812 Waves and Sound

Chapter

17
Waves and Sound
Waves Waves can occur whenever a system is disturbed
from equilibrium and when the disturbance can travel or
propagate from one region of the system to another.
Wave can carry energy and momentum. The energy in
light waves from the sun warms the surface of our
Ripple on a pond planet; the energy in seismic waves can crack our
planet's crust.

Characteristics of Wave Motion

(1) When a wave motion passes through a medium,
particles of the medium only vibrate simple
harmonically about their mean position. They do leave
their position and move with the disturbance.
Musical sound (2) In wave motion, the phase of particles of
medium keeps on changing.
(3) The velocity of the particle during their vibration
is different at different position.
(4) The velocity of wave motion through a particular
medium is constant. It depends only on the nature of
medium not on the frequency, wavelength or intensity.
Seismic waves
(5) Energy is propagated along with the wave
(Earth quake)
motion without any net transport of the medium.
(6) For the propagation of wave, a medium should
have following characteristics.
(i) Elasticity : So that particles can return to their
mean position, after having been.

Tsunami (ii) Inertia : So that particles can store energy and

overshoot their mean position.
(iii) Minimum friction amongst the particles of the
medium.
All these are wave phenomenon.
(iv) Uniform density of the medium.
 Waves and Sound 813

(3) On the basis of energy propagation

Types of Waves (i) Progressive wave : These waves advances in a
Waves can be classified in a number of ways based medium with definite velocity. These waves propagate
on the following characteristics energy in the medium e.g. Sound wave and light waves.

(1) On the basis necessity of medium (ii) Stationary wave : These waves remains
stationary between two boundaries in medium. Energy
(i) Mechanical waves : Require medium for their is not propagated by these waves but it is confined in
propagation e.g. Waves on string and spring, waves on
segments (or loops) e.g.. Wave in a string, waves in
water surface, sound waves, seismic waves. organ pipes.
(ii) Non-mechanical waves : Do not require
(4) On the basis of dimension
medium for their propagation are called e.g, Light, heat
(Infrared), radio waves, - rays, X-rays etc. (i) One dimensional wave : Energy is transferred
in a single direction only e.g. Wave propagating in a
(2) On the basis of vibration of particle : On the stretched string.
basis of vibration of particle of medium waves can be
classified as transverse waves and longitudinal waves. (ii) Two dimensional wave : Energy is transferred
in a plane in two mutually perpendicular directions e.g.
Table 17.1 : Transverse and longitudinal waves Wave propagating on the surface of water.
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves (iii) Three dimensional wave : Energy in
transferred in space in all direction e.g. Light and sound
Particles of the medium Particles of a medium waves propagating in space.
vibrates in a direction vibrate in the direction of
(5) Some other waves
perpendicular to the wave motion.
direction of propagation of (i) Matter waves : The waves associated with the
v moving particles are called matter waves.
wave. Particles of the
medium (ii) Audible or sound waves : Range 20 Hz to 20
v KHz. These are generated by vibrating bodies such as
vocal cords, stretched strings or membrane.
(iii) Infrasonic waves : Frequency lie below 20 Hz
Transverse wave on a string Longitudinal wave in a fluid
and wavelengths are greater than 16.6 cm. Example :
waves produced during earth quake, ocean waves etc.
It travels in the form of It travels in the form of (iv) Ultrasonic waves : Frequency greater than 20
crests (C) and troughs (T). compression (C) and KHz. Human ear cannot detect these waves, certain
rarefaction (R). creatures such as mosquito, dog and bat show response
C C
Maximum C R C R C R to these. As velocity of sound in air is 332 m/sec so the
pressure
and density wavelength  < 1.66 cm.
These waves are used for navigation under water
T T Minimum
pressure and (SONAR).
Transverse waves can be These density They are used in ultrasonography (in photography
waves can be
transmitted through solids, or scanning soft tissue of body).
transmitted through solids,
they can be setup on the
surface of liquids. But they liquids and gases because Their used to repel mosquitoes or attract fishes
can not be transmitted into for these waves
liquids and gases. propagation, volume (v) Shock waves : When an object moves with a
elasticity velocity greater than that of sound, it is termed as
C C C C is necessary.
C C
Supersonic. When such a supersonic body or plane
R R travels in air, it produces energetic disturbance which
T T moves in backward direction and diverges in the form of
Transverse-wave in a Longitudinal wave in a a cone. Such disturbance are called the shock waves.
rod rod
Medium should posses the Medium should posses the The speed of supersonic is measured in Mach
property of rigidity property of elasticity number. One mach number is the speed of sound.
Transverse waves can be Longitudinal waves can not
polarised. be polarised. Velocityof source
Mach Number = .
Movement of string of a Sound waves travel through Velocityof sound
sitar or violin, movement of air, Vibration of air column
the membrane of a Tabla or in organ pipes Vibration of
Dholak, movement of kink air column above the
on a rope, waves set-up on surface of water in the tube
the surface of water. of resonance apparatus
 814 Waves and Sound

(7) Wave front : A wave front is a line or surface

Important Terms Regarding Wave Motion
(1) Amplitude (a) : Maximum displacement of a
vibrating particle of medium from it's mean position is
called amplitude.
on which the disturbance has the same phase at all
points. If the source is periodic, it produces a succession
of wave front, all of the same shape. Ripples on a pond
are the example of wave fronts.
Plane source

(2) Wavelength () : It is equal to the distance Point source

travelled by the wave during the time in which any one Ray
particle of the medium completes one vibration about Ray
its mean position.
(i) Or distance travelled by the wave in one time Wavefront
period is known as wavelength.
(ii) Or is the distance between the two successive
points with the same phase. (A) Spherical (B) Plane wavefront
wavefront
  Fig. 17.4
C C
R R R (8) Wave function ; It is a mathematical
C C C C description of the disturbance created by a wave. For a
T  T string, the wave function is a displacement for sound
   waves. It is a pressure or density fluctuation where as
for light waves it is electric or magnetic field.
(A) Transverse (B) Longitudinal
wave wave
Fig. 17.1 Now let us consider a one dimensional wave
(3) Frequency (n) : Frequency of vibration of a travelling along x-axis. During wave motion, a particle
particle is defined as the number of vibrations with equilibrium position x is displaced some distance y
completed by particle in one second. in the direction perpendicular to the x-axis. In this case
y is a function of position (x) and time (t).
It is the number of complete wavelengths
traversed by the wave in one second. i.e. y = f (x, t). This is called wave function .
Units of frequency are hertz (Hz) and per second. Let the wave pulse is travelling with a speed v, after
(4) Time period (T) : Time period of vibration of a time t, the pulse reaches a distance vt along the +x-
particle is defined as the time taken by the particle to axis as shown. The wave function now can be
complete one vibration about its mean position. represented asY y  f(x  vt) Y
vt
It is the time taken by the wave to travel a
distance equal to one wavelength
Time period = 1/Frequency  T = 1/n X
O
(5) Wave pulse : It is a short wave produced in a
medium when the disturbance created for a short time. (A) Pulse at time t (B) Pulse after time
=0 t
Fig. 17.5

If the wave pulse is travelling along – x-axis then y

Fig. 17.2 = f (x + vt)
If order of a wave function to represent a wave, the
(6) Wave train : A series of wave pulse is called
three quantities x, v, t must appear in combinations (x
wave train.
+ vt) or (x – vt)
2
Thus y = (x – vt)2, (x  vt), Ae B(xvt) etc.
represents travelling waves while
Fig. 17.3
 Waves and Sound 815
y  (x2  v2t2),( x  vt) , A sin (4x2 – 9t2) etc. medium per unit time and per unit of it's cross-sectional
area. It's unit is W/m2
doesn't represents a wave.
(9) Harmonic wave : If a travelling wave is a sin or Energy Power
Hence intensity (I)   
cos function of (x  vt) the wave is said to be Area Time Area
harmonic or plane progressive wave. 22n2a2v

(10) The wave equation : All the travelling waves  I  a2 (when v,  = constant)
satisfy a differential equation which is called the wave
where a = Amplitude, n =Frequency, v = Wave
 2y 2
2  y  velocity,
equation. It is given by  v ; where v 
t 2
x 2 k  = Density of medium.
It is satisfied by any equation of the form At a distance r from a point source of power P the
y  f(x  vt) intensity is given by
(11) Angular wave number or propagation
P 1
constant (k) : Number of wavelengths in the distance I 2
 I 2
2 is called the wave number or propagation constant
4r r

