivated and should help each other
to exercise their right to vote and to be elected and to participate in the
political process at all levels on equal terms with men.

5. Equal access to the political machinery of the organisations and to

resources and tools for developing skills in the art and tactics of practical
politics as well as effective leadership capabilities should be given to
women.

6. Mechanism should be developed to encourage women to participate in the

electoral process, political activities and other leadership areas.35

1.10.4 Measures to be implemented at the Legal Level:

1. Agrarian reform measures should guarantee women’s constitutional and

legal rights in terms of access to land and other measures of production.

2. Law reform committees with equal representation of women and men

from government organization; and non-government organization should
be set up to review all laws.

3. Civil codes, pertaining to family law should be revised to eliminate

discriminatory practices. The legal capacity of married women should be
reviewed in order to grant them equal rights and duties.

4. Measures for the implementation of legislation relating to working

condition for women must be taken.
 47

5. The rights of all women, in particular, married women, to own administer,

sell or buy property independently should be guaranteed as an aspect of
their equality and freedom under the law. The right to divorce should be
granted to both partners equally.36

6. Strict enforcement of Equal Remuneration Act and Minimum Wages Act

has to be undertaken.

7. Legislation should be passed and laws enforced in every country to end

the degradation of women through sex related crimes.

1.11 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT FOR WOMEN

EMPOWERMENT AT GLOBAL LEVEL

The work on women empowerment in the real sense started with the
establishment of ‘United Nations’ after the second world war. In its charter on
January 26, 1945, the equal rights for men and women were affirmed for the first
time. The charter of the UNS is the first legal document pronouncing against
discrimination to the basis of sex.

The Economic and Social Council known as ECOSOC is the principal

organ of the UN to co-ordinate the economic and social work of the UN. The
ECOSOC established the Commission on the Status of Women in June 1946.
The two main functions of this commission were

1. To prepare recommendations and report to Economic and social council

on promoting women’s rights in political, economic, civil, social and
educational fields and

2. To make recommendations on urgent problems requiring immediate

attention in the field of women’s rights.

The UNS adopted CEDAW - The Convention for the Elimination of the
Discrimination Against Women in December 1979 to ensure equality of men and
women in the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms in every
field.37

* Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) works in interaction

with ECOSOC. One of its numerous divisions is Division for the Advancement
 48

of Women (DAW). It was established in 1946 as the section on the Status of

Women, Human Rights Division, Department of Social Affairs. It advocates the
improvement of the status of women all over the world and the achievement of
their equality with men. It strives to stimulate the mainstreaming of gender
preservatives both within and outside the United Nations system.

* UNIFEM i.e. United Nations Development Fund for Women is the

women’s fund of the UN that provides financial and technical support to
programmes centering on women’s human rights : political participation,
governance peace and security and women’s economic security. To foster
women’s economic empowerment UNIFEM works to put resources directly in
the hands of women in developing countries to support their livelihoods. It also
assists in the formulation of gender sensitive macro economic policies and
practices such as trade structural adjustment and transitional economies. To foster
the political empowerment of women UNIFEM advocates for gender equity in
decision making structures from household to the international level.

* UNDP/ GlDP i.e. United Nations Development Programmes/ Gender in

Development Programme has developed twin strategy that aims to mainstream
gender in all its programmes and to further advancement of women. GIDP also
works with country offices to ensure gender mainstreaming. It gives assistance to
development of gender strategies or action plans as well as the preparation of
gender situation analysis.

* FAO i.e. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations works
for improving the lives of rural women. It takes two pronged approaches to
women in development 1) The implementation of projects and programmes
oriented to women exclusively, 2) The promotion of the integration of women’s
issues and of women as participation in all of FAOs projects and activities.

* ILO i.e. International Labour Organisation works for the promotion of

social justice, the promotion of equality between men and women in employment
and the protection of the rights of women workers. ILOs strategy of integrating
gender issues and equality concerns within its programme and project objectives
and activities is based on the recognisation that women’s equal and full
 49

participation in all aspects of life is essential to the achievement of all major

development objects.

