DESIGN PROCEDURE:

The design procedure can basically be divided into following steps:

4.1 Numerical analysis

4.2 Analysis of two-dimensional photonic crystal cavity

4.3 plane wave method for calculating photonic band gap

4.3 design of Hexagonal cavities

4.4 simulating the given triangular lattice

4.5 calculating resonant wavelength from graph and quality factor

4.1 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

The numerical analysis of this project can be basically summed into two parts

1. Plane wave expansion method

2. Finite difference time domain method

4.1.1 plane wave expansion method:

Since the propagation of light in a photonic crystal is governed by Maxwell equations, the
propagation of EM waves in a macroscopic, homogeneous, isotropic dielectric material with
real dielectric constant є(r) with no dispersion was considered, restricting the conditions to
space free of charge sources. Magnetic permeability µ(r) was assumed to be a constant. In a
periodic dielectric structure, the Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic waves can be
written in terms of electric field E and magnetic field strength H with angular frequency ω as,
 iω
Δ. H ( r )=0 Δ × E ( r )= H ( r )=0
c

iω
∆ . E ( r )=0 ∆ × H ( r )− ε ( r ) E ( r )=0 (1)
c

These can be further simplified to [2]

1 ω2
∆× ∆ × H = 2 H ( r ) (2)
ε (r ) c

Since ε(r) is periodic, magnetic strength H can be expanded using the Bloch theorem:

H ( r )=∑ h(G i , ¿ λ)ѐ λ ¿ ¿

Gi , λ

Where G i are the reciprocal lattice vector, b 1 , b2 , b3 are the basis vectors in the reciprocal

space,h1 , h2 , h3 are integers and ѐ λ  e are the two orthogonal unit vectors, both
perpendicular to

k +Gi ,λ representing the indices 1 and 2. Substituting equation 3 into 2 and the matrix
equation,

'
ω2 h 1
∑|K +G||K +G'| ε−1 ( G+G−1 ) [ ѐ2 ѐ 2 ¿ ] h '1 = c 2
[] [] h2
(4)
G
'
h2

can be obtained. For 2D lattices, the material is homogeneous in z direction while periodic
along x and y directions. The mirror symmetry along the z axis allows to classify the modes
by separating them into two distinct polarization, the transverse-electric (TE) mode and the
transverse-magnetic (TM) mode. Therefore equation 4 decoupled in to two equations which
makes two unit vector sets unnecessary. The TM polarized mode and TE-polarized mode are
given by equations 5 and 6 respectively

2
∑|K +G||K +G'|ε−1 ( G−G−1 ) h ( ⃗G ' )=¿ ωc 2 h (⃗
G ' )( 5)¿
G'
 ∑ ¿¿ (6)
G'

The absolute parts of these fields are used to calculate mode fields. ε −1 ( G−G−1 ) is the inverse
of the Fourier transform matrix of ε(r). In this standard eigenvalue problem, the difficulty in
the analysis of the eigenvalue problem lies on Fourier transformation of the dielectric
function. Performing a numerical fast Fourier transform is subjected to convergence problem
and symmetry conditions become complex for some problems. The Fourier component of
dielectric constant

'
1
ε ( G )= ∫ ε ' ( r ) e−iG .r . dr (7)
AA

where the integration is performed over the area A of the one unit cell lattice. Periodic
dielectric function in real space can be further simplified to

ε ( G )=f ε a + (1−f ) ε b for G=0

¿(ε a−ε b ¿ S ( G ) for G ≠ 0 (8)

where f is the filling factor defined as the fraction of area occupied by the localized medium
in one unit cell and ε a and ε b refer to the dielectric constants of the localized medium and the
background respectively. The structure factor S(G), depend only on the geometry of the
localized medium and the lattice structure. This is given by

'
1 −iG .r
S ( G )= ∫ e dr (9)
AA d

The integration is carried over the area A occupied by the localized medium in the unit cell.
The structure factors for various shapes [12] are tabulated in Table 1
 Shape STRUCTURE FACTOR
Circular J 1(Ga)
2f
cylindrical rod Ga
Square rod
f sinc ( G2 ) sinc ( G2 ) ¿ ¿
X y

Hexagonal rod

It is convenient to calculate for TM polarized mode, the displacement field D and for TE
polarized mode the magnetic field H and these are given by

1
Dwk ( r )= ∑ |k +G|h 1 ( G ) ei ( k+G ). r . z^ (10)
k G

w i ( k+G ) .r
H k ( r )=h 1 ( G ) e . z^ (11)

The plane wave expansion method was used to simulate band structure of different photonic
lattices formed from rods of different cross sectional shapes. For each photonic crystal
structure, the possibility of TE, TM and complete band gap was studied carefully using band
diagrams.
4.1.2 FINITE DIFFERENCE TIME DOMAIN METHOD:

Spatial discretization:
The FDTD algorithm is based on discretization of Maxwell’s curl equations in real space and
tracing of the source field distribution in time. We discretize the object according to the Yee
mesh, Fig. 4.1a, and construct three different permittivity and three permeability arrays for
each field component as their meshes are shifted spatially. Then we introduce six arrays for
electromagnetic field components and use the initial values in these arrays and some given
source field distribution (in space and time) to calculate the field evolution as governed by
Maxwell’s equations.