2 The human ear can hear sound of

i.e. k  . intensity up to 10–12 W/m2. This is called Fig.
 17.7
threshold of intensity. The upper
It is unit is rad/m. limit of intensity of sound which can be tolerated by
(12) Wave velocity (v) : It is the distance travelled human ear is 1 W/m2. This is called threshold of pain.
by the disturbance in one time period. It only depends (16) Energy density : The energy associated with
on the properties of the medium and it independent of unit volume of the medium is defined as energy density
time and position.
Energy density
  
v  n    Energy Intensity 2 2n2a2v
T 2 k     2 2n2a2
Volume Velocity v
(13) Group velocity (vg) : The velocity with which
the group of waves travels is known as group velocity Velocity of Transverse Wave
or the velocity with which a wave packet travels is The velocity of a transverse wave in a stretched

d T
known as group velocity vg  . string is given by v  ; where T = Tension in the
dk m
string; m = Linear density of string (mass per unit length).
(14) Phase () : The quantity which express at any
instant, the displacement of the particle and it's (1) If A is the area of cross-section of the wire then
direction of motion is called the phase of the particle. m = A

If two particles of the medium, at any instant are at T S T

 v  ; where S = Stress 
the same distance in the same direction from their A  A
equilibrium positions and are moving in the same
direction then they are said to be in same phase e.g. In (2) If string is stretched by some weight then
the following figure particles 1, 3 and 5 are in same T  Mg v T
phase and point 6, 7 are also in same phase.
Mg
6 7  v
m
l T
1 2 3 4 5
M
Fig. Mg
17.8
Fig. 17.6 (3) If suspended weight is immersed in a liquid of
(15) Intensity of wave : The wave intensity is density  and  = density of material of the suspended
load then
defined as the average amount of energy flow in
 816 Waves and Sound
   v T (iv) The velocity of sound in case of extended solid
T  Mg 1  
  
4
B 
Mg(1   /  ) (crust of the earth) 3 ; B = Bulk modulus;
 v l T
v
m 
M  = Modulus of rigidity;  = Density
Fig. 17.9
(2) Newton's formula : He assumed that when
(4) If two rigid supports of stretched string are sound propagates through air temperature remains
maintained at temperature difference of  then due to constant. i.e. the process is isothermal. For isothermal
elasticity of string. process
T = YA   B = Isothermal elasticity (E) = Pressure (P)  v =
v T
YA  B P
 v 
m  
 (+)
Y  For air at NTP : P = 1.01  105 N/m2 and  = 1.29
 Fig. 17.10 kg/m3.
d
where Y = Young's modulus of elasticity of string, A 1.01 105
 vair   280m / s
= Area of cross section of string,  = Temperature 1.29
coefficient of thermal expansion, d = Density of wire
However the experimental value of sound in air is
m
 332 m/sec which is greater than that given by Newton's
A formula.
 (3) Laplace correction : He modified Newton's
(5) In a solid body : v 
 formula assuming that propagation of sound in gaseous
medium is adiabatic process. For adiabatic process
where = Modulus of rigidity;  = Density of the
material. B = Adiabatic elasticity ( E )  P

B E P RT
Velocity of Longitudinal Wave (Sound Wave) v= =  
   M
(1) Velocity of sound in any elastic medium : It
E Elasticity
of themedium For air :  = 1.41  vair = 1.41 × 280  332
is given by v  
 Densityof themedium m/sec

Y (4) Relation between velocity of sound and

(i) In solids v  ; where Y = Young's modulus root mean square velocity : If sound travel in a

of elasticity RT
gaseous medium then vsound = and r.m.s.
M
B
(ii) In a liquid and gaseous medium v ;

3RT
velocity of gas vrms =
where B = Bulk modulus of elasticity of liquid or M
gaseous medium.
vrms 3
(iii) As solids are most elastic while gases least i.e. So = or vsound = [  /3]1/2 vrms.
vsound 
ES  E L  EG . So the velocity of sound is maximum in
solids and minimum in gases, hence vsteel > vwater Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound in Gaseous
> vair Medium
5000 m/s > 1500 m/s > 330 m/s (1) Effect of pressure at constant
temperature : Velocity of sound is independent of the
pressure of gas, because as pressure increases, density
 Waves and Sound 817
P
also increases hence ratio remains constant. So
 Equation of a Plane Progressive Waves
 P (1) If during the propagation of a progressive wave,
from v = , the particles of the medium perform SHM about their

mean position, then the waves is known as a harmonic
(2) Effect of temperature : With rise in progressive wave.
temperature velocity of sound increases. (2) Suppose a plane simple harmonic wave travels
from the origin along the positive direction of x-axis
RT from left to right as shown in the figure.
v  v T 
M v

v1 T1 (273 t1C) y
  O
v2 T2 (273 t2C) 1 2
x
When the temperature change is small then
vt  v0  0.61t Fig. 17.12
The displacement y of a particle 1 at O from its
where vt = Velocity of sound at t°C
mean position at any time t is given by y  a sin t.
v0 = Velocity of sound at 0°C = 332 m/sec
x
t = Small temperature change The wave reaches the particle 2 after time t  .
v
If t = 1°C then vt  (v0  0.61) m/sec. Hence for Hence displacement y of a particle 2 is given by
1°C rise, speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/sec.
 x
y  a sin  t    t  kx)
 a sin(
 P 1  v
(3) Effect of density : v = v 
 
 
k  
(4) Effect of humidity : With increase in humidity,  v
density of air decreases. So with rise in humidity
The general equation of a plane progressive wave
velocity of sound increases.
with initial phase is
Sound travels faster in humid air (rainy season)
Displaceme Amplitude Oscillating
than in dry air (summer) at the same temperature nt term
Phase
because
y(x, t) = a sin ( t  kx 
moistair   dryair  vmoistair  vdryair 0) Initial phase
Angular
Position
frequency
(5) Effect of wind velocity : Because wind drifts Propagation
constant
the medium (air) along its direction of motion therefore
(3) Various forms of progressive wave function.
the velocity of sound in a particular direction is the
algebraic sum of the velocity of sound and the (i) y = a sin ( t – kx)
component of wind velocity in that direction. Resultant 2
(ii) y = a sin ( t – x)
velocity of sound towards observer v' = v + w cos. 
w
Wind t x
(iii) y = a sin 2    
T 
 w cos 
2  T
v (iv) y  a sin t x 
S T  
Fig. 17.11
2
(v) y = a sin (v t – x)
(6) Sound of any frequency or wavelength travels 
through a given medium with the same velocity.
 x
For a given medium velocity remains constant. All (vi) y = a sin  t  
 v
other factors like phase, loudness pitch, quality etc.
have practically no effect on sound velocity.
 818 Waves and Sound
(4) Particle velocity : The rate of change of  Phase difference
displacement y w.r.t. time t is known as particle velocity
2
Hence from y  a sin( t  kx) ( )  (t)
. Timedifference
T
y Pressure Waves
Particle velocity vp   a cos(
 t  kx)
t
A longitudinal sound wave can be expressed either
Maximum particle velocity (vp )max  a in terms of the longitudinal displacement of the
particles of the medium or in terms of excess pressure
y  y produced due to compression or rarefaction. (at
Also    vp = – v  Slope of wave
t k x compression, the pressure is more than the normal
at that point pressure of the medium and at rarefaction the pressure
(5) Important relations for numerical solving is lesser than the normal). The first type is called the
displacement wave and the second type the pressure
(i) Angular frequency  = co-efficient of t
wave.
(ii) Propagation constant k = co-efficient of x
If the displacement wave is represented by
of t 
co- efficient  t  kx) then the corresponding pressure
y  a sin(
Wave speed v  
co- efficient
of x k dy
wave will be represented by P   B (B = Bulk
co- efficient
of x dx
(iii) Wave length  
2 modulus of elasticity of medium)

2  t  kx)
 P  P0 cos(
(iv) Time period T 
co- efficient
of t
where P0  pressure amplitude  akB
co- efficient
of t
(v) Frequency n   
2 Pressure wave is   out of phase with
 2
a2
(vi) (vp )max  a  a(2n)  displacement wave. i.e. pressure is maximum when
T
displacement is minimum and vice-versa.
(vii) If the sign between t and x terms is negative
the wave is propagating along positive X-axis and if the
Reflection and Refraction of Waves
sign is positive then the wave moves in negative X-axis When waves are incident on a boundary between
direction. two media, a part of incident waves returns back into
the initial medium (reflection) while the remaining is
(viii) Co-efficient of sin or cos functions i.e.
partly absorbed and partly transmitted into the second
Argument of sin or cos function is represented by phase
medium (refraction)
i.e. ( t – kx) = Phase.
(1) Rarer and denser medium : A medium is said
(ix) Phase difference and path difference : At
to be denser (relative to the other) if the speed of wave
any instant t, if 1 and 2 are the phases of two particles
in this medium is less than the speed of the wave in
whose distances from the origin are x1 and x2
other medium.
respectively then 1  ( t  kx1) and
In comparison to air speed of sound is maximum in
 2  ( t  kx2)  1   2  k(x2  x1) water, hence water is rarer medium for sound waves
w.r.t. air. But it is not true for light (EM-waves). For light
 Phase difference waves water is denser medium w.r.t. air.
2 (2) In reflection or refraction frequency remains
( )  (x)
. Pathdifference
 same
(x) Phase difference and time difference : If the Incident wave
phases of a particle distance x from the origin is 1 at
time t and 2 at time t2, then 1  ( t1  kx) and
i
r
1  (t2  kx)  1   2   (t1  t2) r' Transmitted or
refracted wave

Reflected
wave
Fig. 17.13
 Waves and Sound 819
(i) Wave goes from rarer to denser medium
–x +x
Incident Rigid boundary
wave
(3) For reflection angle of incidence (i) = Angle of
reflection (r) Rarer Denser
(4) In case of refraction or transmission

sini v
 i
sinr' vt Transmitted
Reflected wave
(5) Boundary conditions : Reflection of a wave wave Fig. 17.16
pulse from some boundary depends on the nature of the  t  k1x)
Incident wave yi  ai sin(
boundary.
Reflected wave yr  ar sin[ t  k1( x)   ]
(i) Rigid end : When the incident wave reaches a
fixed end, it exerts an upward pull on the end,   a sin( t  k1x)
according to Newton's law the fixed end exerts an equal
and opposite down ward force on the string. It result an Transmitted wave yt  at sin( t  k2x)
inverted pulse or phase change of . (ii) Wave goes from denser to rarer medium
–x +x
Crest (C) reflects as trough (T) and vice-versa, Time Incident Free boundary
wave
T 
changes by and Path changes by Dense Rarer
2 2 r

C C F

Transmitted
T Reflected wave
F
wave
Fig. 17.17
Fig. 17.14
 t  k1x)
Incident wave yi  ai sin(
(ii) Free end : When a wave or pulse is reflected
from a free end, then there is no change of phase (as Reflected wave yr  ar sin[ t  k1( x)  0]
there is no reaction force).
 a sin( t  k1x)
Crest (C) reflects as crest (C) and trough (T)
reflects as trough (T), Time changes by zero and Path Transmitted wave yt  at sin( t  k2 x)
changes byC zero. C C
(iii) Ratio of amplitudes : It is given as follows

ar k1  k2 v2  v1
  and
ai k1  k2 v2  v1
Fig. 17.15
at 2k1 2v2
 
(iii) Exception : Longitudinal pressure waves ai k1  k2 v1  v2
suffer no change in phase from rigid end i.e.
compression pulse reflects as compression pulse. On Echo
the other hand if longitudinal pressure wave reflects
from free end, it suffer a phase change of  i.e.
compression reflects as rarefaction and vice-versa.
(iv) Effect on different variables : In case of
reflection, because medium is same and hence, speed,
frequency () and wavelength  (or k) do not changes.
On the other hand in case of transmitted wave since
medium changes and hence speed, wavelength (or k)
changes but frequency () remains the same.
(6) Wave in a combination of string
 820 Waves and Sound
An echo is simply the repetition of speaker's own moves in the same direction, Their superimposition
voice caused by reflection at a distance surface e.g. a results in the interference.
cliff. a row of building or any other extended surface. (2) Due to interference the resultant intensity of
sound at that point is different from the sum of
If there is a sound reflector at a distance d from intensities due to each wave separately.
source, then the time interval between original source
(3) Interference is of two type (i) Constructive
and it's echo at the site of source will be interference (ii) Destructive interference.
Source
d d 2d (4) In interference energy is neither created nor
t   Detecto destroyed but is redistributed.
v v v
r d (5) For observable interference, the sources
(producing interfering waves) must be coherent.
Fig. 17.18
(6) Let at a given point two waves arrives with
As the persistence of hearing for human ear is 0.1 phase difference  and the equation of these waves is
given by
sec, therefore in order that an echo of short sound (e.g.
y1 = a1 sin  t , y2 = a2 sin (  t   ) then by
2d   
clap or gun fire) will be heard if t > 0.1   0.1  the principle of superposition y  y1  y2
v
 y = a1 sin  t + a2 sin (  t   ) = A sin
v
d  t    a1 A
20
2 2
If v = Speed of sound = 340 m/s then d > 17 m. where A  a1  a2  2a1a2 cos


Principle of Superposition a2 sin a2
and tan  =
(1) The displacement at any time due to any a1  a2 cos Fig. 17.20
number of waves meeting simultaneously at a point in a
medium is the vector sum of the individual
displacements due each 2
I a 
one of the waves at that since Intensity (I)  (Amplitude A)  1   1 
2

point at the same time.

I 2  a2 

(2) If y1 , y2, y3 Therefore, the resultant intensity is given by

………. are the I  I1  I 2  2 I 1 I 2 cos

displacements at a
particular time at a Table 17.2 : Constructive and destructive interference
particular position, due Constructive Destructive interference
to individual waves, then Fig. 17.19 interference
the resultant displacement. When the waves meets a When the wave meets a
point with same phase, point with opposite phase,
y  y1  y2  y3  ..... constructive interference is destructive interference is
obtained at that point (i.e. obtained at that point (i.e.
(3) Important applications of superposition principle maximum sound). minimum sound)

(i) Interference of waves : Adding waves that Phase difference between Phase difference
the waves at the point of   180o or(2n  1) ;
differs in phase observation
n = 1, 2, ...
(ii) Formation of stationary waves : Adding wave   0o or 2n
that differs in direction. Path difference between Path difference
the waves at the point of 
(iii) Formation of beats : Adding waves that
observation   n (i.e.   (2n  1) (i.e. odd
differs in frequency. 2
even multiple of /2)
multiple of /2)
(iv) Formation of Lissaju's figure : Adding two
Resultant amplitude at the Resultant amplitude at the
perpendicular simple harmonic motions. (See S.H.M. for
point of observation will be point of observation will be
more detail) maximum Amax = a1 + a2 minimum Amin  a1  a2
Interference of Sound Waves If
a1  a2  a0  Amax  2a0 If a1  a2  Amin  0
(1) When two waves of same frequency, same
wavelength, same velocity (nearly equal amplitude) Resultant intensity at the Resultant intensity at the
point of observation will be point of observation will be
 Waves and Sound 821
maximum minimum If now tube B is further pulled out by a distance x so
I max  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 I min  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 that next maximum is obtained and the length of path

  I1  I2  2
  I1  I2  2 from the side of B is l'2 then we have

If If l'2  l2  2x .... (ii)

I1  I 2  I 0  I max  4I 0 I1  I 2  I 0  I min  0
where x is the displacement of the tube. For next
2 constructive interference of sound at point Q, we have
 I1 
2   1 l'2  l1  (N  1) .... (iii)
I max  I1  I 2   I2 
(7)    From equation (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
Imin  I1  I 2   I1
 
  1  
I2 l'2 l2  2 x    x 
  2
Thus by experiment we get the wavelength of sound
2
 a1  as for two successive points of constructive
2   1 interference, the path difference must be . As the tube
a a  a
  1 2   2  B is pulled out by x, this introduces a path difference 2x
 a1 
 a1  a2    1
in the path of sound wave through tube B. If the

 a2  frequency of the source is known, n0, the velocity of

sound in the air filled in tube can be gives as   n0.
Quink's Tube
 2n0 x
This is an apparatus used to demonstrate the
phenomenon of interference and also used to measure Standing Waves or Stationary Waves
velocity of sound in air. This is made up of two U-tube A
and B as shown in figure. Here the tube B can slide in When two sets of progressive wave trains of same
and out from the tube A. There are two openings P and type (both longitudinal or both
Q in the tube A. At opening P, a tuning fork or a sound transverse) having the same
source of known frequency n0 is placed and at the other amplitude and same time
opening a detector is placed to detect the resultant period/frequency/wavelength
sound of interference occurred due to superposition of travelling with same speed
two sound waves coming from the tubes A and B. along the same straight line in
opposite directions
Sound superimpose, a new set of
source waves are formed. These are called stationary waves or
P
standing waves.
In practice, a stationary wave is formed when a
A B wave train is reflected at a boundary. The incident and
reflected waves then interfere to produce a stationary
wave.
Q x (1) Suppose that the two super imposing waves are
Detector  t  kx) and reflected wave
incident wave y1  a sin(
Fig. 17.21 y2  a sin( t  kx)
Initially tube B is adjusted so that detector detects a
(As y2 is the displacement due to a reflected wave
maximum. At this instant if length of paths covered by
from a free boundary)
the two waves from P and Q from the side of A and side
Then by principle of superposition
of B are l1 and l2 respectively then for constructive
interference we must have y  y1  y2  a[sin( t  kx)  sin(
 t  kx)]
l2  l1  N .... (i) CD CD
(By using sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos )
2 2
 y  2a coskx sin t
 822 Waves and Sound
(If reflection takes place from rigid end, then (iii) The distance between a node (N) and adjoining
equation of stationary wave will be
y  2a sinkx cos t ) 
antinode (A) is .
4  /2
(2) As this equation satisfies the wave equation

 2y 2
2  y N N
 v . It represents a wave. A A A
t2 x2
(3) As it is not of the form f(ax  bt), the wave is  /4
not progressive.
 /2
(4) Amplitude of the wave ASW  2a coskx. Fig. 17.22
Table 17.3 : Amplitude in two different cases
Characteristics of Standing Waves
Reflection at open end Reflection at closed end
(1) Standing waves can be transverse or
ASW  2acoskx ASW  2a sinkx longitudinal.
Amplitude is maximum Amplitude is maximum (2) The disturbance confined to a particular region
when cos kx =  1 when sin kx =  1
between the starting point and reflecting point of the

 kx = 0, , 2, .... n. wave.
 3 (2n  1)
 kx  , ..... (3) There is no forward motion of the disturbance
2 2 2
 n from one particle to the adjoining particle and so on,
x  0, ,  .......  3
2 2  x , ....... beyond this particular region.
4 4
2 (4) The total energy associated with a stationary
where k and n = 0, 2 wave is twice the energy of each of incident and
 where k  and n = 1,
1, 2, 3, ...  reflected wave. As in stationary waves nodes are
2, 3, .... permanently at rest. So no energy can be transmitted
Amplitude is minimum Amplitude is minimum across then i.e. energy of one region (segment) is
when coskx  0 when sinkx  0 confined in that region. However this energy oscillates
  between elastic potential energy and kinetic energy of
particles of the medium.
 3 (2n  1)  3 (2n  1)
kx  ,
..... kx  , ..... (5) The medium splits up into a number of
2 2 2 2 2 2
segments. Each segment is vibrating up and down as a
 3 
whole.
 x , .......
4 4
 n
x  0, ,  ....... (6) All the particles in one particular segment
2 2 vibrate in the same phase. Particles in two consecutive
segments differ in phase by 180°.
(5) Nodes (N) : The points where amplitude is
minimum are called nodes. (7) All the particles except those at nodes, execute
simple harmonic motion about their mean position with
 the same time period.
(i) Distance between two successive nodes is .
2 (8) The amplitude of vibration of particles varies
(ii) Nodes are at permanents rest. from zero at nodes to maximum at antinodes (2a).
(9) All points (except nodes) pass their mean position
(iii) At nodes air pressure and density both are high.
twice in one time period.
(6) Antinodes (A) : The points of maximum
(10) Velocity of particles while crossing mean
amplitudes are called antinodes.
position varies from maximum (ASW   .2a) at
(i) The distance between two successive antinodes
antinodes to zero at nodes.
 (11) In standing waves, if amplitude of component
is
2 waves are not equal. Resultant amplitude at nodes will
be minimum (but not zero). Therefore, some energy will
(ii) At nodes air pressure and density both are low.
pass across nodes and waves will be partially standing.
(12) Application of stationary waves
(i) Vibration in stretched string
 Waves and Sound 823
(ii) Vibration in organ pipes (closed and open) Standing Waves on a String
(iii) Kundt's tube (1) Consider a string of length l, stretched under
Table 17.4 : Progressive v/s stationary wave tension T between two fixed points.
Progressive wave Stationary wave (2) If the string is plucked and then released, a
These waves transfers These wave does not transverse harmonic wave propagate along it's length
energy transfers energy and is reflected at the end.
All particles have the same Between a node and an
amplitude antinode all particles have (3) The incident and reflected waves will
different amplitudes superimpose to produce transverse stationary waves in
Over one wavelength span Between a node and an a string.
all particles have difference antnodes all particles have
phase same phase. (4) Nodes (N) are formed at rigid end and antinodes
No point is at rest Nodes are always at rest
(A) are formed in between them.

All particles do not cross All particles cross the mean (5) Number of antinodes = Number of nodes – 1
the mean position position simultaneously.
simultaneously. (6) Velocity of wave (incident or reflected wave) is

T
Terms Related to the Application of Stationary Wave given by v  ; m = Mass per unit length of the
m
(1) Note : Any musical sound produced by the wire
simple harmonic oscillations of the source is called note. (7) Frequency of vibration (n) = Frequency of wave
(2) Tone : Every musical sound consists of a
number of components of different frequencies every v 1 T
 
component is known as a Tone.   m
(3) Fundamental note and fundamental (8) For obtaining p loops (p-segments) in string, it
frequency : The note of lowest frequency produced by
l
an instrument is called fundamental note. The has to be plucked at a distance from one fixed
frequency of this note is called fundamental frequency. 2p
end.
(4) Harmonics : The frequency which are the
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency are (9) Fundamental mode of vibration
known as harmonics e.g. if n be the fundamental (i) Number of loops p = 1
frequency, then the frequencies n, 2n, 3n .... are termed x=0 x=l
as first, second, third .... harmonics. l A
(ii) Plucking at N N
(5) Overtone : The harmonics other than the first 2
(fundamental note) which are actually produced by the (from one fixed end)
instrument are called overtones. e.g. the tone with 1
l
frequency immediately higher than the fundamental is  2
defined as first overtone. (iii) l 1  1  2l
2 Fig. 17.23
(6) Octave : The tone whose frequency is doubled
(iv) Fundamental frequency or first harmonic
the fundamental frequency is defined as Octave.
(i) If n2 = 2n1 it means n2 is an octave higher than 1 T 1 T
n1 or n1 is an octave lower than n2. n1  
1 m 2l m
(ii) If n2  23 n1, it means n2 is 3-octave higher or
(10) Second mode of vibration (First over tone or
n1 is 3-octave lower. second harmonic)
(iii) Similarly if n2  2nn1 it means n2 is n-octave (i) Number of loops p = 2
higher n1 is n octave lower. l l
(ii) Plucking at  x=0 N
x=l
(7) Unison : If the interval is one i.e. two 2 2 4 A A
frequencies are equal then vibrating bodies are said to N N
be in unison. (from one fixed end)
l = 2
(8) Resonance : The phenomenon of making a (iii) l  2 Fig. 17.24
body vibrate with its natural frequency under the
influence of another vibrating body with the same (iv) Second harmonic or first over tone
frequency is called resonance.
 824 Waves and Sound
(3) If p is the number of loop's formed in stretched
1 T 1 T
n2   =2n1 string and T is the tension in the string then Melde's law
2 m l m
is p T  constant
(11) Third normal mode of vibration (Second
over tone or third harmonic) p1 T2
  (For comparing two cases)
(i) Number of loops p = 3 p2 T1
l l Table 17.5 ; Two arrangements of connecting a
(ii) Plucking at x=0 x=l string to turning fork
2 3 6 N N
A A A
(from one fixed end) N N Transversely Example

T 3 3T
l
33 2l 2
(iii) l   3  Fig. 17.25
2 l 3
T l T

(iv) Third harmonic or second over tone m

m

1 T 3 T
n3   =3n1 Prongs of tuning fork Prongs vibrated along the
3 m 2l m vibrates at right angles to length of the thread.
the thread.
(12) More about string vibration Frequency of vibration of Frequency of turning fork
turning fork : frequency of =2  (Frequency of vibration
(i) In general, if the string is plucked at length vibration of the thread. of thread)
l If number of loops in string It number of loop so in
, then it vibrates in p segments (loops) and we p string is p then
2p is P then l  p 2l
2 l  
2 p
p T 2l
have the pth harmonic is give fp    Frequency of string
2l m p

v p T
(ii) All even and odd harmonics are present. Ratio Frequency of string  
 2l m
of harmonic = 1 : 2 : 3 ..... v p T
   Frequency of turning fork
(iii) Ratio of over tones = 2 : 3 : 4 ....
 2l m
P T
 T  I
2l v  l m
(iv) General formula for wavelength   ; 
 m 
N  If l, m, n  constant then
where N = 1,2,3, … correspond to 1st , 2nd, 3rd modes of  Frequency of tuning fork p T  constant
vibration of the string. p T

2l m
v
(v) General formula for frequency n  N   If l, m, n  constant
2l then p T  constant
l 2l 3l
(vi) Position of nodes : x  0, , , .....l
N N N Sonometer
(vii) Position of antinodes : (1) It is an apparatus, used to produce resonance
(matching frequency) of tuning fork (or any source of
x
l
,
3l
,
5l
....
 2N  1 l sound) with stretched vibrating string.
2N 2N 2N 2N (2) It consists of a hollow rectangular box of light
Melde's Experiment wood. The experimental fitted on the box as shown.
Experiment Rider Bridge
(1) It is an experimental representation of al wire
transverse stationary wave.
(2) In Melde's experiment, one end of a flexible
piece of string is tied to the end of a tuning fork. The Tension
other end passes over a smooth pulley carries a suitable T = Mg
load. Resonance box

Fig. 17.26
 Waves and Sound 825
p-loops q-loops

(3) The box serves the purpose of increasing the l1 l2

loudness of the sound produced by the vibrating wire.
Fig. 17.27
(4) If the length of the wire between the two bridges
As the frequency of the wave in both strings must
is l, then the frequency of vibration is
be same so
1 T T
n  p T q T
2l m r 2d   
2l1 m1 2l2 m2
(r = Radius of the wire, d = Density of material
of wire) m = mass per unit length of the wire) p l1 m1 l1 1
 
(5) Resonance : When a vibrating tuning fork is q l2 m2 l2 2
placed on the box, and if the length between the
Standing Wave in a Organ Pipe
bridges is properly adjusted then if (n)Fork  (n)String 
Organ pipes are the musical instrument which are
rider is thrown off the wire.
used for producing musical sound by blowing air into the
(6) Laws of string pipe. Longitudinal stationary waves are formed on
(i) Law of length : If T and m are constant then account of superimposition of incident and reflected
longitudinal waves.
1
n Equation of standing wave y = 2a cos
l
2vt 2x
 nl = constant  n1l1  n2l2 sin
 
(ii) Law of mass : If T and l are constant then
v
1 Frequency of vibration n 
n 
m
Table 17.6 : Different mode of vibration in organ
n1 m2 pipe
 n m  constant  
n2 m1 Closed organ pipe
Fundamental Third harmonic Fifth harmonic
(iii) Law of density : If T, l and r are constant then mode First over tone Second over
1 tone
n
d A
A A

n d2 N
 n d  constant N 1 
n2 A d1
1 3 5
l l 2 l 3
4 m are constant
(iv) Law of2tension : If l and N 4then
A
n T
A

n n1 T2
  constant  
N N
T n2 T1 N

v v 3v 5v
Vibration of Composite Strings n1  n2   n
33n
1  5n1
4l 2 4l 4l
Suppose two strings of different material and lengths
are joined end to end and tied between clamps as shown. Open organ pipe
Now after plucking, stationary waves are established only Fundamental Second Third harmonic
at those frequencies Awhich matches with any one mode harmonic
A A
harmonic of both the independent string S1 and S2
N
N
A
 33
N l 1 A l = 2 N l
2 2
A
N
N
A A A
 826 Waves and Sound
(vii) Position of nodes from one end x =

 3 5
, , .....
4 4 4
(viii) Position of antinodes from one end x = 0,

 3
, , .....
2 2

v v v v v 3v Tuning Fork
n1   n2    2n1n3    3n1
1 2l 2 L 3 2l (1) The tuning fork is a metallic device that
produces sound of a single frequency.
(1) Closed organ pipe (2) A tuning fork is really a
(i) In closed organ pipe only odd harmonic are transversely vibrating rod of rectangular
present. Ratio of harmonic is n1 : n3 : n5 ....= 1 : 3 : cross-section bent into the shape of U as
5 .... shown.
(ii) pth overtone = (2p + 1)th harmonics (3) The prongs execute transverse
(iii) Ratio of overtones = 3 : 5 : 7 .... vibrations and the stem executes the
longitudinal vibration. Both vibrate with Fig. 17.28
(iv) The maximum possible wavelength is 4l
the same frequency.
(v) General formula for wavelength is
(4) The phase difference between the vibrations
4l produced by both prongs of tuning fork is zero.

 2N  1 ; where N = 1, 2, 3, ... corresponds to (5) Tuning forks are generally taken as the
order of mode of vibration. standards of frequency of pure notes.

(2N  1)v The frequency of the tuning fork is given by

(vi) General formula for frequency n 
4l t Y
n .
(vii) Position of nodes from closed end x = 0, l2 

 3 where t = Thickness of the prongs, l = Length of the

, , .....
2 2 prongs, Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity and  =
Density of the material of tuning fork.
(viii) Position of antinodes from closed end x =
(6) If one prong is broken tuning fork does not
 3 5 vibrate.
, , ...
4 4 4
Effect on frequency of tuning fork
(2) Open organ pipe
(i) A fork of shorter prongs gives high frequency
(i) In open organ pipe all (even and odd) harmonic tone
are present. Ratio of harmonic is n1 : n3 : n5 ....= 1 : 2 :
(ii) The frequency of a tuning fork decreases when
3 ....
it's prongs are loaded (say with wax) near the end.
(ii) pth overtone = (p + 1)th harmonics
(iii) The frequency of tuning fork increases when
(iii) Ratio of overtones = 2 : 3 : 5 .... prongs are filed near the ends.
(iv) The maximum possible wavelength is 2l (iv) The frequency of a tuning fork decreases if
temperature of the fork is increases.
2l
(v) General formula for wavelength is  ;
N
where N = 1, 2, 3, ... corresponds to order of mode of End Correction
vibration.
Due to finite momentum of air molecules in organ
Nv pipe reflection takes place not exactly at open end but
(vi) General formula for frequency n 
2l some what above it. Hence antinode is not formed
exactly at the open end rater it is formed at a little
distance away from open end outside it.
 Waves and Sound 827
The distance of antinode from the open end is Kundt's Tube
known as end correction (e). It is given by e = 0.6 r
The apparatus consists of a long glass tube about 5
where r = radius of pipe.
cm in diameter, fixed horizontally. A metal rod R
A A clamped firmly at the centre is mounted so that its one
e e
end carrying a light disc P1 (of cork or card board)
projects some distance into the glass tube. The other
N end of the glass tube is closed with a moveable piston
l' l N l l' P2. Any desired length of the air or gas can be enclosed
A in between the two discs P1 and P2. A small amount of
dry lycopodium powder or cork dust is spread along
e
N base of the entire length of the tube.
A
(A) Open (B) Closed P2 P1
pipe pipe Rod R
Fig. 17.29
Effect length in open organ pipe l' = (l + 2e)
Effect length in closed organ pipe l' = (l + e)

Resonance Tube Clamped

It is used to determine velocity of sound in air by Lycopodium power at the
middle
the help of a tuning fork of known frequency. Fig.
17.31
It is a closed organ pipe having an air column of The free end of the metal rod R is rubbed (stroked)
variable length. When a tuning fork is brought over it's along the length with resined cloth. The rod begins to
mouth. It's air column vibrates with the frequency of the vibrate longitudinally and emits a very high pitched
fork. If the length of the air column is varied until it's shrill note. These vibrations are impressed upon the air
natural frequency equals the frequency of the fork, then column in the tube through disc P1. Let disc P2 is so
the column resonants and emits a loud note. adjusted, that the stationary waves are formed in the
air (gas) column in the tube. At antinodes powder is set
into oscillations vigorously while it remains uneffected
at nodes. Heaps of power are formed at nodes.
e e
l1 Let n is the frequency of vibration of the rod then,
T Reservoi
l2 this is also the frequency of sound wave in the air
r
column in the tube.
Rubber
tube
rod air
For rod :  lrod , For air :  lair
Scale 2 2
where lair is the distance between two heaps of
power in the tube (i.e. distance between two nodes). If
vair and vrod are velocity of sound waves in the air and
Fig. 17.30 rod respectively, then
If l1 and l2 are lengths of first and second
 3 vair vrod vair  
resonances, then we have l1  e  and l2  e  n  . Therefore  air  air
4 4 air rod vrod rod rod
 Thus knowledge of vrod, determiens vair
 l2  l1     2(l2  l1)
2
Kundt's tube may be used for
Speed of sound in air at room (temperature)
(i) Comparison of velocities of sound in different
v  n  2n(l2  l1) gases.

l2  e (ii) Comparison of velocities of sound in different

Also 3  l2  3l1  2e i.e. second solids
l1  e
(iii) Comparison of velocities of sound in a solid and
resonance is obtained at length more than thrice the
in a gas.
length of first resonance.
 828 Waves and Sound
(iv) Comparison of density of two gases.
(v) Determination of  of a gas.
(vi) Determination of velocity of sound in a liquid.
Beats
When two sound waves of slightly different
frequencies, travelling in a medium along the same
direction, superimpose on each other, the intensity of
the resultant sound at a particular position rises and
falls regularly with time. This phenomenon of regular
variation in intensity of sound with time at a particular
position is called beats.
(1) Persistence of hearing : The impression of
sound heard by our ears persist in our mind for 1/10 th of
a second. If another sound is heard before 1/10 second
is over, the impression of the two sound mix up and our
mind cannot distinguish between the two.
So for the formation of distinct beats, frequencies of
two sources of sound should be nearly equal (difference
of frequencies less than 10)
(2) Equation of beats : If two waves of equal
amplitudes 'a' and slightly different frequencies n1 and
n2 travelling in a medium in the same direction are.
y1 = a sin  1 t  a sin2n1t ;
y2  a sin 2t  a sin2 n2t
By the principle of super position : y  y1  y2
y = A sin (n1  n2 )t where A = 2a cos
 (n1  n2 )t = Amplitude of resultant wave.
(3) One beat : If the intensity of sound is
maximum at time t = 0, one beat is said to be formed
when intensity becomes maximum again after
becoming minimum once in between.
(4) Beat period : The time interval between two
successive beats (i.e. two successive maxima of sound)
is called beat period.
n  n1 ~ n2
(5) Beat frequency : The number of beats
produced per second is called beat frequency.
1 1
T  means initially nB = nA + x
Beatfrequency n1 ~ n2
Determination of Unknown Frequency
Suppose a tuning fork of known frequency (nA) is
sounded together with another tuning fork of unknown
frequency (nB) and x beats heard per second.
A B
Known
Unknown
x If B is loaded with wax
bps
Fig. 17.32
There are two possibilities to known frequency of
unknown tuning fork.
nA  nB  x ... (i)
or nB  nA  x ... (ii)
To find the frequency of unknown tuning fork (nB)
following steps are taken.
(1) Loading or filing of one prong of known or
unknown (by wax) tuning fork, so frequency changes
(decreases after loading, increases after filing).
(2) Sound them together again, and count the
number of heard beats per sec again, let it be x. These
are following four condition arises.
(i) x > x (ii) x < x (iii) x = 0 (iv) x = x
(3) With the above information, the exact frequency
of the unknown tuning fork can be determined as
illustrated below.
Suppose two tuning forks A (frequency nA is known)
and B (frequency nB is unknown) are sounded together
and gives x beats/sec. If one prong of unknown tuning
fork B is loaded with a little wax (so nB decreases) and it
is sounded again together with known tuning fork A,
then in the following four given condition nB can be
determined.
(4) If x > x than x, then this would happen only
when the new frequency of B is more away from nA. This
would happen if originally (before loading), nB was less
than nA.
Thus initially nB = nA – x.
(5) If x < x than x, then this would happen only
when the new frequency of B is more nearer to nA. This
would happen if originally (before loading), nB was more
than nA.
Thus initially nB = nA + x.
(6) If x = x then this would means that the new
frequency (after loading) differs from nA by the same
amount as was the old frequency (before loading). This
(and now it has decreased to nB = nA – x)
(7) If x = 0, then this would happen only when the
new frequency of B becomes equal to nA. This would
happen if originally nB was more than nA.
Thus initially nB = nA + x.
Table 17.7 ; Frequency of unknown tuning fork for
various cases
By loading
If A is loaded with wax
 Waves and Sound 829
so its frequency its frequency decreases (iv) Thus apparent frequency (n') = actual
decreases frequency (n).
If x increases nB = nA – x If x increases nB = nA + x (2) When source is moving but observer is at
If x decrease nB = nA + x If x decrease nB = nA – x rest
If remains same nB = nA + If remains same nB = nA – x
x
If x becomes zero nB = nA If x becomes zero nB = nA –
+x x
By filing
If B is filed, its If A is filed, its frequency S2
S O
frequency increases increases O
S1
If x increases nB = nA + x If x increases nB = nA – x  '
If x decrease nB = nA – x If x decrease nB = nA + x Y X
(i) S1, S2, S3 are the positions of the source at three
If remains same nB = nA – x If remains same nB = nA + x
different positions.
If x becomes zero nB = nA – If x becomes zero nB = nA + Fig. 17.34
x x (ii) Waves are represented by non-concentric
circles, they appear compressed in the forward direction
and spread out in backward direction.
Doppler's Effect
(iii) For observer (X)
Apparent wavelength ' < Actual wavelength 
 Apparent frequency n' > Actual frequency n
For observer (Y) :  '    n'  n

(3) When source is stationary but observer is

moving

Whenever there is a relative motion between a O O

source of sound and the observer (listener), the S
frequency of sound heard by the observer is different  
from the actual frequency of sound emitted by the X
Y
(i) Waves are again represented by concentric
source.
circles. Fig.
The frequency observed by the observer is called 17.35
(ii) No change in wavelength received by either
the apparent frequency. It may be less than or greater observer X or Y.
than the actual frequency emitted by the sound source.
(iii) Observer X (moving towards) receives wave
The difference depends on the relative motion between
fronts at shorter interval thus n'  n.
the source and observer.
(iv) Observer Y receives wavelengths at longer
(1) When observer and source are stationary
interval thus n'  n.
(i) Sound waves propagate in the form of spherical
wavefronts (shown as (4) General expression for apparent frequency :
circles) Suppose observed (O) and source (S) are moving in the
same direction along a line with velocities vO and vS
(ii) The distance
between two O
respectively. Velocity of sound is v and velocity of
successive circles is S medium is vm then apparent frequency observed by
equal to wavelength .  
 (v  vm)  v0 
(iii) Number of observer is given by n'  n
waves crossing the  (v  vm)  vS 
observer = Number of Fig. 17.33
waves emitted by the
source
v
vm

vS vO
S O
Fig. 17.36
 830 Waves and Sound

If medium is stationary i.e. vm = 0 then

 v  vO  Apparent frequency
n'  n  

 v  vS   v  ( vO )
n'  n 
 v  vO 
 n
 
Sign convection for different situation  v 0   v 
(i) The direction of v is always taken from source to Apparent wavelength
observer. (v  vO ) (v  vO ) v
'   
(ii) All the velocities in the direction of v are taken n' (v  vO ) n
positive. n
v
(iii) All the velocities in the opposite direction of v are
taken negative. (2) Observer is moving away from the source

Common Cases in Doppler's Effect

Case 1 : Source is moving but observer at v
rest.
vO
(1) Source is moving towards the observer vS = 0
Apparent S O frequency
Positive
Fig. 17.40
 v  (vO )  v  vO 
v
n'  n    n 
 v 0   v 
vO = 0 Apparent wavelength  '  
vS
S O Case 3: When source and observer both are
Positive moving
Apparent frequency
Fig. 17.37 (1) When both are moving towards each other
 v 0   v 
n'  n    n  

 v  (vS )  v  vS 
v

 v  vS 
Apparent wavelength '     vO
vS
 v 
S O
(2) Source is moving away from the observer. Negativ
Positive
(i) Apparent e frequency
Fig. 17.41

v  v  ( vO )  v  vO 
n'  n    n 
vO = 0  v  (vS )   v  vS 
vS
S
O  v  vS 
Apparent Negative frequency (ii) Apparent wavelength '    
Fig. 17.38  v 
 v 0   v 
n'  n    n  
 (iii) Velocity of wave with respect to observer
 v  (vS )  v  vS 
 (v  vO )
 v  vS 
Apparent wavelength  '     (2) When both are moving away from each other.
 v 
Case 2: Source is at rest but observer is
moving. v
(1) Observer is moving towards the source.
vS vO
S O
v Negativ Positive
e Fig. 17.42

vS = 0 vO
S O
Negativ
e
Fig. 17.39
 Waves and Sound 831
(i) Apparent frequency (1) Moving sound source crosses a stationary
 v  ( vO )  v  vO  observer
n'  n    n 
 v  ( vS )   v  vS 
v v
(n' < n)

 v  vS 
(ii) Apparent wavelength '     vS vS
 v  S
(' > ) vO = 0 Negativ
Positive
e
Velocity of waves with respect to observer = (v – vO)
Before After crossing
(3) When source is moving behind observer crossing
Apparent frequency before crossing
Fig. 17.45

 v 0   v 
v n'Before n    n 
 v  (v )
S   v  vS 

vS vO Apparent frequency
S O
 v 0   v 
Positive Positive n'After  n    n 
 Fig.
v  vO   v  (vS )  v  vS 
(i) Apparent frequency n'  n 17.43 

 v  vS  n'Before  v  vS 
(a) If vO  vS , then n'  n Ratio of two frequency   1
n'After  v  vS 
(b) If vO  vS then n'  n
Change in apparent frequency
(c) If vO  vS then n'  n
2nvSv
 v  vS 
n'Beforen'After 
(ii) Apparent wavelength  '     (v2  vS2)
 v 
2nvS
(iii) Velocity of waves with respect to observer = If vS  v then n'Beforen'After 
(v  vO ) v
(4) When observer is moving behind the source (2) Moving observer crosses a stationary
source

v v v
S
vS
vO
S O vO vO
Negativ Negativ O O
e  ve (vO )  Negativ
vS = 0
Positive
(i) Apparent frequency
Fig. n
n' 17.44 
 v  (v )  e After crossing
 S  Before
crossing
(a) If vO  vS , then n'  n Fig. 17.46
Apparent frequency before crossing
(b) If vO  vS then n'  n
 v  ( vO )  v  vO 
(c) If vO  vS then n'  n n'Before n    n 
 v 0   v 
 v  vS 
(ii) Apparent wavelength '     Apparent frequency
 v 
 v  (vO )  v  vO 
(iii) The velocity of waves with respect to observer n'After  n    n 
= (v  vO )  v 0   v 

Case 4: Crossing
 832 Waves and Sound

n'Before  v  vS   v  (vC )   v  vC 
Ratio of two frequency   n'  n    n 
n'After  v  vS   v  (vC )  v  vC 
Change in apparent frequency This method of images for solving problems of
Doppler effect is very convenient but is used only for
2nvO
n'Beforen'After  velocities of source and observer which are very small
v compared to the speed of sound and it should not be
Case 5: Both moves in the same direction with used frequently when the reflector of sound is moving.
same velocity n' = n, i.e. there will be no Doppler effect (2) Moving target : Let a sound source S and
because relative motion between source and listener is observer O are at rest (stationary). The frequency of
zero.
sound emitted by the source is n and velocity of waves
Case 6: Source and listener moves at right angle is v.
to the direction of wave propagation. n' = n Moving target
It means there is no change in frequency of sound S
heard if there is a small displacement of source and
listener at right angle to the direction of wave O
propagation but for a large displacement the frequency Source and
observer are at vT
decreases because the distance between source of rest
sound and listener increases.
Fig. 17.49
Some Typical Cases of Doppler's Effect
A target is moving towards the source and observer,
(1) Moving car towards wall : When a car is with a velocity vT. Our aim is to find out the frequency
moving towards a stationary wall as shown in figure. If observed by the observer, for the waves reaching it
the car sounds a horn, wave travels toward the wall and after reflection from the moving target. The formula is
is reflected from the wall. When the reflected wave is derived by applying Doppler equations twice, first with
heard by the driver, it appears to be of relatively high
the target as observer and then with the target as
pitch. If we wish to measure the frequency of reflected
source.
sound then the problem.
The frequency n' of the waves reaching surface of
the moving target (treating it as observer) will be

 v  vT 
n'   n
 v 
vC
Now these waves are reflected by the moving target
(which now acts as a source). Therefore the apparent
frequency, for the real observer O will be
Can be solved in a different
Fig. 17.47 manner by using v v  vT
method of sound images. In this procedure we assume
n''  n'  n' '  n
v  vT v  vT
the image of the sound source behind the reflector.
(i) If the target is moving away from the observer,
Observer Imaginary then
vC source v
C
v  vT
n'  n
v  vT
(ii) If target velocity is much less than the speed of
v
Echo (sound)  2vT 
sound, (vT  v), then n'   1   n, for
 v 
Fig. 17.48
approaching target
Here we assume that the sound which is reflected
by the stationary wall is coming from the image of car  2vT 
which is at the back of it and coming toward it with
and n'   1   n, for receding target
 v 
velocity vC. Now the frequency of sound heard by car
driver can directly be given as (3) Transverse Doppler's effect
 Waves and Sound 833
(i) If a source is moving in a direction making an i.e. vS
angle  w.r.t. the observer nv 
nmax 
A vS cos  v  vS r
B
vS C (b) Away from
O
the observer heard vS
 90°  vS
frequency will be v
vS cos  minimum
Fig. 17.52
and
nv
O nmin 
v  vS
(c) Ratio of maximum and minimum frequency

Fig. nmax v  vS
The apparent frequency heard
17.50 by observer O at rest 
nmin v  vS
nv
At point A : n  (ii) When observer is rotating
v  vS cos
(a) Towards the source heard frequency will be
As source moves along AB, value of  increases, maximum
cos decreases, n goes on decreasing.
nv
i.e. nmax  vO
At point C :   90o , cos  cos90o  0 , n  n v  vS 
. r
(b) Away from the
At point B : the apparent frequency of sound
source heard frequency S
becomes vO
will be minimum
v
nv
n  nv Fig. 17.53
v  vs cos and nmin 
v  vS
(ii) When two cars are moving on perpendicular
(c) Ratio of maximum and minimum frequency
roads : When car-1 sounds a horn of frequency n, the
apparent frequency of sound heard by car-2 can be nmax v  vS

 v  v2 cos 2  nmin v  vS
given as n'  n  
 v  v1 cos1  (iii) Observer is situated at the centre of
circle : There will be no
Car-1 v1
change in frequency of
sound heard, if the
1
source is situated at the
centre of the circle
v2 
along which listener is Fig.
moving.. 17.54

Car-2
(5) SONAR : Sonar means Sound Navigation and
2 Ranging.
Fig. 17.51 (i) Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence
of big rocks, submarines etc in the sea.
(ii) The waves emitted by a source are reflected by
(4) Rotating source/observer : Suppose that a
the target and received back at the SONAR station.
source of sound/observer is rotating in a circle of radius
(iii) If v is velocity of sound waves in water and vsub
r with angular velocity  (Linear velocity vS = r)
is velocity of target (submarine), the apparent
(i) When source is rotating
(a) Towards the observer heard frequency will be  2v 
frequency of reflected waves will be n'   1  sub  n
maximum  v 
 834 Waves and Sound
+ sign is for target approaching the receiver and – (4) Loudness : Characteristic of sound, on account
sign for target moving away. of which the sound appears to be intense or slow.

Conditions for No Doppler's Effect (i) The loudness that we sense is related to the
intensity of sound though it is not directly proportional
(1) When source (S) and listener (L) both are at rest.
(ii) The loudness depends on intensity as well as
(2) When medium alone is moving. upon the sensitiveness of ear.
(iii) Our perception of loudness is better co–related
(3) When S and L move in such a way that distance
with the sound level measured in decible (dB) and
between S and L remains constant.
 I 
(4) When source S and listener L, are moving in defined as follows   10log10   ; where I0 = The

mutually perpendicular directions.  I0 
minimum intensity that can be heard called threshold of
(5) If the velocity of source and listener is equal to or
hearing = 10–12 W/m2 at 1 KHz.
greater than the sound velocity then Doppler effect is not
seen. (iv) At the threshold of hearing  = 0. At the
Musical Sound 1
threshold of pain   10log10  120dB.
10 2
(v) When the intensity doubles, the intensity level
changes by 3 dB.
(vi) When the intensity increases 10 times the level
increases by 10 dB.
Table 17.8 ; Different sound intensity level

Source of sound dB
A musical sound consist of a series of harmonic Rustling leaves 10
waves following each other rapidly at regular interval of Whisper 20
time without a sudden change in amplitude. Quiet room 30
(1) Noise : A noise consists of a series of waves Normal level of speech 30
(inside)
following each other at irregular intervals of time with
Street traffic (inside car) 65
sudden changes in amplitude.
Riveting tool 80
(2) Pitch : The pitch of a sound is the characteristic Thunder 100
which distinguishes between a shrill (or sharp) sound
Indoor rock concert 120
and a grave (or flat) sound.
(i) A sound of high pitch is said to be shrill and it's Interval : The ratio of the frequencies of the two
frequency is high. notes is called the interval between them e.g. interval
(ii) A sound of low pitch is said to be grave and it's between two notes of frequencies 256 Hz and 512 Hz is
frequency is low. 1 : 2.
(iii) The pitch of female voice is higher than the Table 17.9 ; Different interval
pitch of male voice.
(iv) The pitch of sound produced by roaring of lion is Name of interval Frequency ratio
lower where as the pitch of sound produced by Unison 1:1
mosquito whisper is high. Octave 2:1
(3) Quality (or timbre) : A musical instrument Major tone 9:8
vibrates with many frequencies at the same time. The Minor tone 10 : 9
quality of any musical sound is determined by the Semi tone 16 : 15
number of overtones and their relative intensities.
(i) The quality of sound enables us to distinguish Musical scale : It consists of a series of notes of
between two sounds having same intensity and pitch. successively increasing frequency, having constant
intervals. The note of the lowest frequency is called the
(ii) The sounds of different instruments (such as
key note.
Tabla and Mridang) are said to differ in quality.
These are many kinds of musical scales. The most
(iii) Due to quality of sound one can recognise the
commonly used scale is called major diatonic scale. It is
voice of his friend without seeing him.
 Waves and Sound 835
formed by introducing six more notes between a given
note and it's octave, so that these are eight notes in all.
Table 17.10 : Major diatonic scale
Symbo India Wester Frequency Interval  In an open pipe all harmonics are present
l n n name in the base between whereas in a closed organ pipe, only alternate
name of 256 Hz successiv harmonics of frequencies n1, 3n1, 5n1,..... etc.
e notes are present.
C SA DO 256
9/8 The harmonics of frequencies
D RE RE 288
10/9 2n1, 4n1, 6n1.... are missing.
E GA MI 320
16/15
F MA FA 341 Hence musical sound produces
9/8
G PA SOL 384 by an open organ pipe is
10/9
A DHA LA 427 sweeter than that produced by
9/8
B Ni SI 480 a closed organ pipe.
16/15
C1 SA DO 512  If an open pipe is half submerged in water, it will
become a closed organ pipe of length half that of a
open pipe. It's fundamental frequency will become
Accoustics of Buildings
v v
Accounstics is the branch of physics that deals with n    n1
 l  2l i.e., equal to that of open pipe.
the generation, propagation and reception of sound. 4 
W.C. Sabine was the first to carry out the scientific
 2
study of architectural acoustics by laying down following i.e., frequency remains unchanged.
rules.  Vibrating clamped rod : Frequency of vibration
The sound must be loud enough. of clamped rod are same as that of organ pipes
The quality of sound must be unaltered. Middle clamping : Similar to open organ pipe
The successive soundsN of speech or music must
remain distinct.
A A
These should not be unnecessary interference or
resonance of sound in the auditorium.
l
These should be no echoes in the auditorium. v
n1  n2  2n1
(1) Reverberation : Phenomenon of persistence or 2l
prolongation of sound in the auditorium is called n3  3n1
reverberation.
End clamping : Similar to closed organ pipe
(2) Reverberation time : The time gap between
N A
the initial direct note and the reflected note upto the
minimum audibility level is called reverberation time.
l
(3) Sabine law : Sabine derived an expression of
V
the reverberation time which is t  K . ; where K is v
S n1  n2  2n1
constant, V = Volume of the hall, S = Surface area 4l
exposed to the sound  =Co-efficient of absorption. n3  3n1
(4) Controlling the reverberation time : It may  Sound produced in air is not heard by the diver
be controlled as follows :
deep inside the water because most of the sound is
By hanging heavy curtains on the doors. reflected from the surface of water in comparison to
By having few open windows in the hall. the refraction.

By having large audience.  If the difference between the apparent frequency

of a source of sound as perceived by an observer
By using absorbing materials in the walls and roofs
during it's approach and recession is x% of the
of the hall.
natural frequency of source then speed of
 836 Waves and Sound

vsound
vs  x (v2  vs2 )
200
 In a Tabla, the membrane is loaded about the
centre why? a note is musical when it is rich
in harmonics and not partial
overtones. Ordinarily a stretched
membrane vibrates with such
 The tuning of radio receiving set to a particular
overtones. But when the stretched
station is based on forced vibration.
membrane is loaded at the centre, its overtones
 Two avoid resonant vibration of the bridge,
become nearly harmonics, so it's sound becomes soldiers are orderd to break steps while crossing a
fairly musical. bridge.
 All harmonics are overtones but all overtones are  Confusion : So many students often confuse
not harmonics. whether the equation of a plan progressive wave
 Stethoscope work on the principle of reflection of should be
sound. y = a sin ( t – kx) or y = a sin (kx –  t)
 Ultrasonic waves can be produced by utilizing Both the equations represent a travelling wave but
piezoelectric effect. these two are not same. These waves are differ by a
phae difference of .
 There is no atmosphere on moon, therefore
propagation of sound is not possible there. To do  Audibility of sound in day/night : During the
conversation on moon, the astronaut uses an day temperature of air is maximum and it dimnished
instrument which can transmit and detect upwards. Therefore velocity of sound is also
electromagnetic waves. decreases upwards ( v  T ). The plane wavefronts,
initially vertical are turned, upwards so sound rays
 Doppler effect gives information regarding the
curl up during the day. At night the conditions are
change in frequency only. It does not says about
reversed hence audibility of sound is better in night
intensity of sound. as compare to day.
 Doppler effect in sound is asymmetric but in light
it is symmetric.
 If three tuning forks of frequencies n, n + x and n
+ 2x are sounded together to produce waves of equal
amplitude these three wave produces beats with beat
frequency = x beats/sec
n n+x n + 2x Sound
Wavefront rays

Sound Wavefront
rays
Day Night
 If N tuning forks are so arranged that every fork Basics of Mechanical Waves
gives x beats per sec with the next then the
1. Which of the following statements is wrong
frequency of last fork will be
[NCERT 1976, 79]
1
nLast = nFirst + (N – 1) x (a) Sound travels in straight line
2 3 N
(b) Sound is a form of energy
(c) Sound travels in the form of waves
(d) Sound travels faster in vacuum than in air
nFirst nLast 2. The relation between frequency ‘n’ wavelength ‘’
and velocity of propagation ‘v’ of wave is
[EAMCET 1979; CPMT 1976, 85]
 If a vibrating tuningMax.
fork is rotated about it’s (a) n  v (b) n   / v
stem, maximum and minimum number of beats heard
by an observer inMin.
one revolution ofMin.
tuning fork are 4. (c) n  v /  (d) n  1 / v

Max. Max.

Min. Min.
Max.