* UNESCO i.e. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organisation has always taken efforts to promote equality between the sexes and
to improve the status of women within its fields of competence through
education, sciences, cultural and communication. In addition to it, it also
corporates women’s issues at all levels of programme, design and implementation
and plays particular attention to women’s priorities, perspectives and contribution
to the rethinking of the goals and means of development across cultures and
traditions.38

* INSTRAW i.e. the International Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women was created in 1976 after the women’s first world
conference. It is working for the advancement of women. It has contributed
significantly to the elaboration of conceptual framework and methodologies for
measuring and valuing women’s household production. It builds capacity in
organizations working towards gender equality.39

Besides these agencies IANWGEC (The Inter- Agency Network on

Women and Gender Equality), UNFAP (United Nations Population fund),
UNHCR (Office of the UNs High Commissioner for Refiigees) and UNICEF
(United Nations Children Fund) also work for women empowerment.

1.12 THE NATIONAL MACHINERY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT

OF WOMEN

In India during the International Decade for women and the first three
world conferences on women the term “National Machinery” came into common
usage. The main objective of the machinery was to integrate planning and
implementation of comprehensive strategies and plans for women empowerment.
In India, ‘The Department of Women and Child Development’, in the Ministry of
Human Resource Development is the main organisation responsible for the
advancement or empowerment of women. This department was established in
1985 to concentrate exclusively on women development.
 50

The Department for Women and Child Development has a Bureau for
Women to carefully analyse all policies relating to women and also to suggest
further policies and to take measures essential for the advancement of women.

All the departments in the Ministry of Human Resource Development like

Education, Youth Sports and Culture deal with women in their respective areas.
Similarly, Ministries of Health, Labour, Agriculture and Industry are very much
concerned with women in these areas. They have programmes and action plans
for the empowerment of women. Sometimes there are special ‘Cells’ in the
Ministries known as Women’s Cells. The Planning Commission in India co­
ordinates all development activities and programmes for women in the
different departments.

The various agencies dealing with women are - CSWB, NIPCCD, NCW,
FNB, RMK etc. The Department of Women and Child Development supervises
the working of these agencies. Large number of Non-Government Organisations
(NGOs) are working in a very substantial way for the advancement of women in
various fields.

At the state level there are -

I) Women Development Departments or Social Welfare Departments,

II) Women Development Corporation,
III) Social Welfare Advisory Boards,
IV) State Commissions for Women (in 13 States).

All these Commissions, Departments or various Boards together form the

network for the National Machinery for the Advancement of Women.

At the District and Block level, there is no separate agency for women but
there is provision of designated officers like -

I. The District Women Welfare Officer or District Social Welfare Officer.

II. Mukhya Sevikas and Gram Sevikas at the Block level.40
 51

REFERENCES

1. New Oxford English Dictionary, edited by Judy Pearsall, Clarendon

Press, Oxford, 1998, P. 605.

2. World English Dictionary, published by macmillan India Ltd., Chennai,

1999, P. 616.

3. Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learner, the Cobuild

Series from the bank of English, the University of Birmingham, Harper
Collins Publishers, London, 1995, P. 503.

4. Merriam Webster New World College Dictionary, New Millennium

Fourth Edition, michael Agnes, First edition - Sept. 2000, P. 466.

5. Oxfam, the Oxfam Handbook of Relief and Development Oxford, 1999,

adopted from Zoe Oxaal with Sally Baden, P. 2.

6. Ackerly B., “Testing the Tools of Development : Credit programmes,

Loan Involvement and Women’s Empowerment”, IDS Bulletin, Vol. 26,
No. 3, July 1995.

7. William et al., adopted from Zoe Oxaal with Sally Baden, “Gender and
Empowerment : Definitions, Approaches and Implications for Policy”,
Report prepared for the Swedish International Development Corporation
Agency (SIDA), BRIDGE (Development Gender) Institute of
Development Studies, University of Sussex, UK, October 1997, P. 1.

8. Stromquist Nelly P., “The Theoretical and Practical Bases for

Empowerment”, in Carolyn Medel Anonuvo (et), ‘Women, Education and
Empowerment Pathways Towards Autonomy’ report of the International
Seminar held at UNESCO Institute for Education (UIE), Hamburg,
Jan. 27-Feb. 2,1993, published in 1995, pp. 14-15.

9. Sen Amartya, “Development As Freedom”, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi, 1999, P. 2.

10. Batliwala Srilata, adopted from IGNOU, ‘Status of Women’, Block

CWDL-01, New Delhi, July 2000, P. 35.
 52

11. UNDP, Human Development Report, 1995, P.2.

12. ibid., P. 15 (Stomquist Nelly P.)

13. Kapur Promiila, “Empowering the Indian Woman”, Publication Division,

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New
Delhi, 2001, pp. 407-408.

14. Mahbub-ul-Haq Human Development Centre, “Human Development in

South Asia 2000”, Oxford University Press, 2000, P. 104.

15. Indira Gandhi National Open University, “Status of Women”, CWDL-01,

‘Women’s Empowerment Perspective and Approaches’, New Delhi, July
2000, P. 12.

16. United Nations, “Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action - Fourth
World Conference on Women”, 15 September, 1995, P. 45.

17. ibid., P. 15 (IGNOU, CWDL-01).

18. ibid., P. 136 (HDISA 2000).

19. Indira Gandhi National Open University, “Environment for Advancement

of the Status of Women”, CWDL-01, New Delhi, July 2000, pp. 7-12.

20. ibid., P. 28 (HDISA 2000).

21. Government of India, First Report on, “Convention on Elimination of All

Forms of Discrimination Against Women”, Department of Women and
Child Development, March 1999.

22. Sen Amartya, “Development As Freedom”, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi, 2001, pp. 104-106.

23. Sen Amartya, “Many Faces in Gender Inequality”, Frontline, Vol. 18, No.
22, Oct. 27 to Nov. 9,2001, pp. 4-13.

24. OSAGI, “Gender Mainstreaming”, UNs Office of the Special Advisor on

Gender Issues and Advancement of Women.

(http: www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi).
 53

25. Government of India, “National Policy for the Empowerment of women

2001”, Point 5.1 to 9.1.

26. ibid., pp. 52 to 65 (HDISA).

27. Government of India, “Women 2000 : Gender Equality, Development and

Peace for the Twenty-First Century”, Unedited Final Outcome Document
as adopted by the 23rd Special Session, 10 June, 2000, Point 20 to 32.

28. Centre for Asia - Pacific Women in Politics, “Issues in Women’s Political
Empowerment in the Ask Pacific Region”, 1999, pp. 3-5.

29. Planning Commission, Government of India, “Tenth Five Year Plan

(2002-2007)”, Sectoral Policies and Programmes, Vol. 2, New Delhi, pp.
235-236.

30. ibid., pp. 6-13 (IGNOU, CWDL-01).

31. ibid., pp. 30-36 (IGNOU, CWDL-01).

32. ibid., pp. 16-19 (Beijing Conference).

33. ibid., pp. 5-8 (Centre for Asia-Pacific Women in Politics).

34. ibid., pp. 76-77 (HDISA).

35. United Nations, 3rd World Conference on Women, Nairobi, 1985”,

points- 60-231.

36. ibid., pp. 76-101. (HDISA).

37. ibid., pp. 7-9 (IGNOU CWDL-01).

38. United Nations, “Institutions and Process of Social and Economic Policy
Making at UN.

39. United Nations, “instraw”.

(www.un.instraw.org)

40. ibid., pp. 17-19 (IGNOU CWDL-01).