Figure 4.1: (a) Unit Yee cell with spatial positions of electric and magnetic field components.
(b) Location of the perfect electric or magnetic conductor walls (PEC and PMC, respectively)
at the outer boundaries of the computational domain.

The source-free Maxwell’s equations can be written as

∆ f × E=−μ ∂i H ∆f . μH=0 4.1(a)

∆ b × H=−μ ∂i E ∆b . εE=0 4.1(b)

Where subscripts f and b near the operators are introduced to point out their different action
on a staggered Yee mesh, Fig.2.1a, which can be illustrated for differential of some vector
component A along the x-direction:

∆ f A= A ( x + ∆ x )− A ( x ) 4.2 ( a )

∆ b A= A( x )− A ( x−∆ x ) 4.2 ( b )

The subscript f means that the curl and div operators are constructed on the basis of the
forward finite difference scheme; the subscript b implies usage of the backward finite
differences. Each of forward or backward differences 2.2 by themselves imply first-order
accurate scheme if their result is assigned to one of the side points. However, on the
staggered Yee mesh these differentials ∆ f , b A are used to define dual-mesh field components
positioned in the points in between the given mesh nodes. Thus in fact our scheme is a
central-difference scheme giving second-order convergence.

Let’s define now the differential operators if our vector fields are represented by three-
dimensional arrays on Yee mesh. For example, 3D forward F …… .. n… …. and backward
B… ….. n …… . derivatives acting along nth direction (corresponding to x, y or z axis) with a step
∆ hn on some field component A:

1
F n A= A −A … …i … ….. ) 4.3 ( a )
∆ hn ( …… i +1 … .. n n

1
Bn A= A −A … …i ) 4.3 ( b )
∆ hn ( … …i … ..
n n−1 …… ..

These operators are analogous to the Mat Lab based function diff. With this definition of
difference matrices we can easily obtain the boundary condition on the borders of the
computational domain as depicted in Fig. 4.1b.
As on staggered Yee grid the divergence equations in Eq. (2.1) are automatically fulfilled we
are now interested only in constructing of curl operators with use of already defined
differential operators. For example,( ∆f × E) x component can be written as FyEz−FzEy what
proportional to the time derivative of magnetic field Hx.

Time stepping:
Having defined space derivatives we can pass to writing update equations for field evolution in time
(described by the superscript j):

∆t
E xj+1=E xj + ( B y H xj −B z H yj ) 4.4(a)
∈

∆t
Eiy+1=Eiy + ( B x H jx −B z H zj ) 4.4( b)
∈

∆t
E zj+1=E zj + ( B x H yj −B y H jx ) 4.4(c)
∈

∆t
H jx+1=H xj + ( F y Exj +1−F z E jy ) 4.4 (d )
∈

∆t
H jy+1=H yj − F z E j+ 1 j+1
( y −F x E z ) 4.4(e )
μ

∆t
H jz+1=F zj E yj+1− ( F x E yj+1−F y E xj+1 ) 4.4( f )
μ

If a source is defined at some place in the computational domain, propagation of light from this
source in time and space can be obtained starting from Eq. (2.4a–c) by inserting some initial values
of fields corresponding to this source. Then electric field at the next time step might be evaluated
straightforwardly and if inserted to Eq. (2.4d–f) magnetic field components in the next time step can
also be found. This time staggered calculation of electric and magnetic field components is often
called leapfrogging. Proceeding the time cycle gives evolution of fields in time and space which was
searched for. It could be shown that the necessary condition for the stability of the timestepping
algorithm is the Courant criterium relating the Yee cell size and the time step
 1
∆t ≤
1 1 1
c
√ 2
+ 2
∆ x ∆ y ∆z
+ 2

After all these conditions are set, the field distribution is computed step by-step starting from the
radiation source. In all simulations, the initial field has been taken as a Gaussian distribution at the
center of the cavity. The choice of Gaussian distribution as an initial field is due to its similarity to the
field profile of the fundamental resonant mode so that the convergence would be accelerated. The
time domain formula for Gaussian Modulated Continuous Wave

4.2 Analysis of two-dimensional photonic crystal cavity: