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EM-module III
EM-module III
MODULE - III
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1
Synchronous Machines
Introduction
Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current generators. They supply the electric power
used by all sectors of modern society. Synchronous machine is an important electromechanical energy
converter. Synchronous generators usually operate in parallel forming a large power system supplying
electrical power to consumers or loads. For these applications the synchronous generators are built in large
units, their rating ranging form tens to hundreds of Megawatts. These synchronous machines can also be run
as synchronous motors.
Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an external DC source.
Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a rotating field system
called rotor.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic field.
The rotor is then driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a 3-phase
voltage within the stator winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings for synchronous
machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is induced (stator windings for
synchronous machines).
Types of synchronous machines
According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are classified as
rotating armature type or rotating field type.
In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding is on the stator. The
generated emf or current is brought to the load via the slip rings. These type of generators are built only in
small units.
In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the armature windings are on the
stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair of slip rings and the induced emf or current is supplied
to the load via the stationary terminals.
Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified as
1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called hydrogenerators.
These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These generators are run at very
high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed less than 1500
rpm.
Hence the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic turbines, Steam turbines or IC engines.
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m and above Francis turbines: Water heads up
to 380 m
Keplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m
Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam turbines are called turbogenerators or turbo
alternators. Steam turbines are to be run at very high speed to get higher efficiency and hence these types of
generators are run at higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very small rated generators.
Construction of synchronous machines
1. Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with concentrated
field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel
engines.
2. Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These machines are having cylindrical
smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor construction is employed
for the machine driven by steam turbines.
1. Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed based on the water head
available and hence these machines are low speed machines. These machines are constructed based on the
mechanical consideration. For the given frequency the low speed demands large number of poles and
consequently large diameter. The machine should be so connected such that it permits the machine to be
transported to the site. It is a normal to practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress
produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of
• The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed into the
cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing
losses and heating. CRGO laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron losses.
A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated stator. The cross- sectional
area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the machine. For a 3- phase generator, 3
sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in star.
Details of construction of stator are shown in Figure.
It works on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction. Any rotating machine when rotated in the magnetic flux
works according to this principle.
The working of this machine is similar to that of an AC generator. The working figure of an AC generator is shown in the figure
below.
Armature winding is a collection of coils placed in the magnetic field. The coil when rotated in the
magnetic field by a prime mover, it cuts the magnetic lines of forces thus, generating an induced emf.
This generated induced emf is according to the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction.
The induced emf develops current to flow in the armature winding. The direction of the armature current
is found by using the Flemings right-hand rule.
The induced emf will be zero when the coil is in the alignment of magnets and is maximum when the coil
is perpendicular. As the coil is rotated the current changes continuously which can be observed in a
galvanometer. The current is passed through the slip rings and then to the brushes. The slip rings are used
for the smoother operation of the machine and brushes are used to collect the current from the slip rings
and deliver to the load. The coil movement in the magnetic field at different points is shown in the figure
below.
Relation between Speed and Frequency: In the previous course on induction motors it is established that the
relation between speed and frequency and number of poles is given by
Frequency f = P x N /120 Hz
Windings in Alternators: In case of three phase alternators the following types of windings are employed.
(i) Lap winding,
(ii) wave winding and
(iii) mush winding.
Pitch Factor:
180 - α
α
Full Pitch
As shown in the above figure, consider the coil short pitched by an angle α, called chording angle. When
the coils are full pitched the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in magnitude and in phase with
each other. Hence the resultant emf induced in the coil will be sum of the emf induced.
Hence Ec = E1 + E2 = 2E for full pitched coils,
Hence total emf = algebraic sum of the emfs = vector sum of emfs as shown in figure below
When the coils are shot pitched by an angle α, the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in
magnitude but will be out of phase by an angle equal to chording angle. Hence the resultant emf is equal
to the vector sum of the emfs as shown in figure below.
Hence the resultant coil emf is given by Ec = 2E1 cos α/2 = 2E cos α/2 volts.
Hence the resultant emf in the short pitched coils is dependant on chording angle α. Now the factor by
which the emf induced in a short pitched coil gets reduced is called pitch factor and defined as the
ratio of emf induced in a short pitched coil to emf induced in a full pitched coil.
Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in a short pitched coil/ emf induced in a full pitched coil
= (2E cos α/2 )/ 2E Kp = cos α/2
where, α is called chording angle.
Distribution Factor: Even though we assumed concentrated winding in deriving emf equation, in practice an
attempt is made to distribute the winding in all the slots coming under a pole. Such a winding is called distributed
winding.
In concentrated winding the emf induced in all the coil sides will be same in magnitude and in phase with each
other. In case of distributed winding the magnitude of emf will be same but the emfs induced in each coil side
will not be in phase with each other as they are distributed in the slots under a pole. Hence the total emf will not
be same as that in concentrated winding but will be equal to the vector sum of the emfs induced. Hence it will be
less than that in the concentrated winding. Now the factor by which the emf induced in a distributed winding gets
reduced is called distribution factor and defined as the ratio of emf induced in a distributed winding to emf
induced in a concentrated winding.
Distribution factor Kd = emf induced in a distributed winding/ emf induced in a concentrated winding
= vector sum of the emf/ arithmetic sum of the emf
Let
E = emf induced per coil side
m = number of slots per pole per phase, n = number of slots per pole
β = slot angle = 180/n
The emf induced in concentrated winding with m slots per pole per phase = mE volts.
Fig below shows the method of calculating the vector sum of the voltages in a distributed winding having a
mutual phase difference of β. When m is large curve ACEN will form the arc of a circle of radius r.
From the figure below AC = 2 x r x sin β/2 Hence arithmetic sum = m x 2r sin β/2
Now the vector sum of the emfs is AN as shown in figure below = 2 x r x sin mβ/2
Hence the distribution factor Kd = vector sum of the emf / arithmetic sum of the emf
= (2r sin mβ/2) / (m x 2r sin β/2) Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
In practical machines the windings will be generally short pitched and distributed over the periphery of the
machine. Hence in deducing the emf equation both pitch factor and distribution factor has to be considered.
Hence the general emf equation including pitch factor and distribution factor can be given as EMF induced per
phase = 4.44 f Φ Tph x KpKd (volts)
Eph = 4.44 KpKd f ΦTph (volts)
Numerical Problems:
1. A 3Φ, 50 Hz, star connected salient pole alternator has 216 slots with 5 conductors per slot. All the
conductors of each phase are connected in series; the winding is distributed and full pitched. The
flux per pole is 30 mwb and the alternator runs at 250 rpm. Determine the phase and line voltages
of emf induced.
2. A 3Φ, 16 pole, star connected salient pole alternator has 144 slots with 10 conductors per slot. The
alternator is run at 375 rpm. The terminal voltage of the generator found to be 2.657 kV. Dteremine
the frequency of the induced emf and the flux per pole.
Soln: Ns = 375 rpm, p =16, slots = 144, Total no. of conductors = 144 x 10 = 1440 EL = 2.657 kV,
f = P Ns/120 = 16 x 375/120 = 50 Hz
Assuming full pitched winding kp = 1
Number of slots per pole per phase = 144/(16 x 3) = 3 Slot angle β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 /9 = 200
Hence distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Turns per phase Tph = 144 x 10/ 6 = 240 Eph = EL/√3 = 2.657/√3 = 1.534 kV
Eph = 4.44 KpKd f 8 Tph vlolts
1534.0 = 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x 8 x 240
8 = 0.03 wb = 30 mwb
3. A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 60 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The
coils are short pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread is 60 0, find the line voltage induced for a flux
per pole of 0.943 wb.
Slon: p = 4, f = 50 Hz, Slots = 60, cond/slot = 4 , short pitched by 3 slots, phase spread = 600, Φ = 0.943 wb
Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz, slots = 288, EL= 6600 volts, 2 coilsides/slot, 16 turns /coil Short pitched by 2
slots
Number of poles = 120f/ Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24 Number of slots /pole/phase m = 288 / ( 24 x 3) = 4 Number of
slots /pole = 288 / 24 = 12
Slot angle β = 180/ number of slots per pole
= 180 / 12 = 150
5. A three phase 600 kVA, 400 volts, delta connected alternator is reconnected in star.
Calculate its new ratings in terms of voltage, current and volt-ampere.
When it is reconnected in star phase voltage and phase current will remain same, as
Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph and Iph = Vph /Zph
Methods of finding Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by
different methods. In case of small generators it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case of
large generators it can not determined by direct loading but will be usually predetermined by different
methods. Following are the different methods used for predetermination of regulation of alternators.
1. Direct loading method
2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
3. MMF method or Ampere turns method
4. ASA modified MMF method
5. ZPF method or Potier triangle method
All the above methods other than direct loading are valid for nonsalient pole machines only. As the
alternators are manufactured in large capacity direct loading of alternators is not employed for
determination of regulation. Other methods can be employed for predetermination of regulation. Hence the
other methods of determination of regulations will be discussed in the following sections.
EMF method: This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the magnetic circuit is
assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced by rotor and stator are replaced by
their equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.
To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be determined. Armature
resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the alternator.
The open-circuit characteristic or magnetization curve is really the B-H curve of the complete magnetic
circuit of the alternator. Indeed, in large turbo-alternators, where the air gap is relatively long, the curve
shows a gradual bend. It is determined by inserting resistance in the field circuit and measuring
corresponding value of terminal voltage and field current. Two voltmeters are connected across the armature
terminals. The machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If1 till armature
voltage reaches rated value or even 25% more than the rated voltage. Figure 32 illustrates a typical circuit
for OC and SC test and figure 33 illustrates OC and SC curve. The major portion of the exciting ampere-
turns is required to force the flux across the air gap, the reluctance of which is assumed to be constant. A
straight line called the air gap line can therefore be drawn as shown, dividing the excitation for any voltage
into two portions, (a) that required to force the flux across the air gap, and (b) that required to force it
through the remainder of the magnetic circuit. The shorter the air gap, the steeper is the air gap line.
Procedure to conduct OC test:
(i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator.
(ii) Keep the field circuit rheostat in cut in position and switch on DC supply.
(iii) Keep the TPST switch of the stator circuit in open position.
(iv) Vary the field current from minimum in steps and take the readings of field current and
stator terminal voltage, till the voltage read by the voltmeter reaches up to 110% of rated
voltage. Reduce the field current and stop the machine.
(v) Plot of terminal voltage/ phase vs field current gives the OC curve.
The short-circuit characteristic, as its name implies, refers to the behaviour of the alternator when its
armature is short-circuited. In a single-phase machine the armature terminals are short-circuited through an
ammeter, but in a three-phase machine all three phases must be short-circuited. An ammeter is connected in
series with each armature terminal, the three remaining ammeter terminals being short-circuited. The
machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If2 till armature current reaches rated
value. The armature short-circuit current and the field current are found to be proportional to each other over
a wide range, as shown in Figure 33, so that the short- circuit characteristic is a straight line. Under short-
circuit conditions the armature current is almost 90° out of phase with the voltage, and the armature mmf
has a direct demagnetizing action on the field. The resultant ampere − turns inducing the armature emf are,
therefore, very small and is equal to the difference between the field and the armature ampere − turns. This
results in low mmf in the magnetic circuit, which remains in unsaturated condition and hence the small
value of induced emf increases linearly with field current. This small induced armature emf is equal to the
voltage drop in the winding itself, since the terminal voltage is zero by assumption. It is the voltage required
to circulate the short- circuit current through the armature windings. The armature resistance is usually small
compared with the reactance.
Hence induced emf per phase can be found as Eph = √[ (V cosΦ + IRa)2 + (V sinΦ ± IXS)2]
where,
V = phase voltage per phase = Vph ,
I = load current per phase
in the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging pwer factor ans – sign is for leading power
factor.
Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives the value of
regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called pessimistic method.
Ex.1. A 1200 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, three phase star connected alternator has an armature resistance of
0.25 Ω per phase. A field current of 40 Amps produces a short circuit current of 200 Amps and an open
circuit emf of 1100 volts line to line. Find the % regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging and leading by using
emf method.
Soln: Full load current = 1200 x 103/ (√3 x 3300) = 210 amps; Voltage per phase Vph = 3300/√3 = 1905
volts
Synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per phase for same excitation
= (1100/√3) / 200 = 3.17 Ω
Synchronous reactance = Xs = √[( Zs)2 - (Ra)2] = √ (3.17)2 + (0.25)2 = 3.16 Ω
0.8 pf lagging: referring to the phasor diagram
Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 + IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 + 210 x 3.16)2
= 2398 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph )/ Vph] x 100
= [(2398 – 1905) / 1905] x 100
= 25.9 %
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 - IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 - 210 x 3.16)2
= 1647 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(1647 – 1905) / 1905] x 100
= - 13.54 %
Ex.2. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 1600 kVA, 13500 volts. The armature resistance and
synchronous reactance are 1.5 Ωand 30Ω per phase respectively. Calculate the percentage voltage regulation
for a load of 1280 kW at a pf of 0.8 leading.
Soln: Full load current = 1600 x 103/ (√3 x 13500 x 0.8) = 68.4 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 13500/√3 = 7795volts
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 - IXS)2]
=√[(7795 x 0.8 + 68.4 x 1.5)2 + ( 7795 x 0.6 – 68.4 x 30)2
= 6861 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6861 – 7795) / 7795] x 100
= - 12 %
Ex.3. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 100 kVA. On short-circuit a field current of 50 amp
gives the full load current. The e.m.f. generated on open circuit with the same field current is 1575 V/phase.
Calculate the voltage regulation at (a) 0.8 power factor lagging, and (b) 0.8 power factor leading by
synchronous impedance method. Assume armature resistance is 1.5 ohms.
Soln:
Ex. 4. A 10 MVA 6.6 kV, 3phase star connected alternator gave open
circuit and short circuit data as follows.
Field current in 25 50 75 100 125 150
amps:
OC voltage in kV 2.4 4.8 6.1 7.1 7.6 7.9
(L-L):
SC Current in 288 528 875
Amps:
Find the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging by emf method.
Armature resistance per phase =
0.13 .
Soln: Full load current = 10 x 106/ (√3 x 6600) = 875 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 6600/√3 = 3810volts
Corresponding to the full load current of 875 amps oc voltage from the oc
and sc characteristics is 6100 volts
Hence synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per
phase
= (6100/√3)/ 875
= 4.02
pf lagging: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 + IXS)2]
=√[(3810 x 0.8 + 875 x 0.13)2 + ( 3810 x 0.6 – 875x 4.01789)2
= 6607.26 volts Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6607.26 – 3810) / 3810] x 100
= 73.42%
Principle of operation
In order to understand the principle of operation of a synchronous motor, assume that the armature winding (laid out
in the stator) of a 3-phase synchronous machine is connected to a suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field
winding to a D.C source of rated voltage. The current flowing through the field coils will set up stationary magnetic
poles of alternate North and South. On the other hand, the 3- phase currents flowing in the armature winding produce
a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. In other words there will be moving North and South poles
established in the stator due to the 3-phase currents i.e at any location in the stator there will be a North pole at some
instant of time and it will become a South pole after a time period corresponding to half a cycle. (after a time = 1/2f ,
where f = frequency of the supply). Assume that the stationary South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole
in the stator moving in clockwise direction at a particular instant of time, as shown in Figure below. These two poles
get attracted and try to maintain this alignment ( as per lenz’s law) and hence the rotor pole tries to follow the stator
pole as the conditions are suitable for the production of torque in the clockwise direction. However, the rotor cannot
move instantaneously due to its mechanical inertia, and so it needs sometime to move. In the mean time, the stator
pole would quickly (a time duration corresponding to half a cycle) change its polarity and becomes a South pole. So
the force of attraction will no longer be present and instead the like poles experience a force of
repulsion as shown in Figure below. In other words, the conditions are now suitable for the production of torque in
the anticlockwise direction. Even this condition will not last longer as the stator pole
would again change to North pole after a time of 1/2f. Thus the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries
to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/2f
seconds. As this duration is quite small compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot
respond and move in any direction. The rotor continues to be stationary only.
On the contrary if the rotor is brought to near synchronous speed by some external device say a small motor mounted
on the same shaft as that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles in the stator and the rotor
continues to run at the synchronous speed even if the supply to the motor is disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor
cannot start rotating on its own when the rotor and stator are supplied with rated voltage and frequency and hence the
synchronous motor has no starting torque. So, some special provision has to be made either inside the machine or
outside of the machine so that the rotor is brought to near about its synchronous speed. At that time, if the armature is
supplied with electrical power, the rotor can pull into step and continue to run at its synchronous speed. Some of the
commonly used methods for starting synchronous rotor are described in the following paragraph.
Basically there are three methods that are used to start a synchronous motor:
• To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the rotor can easily
accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic field’s rotation. This is done by
reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This method is usually followed in the case of inverter-
fed synchronous motor operating under variable speed drive applications.
• To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its synchronous speed and
then supply the rotor as well as stator. Of course care should be taken to ensure that the directions of rotation of
the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic field of the stator are the same. This method is usually
followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started as a generator and is then connected to the
supply mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the power supply to the prime
mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to operate as a motor.
• To use damper windings if these are provided in the machine. The damper windings are provided in most of
the large synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the synchronous
machine is subjected to a periodically varying load.
The behavior of a synchronous motor can be predicted by considering its equivalent circuit on similar lines to that of
a synchronous generator as described below.
The equivalent-circuit model for one armature phase of a cylindrical rotor three phase synchronous motor is shown in
Figure below exactly similar to that of a synchronous generator except that the current flows in to the armature from
the supply. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to Figure below
Figure.61.
or VT = Ef + IaZs
where:
Ra = armature resistance (/phase)
Xl = armature leakage reactance (/phase) Xs = synchronous reactance (/phase)
Zs = synchronous impedance (/phase) VT = applied voltage/phase (V)
Ia = armature current/phase(A)
Effect of changes in excitation on the performance synchronous motor
Increasing the strength of the magnets will increase the magnetic attraction, and thereby cause the rotor magnets to
have a closer alignment with the corresponding opposite poles of the rotating magnetic poles of the stator. This will
obviously result in a smaller power angle. This
Fullfact can also be seen from power angle equation. When the shaft load
is assumed to be constant, the steady-state load
value of E f sinδ must also be constant. An increase in Ef will cause a
transient increase in Ef sinδ, and the rotor will50%
accelerate. As the rotor changes its angular position, δ decreases until
load
Ef sinδ has the same steady-state value as before, at which time the rotor is again operating at synchronous speed, as
it should run only at the synchronous speed. This change in angular position of the rotor magnets relative to the poles
of rotating magnetic field of the stator occurs in a fraction of a second. The effect of changes in field excitation on
armature current, power angle, and power factor of a synchronous motor operating with a constant shaft load, from a
constant voltage, constant frequency supply, is illustrated in figure below.
This is also shown in Figure below, where the locus of the tip of the Ia phasor is a line perpendicular to the phasor VT.
Note that increasing the excitation from Ef1 to Ef3 caused the phase angle of the current phasor with respect to the
terminal voltage VT (and hence the power factor) to go from lagging to leading. The value of field excitation that
results in unity power factor is called normal excitation. Excitation greater than normal is called over excitation, and
excitation less than normal is called under excitation.
Further, as indicated in Figure, when operating in the overexcited mode, |Ef | > |VT |. A synchronous motor operating
under over excited condition is called a synchronous condenser.
Graphs of armature current vs. field current of synchronous motors are called V curves and are shown in Figure
below for typical values of synchronous motor loads. The curves are related to the phasor diagram shown in figure
below, and illustrate the effect of the variation of field excitation on armature current and power factor. It can be
easily noted from these curves that an increase in shaft loads require an increase in field excitation in order to
maintain the power factor at unity.
The points marked a, b, and c on the upper curve corresponds to the operating conditions of the phasor diagrams
shown. Note that for P = 0, the lagging power factor operation is electrically equivalent to an inductor and the leading
power factor operation is electrically equivalent to a capacitor. Leading power factor operation with P = 0 is
sometimes referred to as synchronous condenser or synchronous capacitor operation. Typically, the synchronous
machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user can determine the resulting operation under a
given set of conditions.
Full load
50% load
No load
←Lag Lead →
pf
←Lag Lead →
If
Figure.65
Plots of power factor vs. field current of synchronous motors are called inverted V curves and are shown in Figure
above for different values of synchronous motor loads.
Synchronous Condenser:
An over excited synchronous motor operates at unity or leading power factor. Generally, in large industrial plants the
load power factor will be lagging. The specially designed synchronous motor running at zero load, taking leading
current, approximately equal to 90. When it is connected in parallel with inductive loads to improve power factor,
it is known as synchronous condenser. Compared to static capacitor the power factor can improve easily by variation
of field excitation of motor. Phasor diagram of a synchronous condenser connected in parallel with an inductive load
is given below.
Figure.66
Numerical Problems:
Ex.1 A 3 phase star connected synchronous motor is taking a current of 25 Amps from supply while driving a certain
load. Its resistance and synchronous reactances per phase are 0.2 Ω and 2 Ω respectively. Calculate the emf induced
in the motor if it is operating at a power factor (i) 0.8 lagging
(ii) 0.9 leading.
Soln: Ra = 0.2 Ω, Xs = 2 Ω Ia = 25 amps, Vph= 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Zs = √ (R a)2 + (Xs)2 = Ra + j Xs = 0.2 + j 2 =
2.001 ∟84.29 Ω
(i) 0.8 lagging
Ia = 25∟-36.86 amps
Eph
IaZs
Eph
δ( θ
)Φ ) δ(
Vph
Ia
Eph A
Er
IaZs
Eph
30( θ 30(
o
)
)Φ B Vph
Ia
Stator voltage/phase = 4000/√3 = 2309.4 volts Back emf /phase =1800 volts
(i) From the phasor diagram, using cosine rule
Er2 = V 2
+ E 2 - 2 V E cosδ
ph ph ph ph
2 2
= 2309.4 + 1800 – 2 x 2309.4 x 1800 x cos 30
= 1374578.79
Hence Er = 1172.42 volts
(ii) Zs = √ (Ra)2 + (Xs)2 = Ra + j Xs = 2.2 + j 22 = 22.11∟84.29 fi
Hence Ia = Er/Zs = 1172.42/22.11 = 53.02 amps
(iii) Power factor
θ = 84.3 , form the triangle OAB ∟AOB = θ – Φ
tan (θ – Φ) = AB/OB = Ephsin30/( Vph - Ephcos30)
= 1800 sin30/(2309.4 – 1800cos30)
= 1.199
θ – Φ = tan-1 1.199 = 50.17 hence Φ = 84.3 – 50.17 = 34.130
power factor = cos Φ = cos34.13 = 0.827
(iv) Motor input Pi = √3VLILcos Φ
= √3 x 4000 x 53.02 x 0.827
= 303784.67 watts
Stator cu loss = 3Ia2Ra = 3 x 53.022 x 2.2 = 18553.39 watts
Mechanical power developed Pm = Pi – cu losses = 303784.67 – 18553.39 =285231.28 watts Synchronous speed =
120f/p = 1500rpm
Gross torque developed Tg = 9.55 Pm/Ns N-m
= 9.55 x 285231.28/1500
= 1815.97 N-m
Ex.3. A 400 volts, 8 kW, 3 phase, 50Hz synchronous motor has negligible resistance and synchronous reactance of 8
fi per phase. Determine the minimum current and the corresponding induced emf for full load condition. Assume
efficiency of the motor as 88%.( Aug2001)
Slon:
We have Stator voltage/phase = 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Xs = 8 fi
Motor input = output/η = 8000/0.88 = 9091 watts Motor input Pi = √3VLILcos Φ
ILcos Φ = Pi /√3VL = 9091 /(√3 x 400) = 13.12 amps.
Ex.4. A 6 pole, 400 volts, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected synchronous motor has a resistance and synchronous
impedance of 0.5 Ω and 4 Ω per phase respectively. It takes a current of 15 amps at unity power factor when
operating with a certain field current. If the load torque is increased until the line current becomes 60 amps, the field
current remaining unchanged, calculate the gross torque developed
and new power factor. ( Jan 2009) B
Soln:
Stator voltage/phase = 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Er Eb
2 2 2 2
Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs – Ra ) = √( 4 – 0.5 ) = 3.969 Ω
Internal angle θ = tan -1(Xs/Ra) = tan-1(3.969/0.5) = 82.80 Impedance drop
Er = Ia x Zs = 60 volts δ θ
Consider the phasor diagram of the motor From the phasor diagram, using A
cosine rule Eb2 = V 2 + E 2 - 2 V E cosθ o Ia
ph r ph r Vph
2 2
= 230.94 + 60 – 2 x 230.94 x 60 x cos 82.8
Eb = 231.21 volts
When the load on the motor is increased the load angle increases and the phasor diagram becomes as shown
Input current = 60 amps
B
Supply voltage Vph = 230.94 volts Back emf = 231.21 volts Eb
Er
Impedance drop Er = Ia x Zs = 60 x 4 = 240 volts
From phasor diagram using cosine rule A
2 2 2
Eb = V + Eph - 2 Vr E cosθ ph o r
2 2 2 )θ δ( ph
231.21 = 230.94 + 240 – 2 x 230.94 x 240 x cos ∟AOB
V
Hence cos ∟AOB = 0.5185 Ia
∟AOB = cos-1 0.5185 = 58.70
We have θ = tan-1(Xs/Ra) = tan-1(3.969/0.5) = 82.80 Hence pf angle Φ = 82.8 – 58. 7 = 24.1
New pf = cos24.1 = 0.913 lag
New Motor input = Pi = √3VLILcos Φ = √3 x 400 x 60 x 0.913 = 38000 watts Total cu loss = 3 I a2Ra = 3 x 602 x 0.5 =
5400 watts
Total mechanical power developed = 38000 – 5400 = 32600 watts. Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/p = 1000 rpm
Gross torque developed Tg = 9.55 Pm/Ns N-m
= 9.55 x 32600/1000
= 311.33 N-m
**********************************************************************************
the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P). The direct (or zero frequency) current sets up a two-pole
field which is stationary so long as the rotor is not turning. Thus, we have a situation in which there exists
a pair of revolving armature poles (i.e., NS - SS) and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).
(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig: It is clear that poles
NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the
anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or ½ f = 1/100 second), the polarities of the stator
poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles remain the same as shown in Fig: Now SS and NR
attract each other and so do NS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the clockwise direction.
Since the stator poles change their polarities rapidly, they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and
then after a period of half-cycle in the other. Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to start.
Hence, a synchronous motor has no self- starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start by itself.
Equivalent Circuit Unlike the induction motor, the synchronous motor is connected to two electrical
systems; a d.c. source at the rotor terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.
1. Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the rotor by the
stator field because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the stator field. Only the impressed
direct current is present in the rotor winding and ohmic resistance of this winding is the only opposition to
it as shown in Fig: (i).
2. In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the stator winding
and the effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at synchronous speed.
(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by including an
inductive reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A resistance Ra
must be considered to be in series with this reactance to account for the copper losses in the stator or
armature winding as shown in Fig: (i). This resistance combines with synchronous reactance and gives the
synchronous impedance of the machine.
(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the synchronously- revolving
field of the rotor as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i). This generated e.m.f. Eb is known as back e.m.f. and opposes
the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends upon rotor speed and rotor flux ф per pole. Since rotor
speed is constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux per pole i.e. exciting rotor current If. Fig:
2.23 (i) shows the schematic diagram for one phase of a star-connected synchronous motor while Fig: 2.23
(ii) shows its equivalent circuit. Referring to the equivalent circuit in Fig: 2.23 (ii). Net voltage/phase in
stator winding is Er = V - Eb phasor difference Armature current/phase,
This equivalent circuit helps considerably in understanding the operation of a synchronous motor. A
synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. If the field
excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is said to be over-excited if
the field excitation is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both normal and under excitation, the motor
has lagging power factor. However, for over-excitation, the motor has leading power factor.
Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding of
synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current (If) is
plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at various load
conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-curves of synchronous
motor. These are shown in the Fig: 2.27 (a). As against this, if the power factor (cos ) is plotted against
field current (If), then the shape of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting
p.f. against If, at various load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves
are shown in the Fig: 2.27 (b).
Typically, the synchronous machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user can
determine the resulting operation under a given set of conditions.
(iii) Over Excitation: The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V.
Under-such conditions, current Ia leads V and the motor power factor is leading as shown in Fig:
2.28 (iv). Note that Er and hence Ia further turn anti-clockwise from the normal excitation position.
Consequently, Ia leads V. From the above discussion, it is concluded that if the synchronous motor
is under-excited, it has a lagging power factor. As the excitation is increased, the power factor
improves till it becomes unity at normal excitation. Under such conditions, the current drawn from
the supply is minimum. If the excitation is further increased (i.e., over excitation), the motor power
factor becomes leading. Note. The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as
the power factor becomes poor, either leading or lagging.
Synchronous Condenser A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous
condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that
operate at low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser partly
neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power factor of the system is
improved. Fig: 2.29 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3 - f
load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos фL. The synchronous condenser takes a current Im
which leads the voltage by an angle fm. The resultant current I is the vector sum of Im and IL and lags
behind the voltage by an angle ф. It is clear that ф is less than фL so that cos f is greater than cos фL.
Thus the power factor is increased from cos фL to cos ф. Synchronous condensers are generally used at
major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.
Advantages (i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be
changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control of power factor. (ii) The motor
windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents. (iii) The faults can be removed easily.
Disadvantages (i) There are considerable losses in the motor. (ii) The maintenance cost is high. (iii) It
produces noise. (iv) Except in sizes above 500 RVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of
the same rating. (v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment
has to be provided for this purpose.
Methods of starting synchronous motor There are three chief methods that are used to start a
synchronous motor:
1. To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the rotor can
easily accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic
field's rotation. This is done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This method is
usually followed in the case of inverter-fed synchronous motor operating under variable speed drive
applications.
2. To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its synchronous
speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator. Of course care should be taken to ensure that the
directions of rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic field of the stator are the same.
This method is usually followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started as a generator and is
then connected to the supply mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the
power supply to the prime mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to operate
as a motor.
3. To use damper windings if these are provided in the machine. The damper windings are provided in
most of the large synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the
synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load.
Motor Starting by reducing the supply Frequency If the rotating magnetic field of the stator in a
synchronous motor rotates at a low enough speed, there will be no problem for the rotor to accelerate and
to lock in with the stator's magnetic field. The speed of the stator magnetic field can then be increased to
its rated operating speed by gradually increasing the supply frequency 'f' up to its normal 50- or 60-Hz
value.
But the usual power supply systems generally regulate the frequency to be 50 or 60 Hz as the case may be.
However, variable-frequency voltage source can be obtained from a dedicated generator only in the olden
days and such a situation was obviously impractical except for very unusual or special drive applications.
But the present day solid state power converters offer an easy solution to this. We now have the rectifier-
inverter and cycloconverters, which can be used to convert a constant frequency AC supply to a variable
frequency AC supply. With the development of such modern solid- state variable-frequency drive
packages, it is thus possible to continuously control the frequency of the supply connected to the
synchronous motor all the way from a fraction of a hertz up to and even above the normal rated frequency.
If such a variable-frequency drive unit is included in a motor- control circuit to achieve speed control, then
starting the synchronous motor is very easy-simply adjust the frequency to a very low value for starting,
and then raise it up to the desired operating frequency for normal running.
When a synchronous motor is operated at a speed lower than the rated speed, its internal generated voltage
applied to the motor must be reduced proportionally with the frequency in order to keep the stator current
within the rated value. Generally, the voltage in any variable-frequency power supply voltage (usually
called the counter EMF) EA = Kφφωω will be smaller than normal. As such the terminal varies roughly
linearly with the output frequency.
Motor Starting by using damper (Amortisseur) Winding As already mentioned earlier most of the large
synchronous motors are provided with damper windings, in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor
whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load. Damper windings are
special bars laid into slots cut in the pole face of a synchronous machine and then shorted out on each end
by a large shorting ring, similar to the squirrel cage rotor bars. A salient pole rotor with sets of damper
windings is shown in Fig
When the stator of such a synchronous machine is connected to the 3-Phase AC supply, the machine starts
as a 3-Phase induction machine due to the presence of the damper bars, just like a squirrel cage induction
motor. Just as in the case of a 3-Phase squirrel cage induction motor, the applied voltage must be suitably
reduced so as to limit the starting current to the safe rated value. Once the motor picks up to a speed near
about its synchronous speed, the DC supply to its field winding is connected and the synchronous motor
pulls into step i.e. it continues to operate as a Synchronous motor running at its synchronous speed.
Performance Characteristic The effects of changes in mechanical or shaft load on armature current,
power angle, and power factor can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Fig: As the applied stator
voltage, frequency, and field excitation are assumed, constant. The initial load conditions, are represented
by the thick lines. The effect of increasing the shaft load to twice its initial value are represented by the
light lines indicating the new steady state conditions. When the shaft load is doubled both Ia cos i and Ef
sin are doubled. While redrawing the phasor diagrams to show new steady-state conditions, the line of
action of the new jIaXs phasor must be perpendicular to the new Ia phasor. Furthermore, as shown in Fig:
if the excitation is not changed, increasing the shaft load causes the locus of the Ef phasor to follow a
circular arc, thereby increasing its phase angle with increasing shaft load. Note also that an increase in
shaft load is also accompanied by a decrease in i ; resulting in an increase in power factor. As additional
load is placed on the machine, the rotor continues to increase its angle of lag relative to the rotating
magnetic field, thereby increasing both the angle of lag of the counter EMF phasor and the magnitude of
the stator current. It is interesting to note that during all this load variation, however, except for the
duration of transient conditions whereby the rotor assumes a new position in relation to the rotating
magnetic field, the average speed of the machine does not change. As the load is being increased, a final
point is reached at which a further increase in fails to cause a corresponding increase in motor torque, and
the rotor pulls out of synchronism. In fact as stated earlier, the rotor poles at this point, will fall behind the
stator poles such that they now come under the influence of like poles and the force of attraction no longer
exists. Thus, the point of maximum torque occurs at a power angle of approximately 90◦ for a cylindrical-
rotor machine. This maximum value of torque that causes a synchronous motor to pull out of synchronism
is called the pull-out torque. In actual practice, the motor will never be operated at power angles close to
90◦ as armature current will be many times its rated value at this load.
Hunting and Damper Winding: Hunting: Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may
sometimes set up oscillations that are superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic
variations of a very low frequency in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging.
Occasionally, the trouble is aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation
approximately equal to the hunting period. When the synchronous motor phase-swings into the
unstable region, the motor may fall out of synchronism.
Damper winding: The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding.
Damper windings are placed in the pole faces. No emfs are induced in the damper bars and no current
flows in the damper winding, which is not operative. Whenever any irregularity takes place in the
speed of rotation, however, the polar flux moves from side to side of the pole, this movement causing
the flux to move backwards and forwards across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper bars
forwards across the damper winding. These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by
absorbing its energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it
merely tends to damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of electrical flywheel. In the
case of a three- phase synchronous motor the stator currents set up a rotating mmf rotating at uniform
speed and if the rotor is rotating at uniform speed, no emfs are induced in the damper bars. Fig: shows
a salient pole synchronous motor with damper winding.
STEPPER MOTOR
It is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of
electric pulses applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined
step-by-step mechanical shaft rotation. The shaft of the motor rotates
through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse. This rotation can be linear or
angular.It gets one step movement for a single pulse input.
When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle. The angle through which the
stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step angle, which is generally expressed in
degrees.
The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step angle and hence the position of motor shaft
is controlled by controlling the number of pulses. This unique feature makes the stepper motor to be well
suitable for open-loop control system wherein the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact
number of pulses without using a feedback sensor.
If the step angle is smaller, the greater will be the number of steps per revolutions and higher will be the
accuracy of the position obtained. The step angles can be as large as 90 degrees and as small as 0.72
degrees, however, the commonly used step angles are 1.8 degrees, 2.5 degrees, 7.5 degrees and 15
degrees.
The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of pulses applied to the stator. The speed of
the shaft or the average motor speed is directly proportional to the frequency (the rate of input pulses) of
input pulses being applied at excitation windings. Therefore, if the frequency is low, the stepper motor
rotates in steps and for high frequency, it continuously rotates like a DC motor due to inertia.
Like all electric motors, it has stator and rotor. The rotor is the movable part which has no windings,
brushes and a commutator. Usually the rotors are either variable reluctance or permanent magnet kind.
The stator is often constructed with multipole and multiphase windings, usually of three or four phase
windings wound for a required number of poles decided by desired angular displacement per input pulse.
Unlike other motors it operates on a programmed discrete control pulses that are applied to the stator
windings via an electronic drive. The rotation occurs due to the magnetic interaction between poles of
sequentially energized stator winding and poles of the rotor.
The rotor is made up of a permanent magnet material like a ferrite that can be in the shape of either
cylindrical or salient pole, but usually it is of smooth cylindrical type. The rotor designed to have an even
number of permanent magnetic poles with alternate North and South polarities.
Working of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:
The operation of this motor works on the principle that unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel
each other. When the stator windings are excited with a DC supply, it produces magnetic flux and
establishes the North and South poles. Due to the force of attraction and repulsion between permanent
magnet rotor poles and stator poles, the rotor starts moving up to the position for which pulses are given to
the stator.
Consider a 2-phase stepper motor with two permanent magnetic rotor poles as shown in the figure below.
When the phase A is energized with a positive with
respect to the A’, the windings establish North and
South poles. Due to the force of attraction, the rotor
poles align with stator poles such that the magnetic
pole axis of rotor adjusts with that of stator as shown in
figure.
When the excitation is switched to B phase and
switching off phase A, the rotor further adjusts to
magnetic axis of phase B, and thus rotates through 90
degrees in clockwise direction.
Next, if the phase A is energized with a negative
current with respect to A’, the formation of stator poles
causes the rotor to move through another 90 degrees in
clockwise direction.
In the same way, if the phase B is excited with
negative current by closing phase A switch, the rotor
rotates through another 90 degrees in the same
direction. Next, if the phase A is excited with positive
current, the rotor comes to the original position thus
making a 360 degrees complete revolution. This
implies that, whenever the stator is excited, the rotor tends to rotate through 90 degrees in clockwise
direction.
The step angle of this 2-phase 2-pole permanent magnet rotor motor is expressed as, 360/ (2 × 2) = 90
degrees. The step size can be reduced by energizing two phases simultaneously or a sequence of 1-phase
ON and 2-phase ON modes with a proper polarity.
Wave Step
Wave step mode is the simplest of all other modes in which only one winding is energized at any given
time. Each coil of the phase is connected to the supply alternatively. The table below shows the order
through which coils are energized in a 4-phase stepper motor.
In this mode motor gives maximum step angle compared to all other modes. It is the simplest and most
commonly used mode for stepping; however the torque produced is less as it uses some part of the total
winding at a given time.
Full Step
In this drive or mode, two stator phases are energized simultaneously at any given time. When two phases
are energized together, the rotor will experience the torque from both phases and comes to the equilibrium
position, which will be interleaved between two adjacent wave step positions or 1-phase excitations. So
this step provides better holding torque than wave step. The table below shows the full step drive for 4-
phase stepper motor.
Half step
It is the combination of both wave and full step modes. In this, single phase and dual phase excitations are
carried out alternatively, i.e., one-phase ON, two-phases ON, and so on. The step angle in this mode
becomes half of the full step angle. This drive mode has highest torque and stability compared to all other
modes. The table containing phase pulsing sequence for a 4-phase motor in half stepping is given below.
Microstepping
In this mode, each motor step is subdivided into several small steps, even hundreds of fixed positions,
therefore a greater positioning resolution is obtained. In this, currents through the windings are continually
varied in order to get very small steps. In this, two phases are excited simultaneously, but with the unequal
currents in each phase.
For example, the current through phase -1 is held constant while the current through phase-2 is
incremented in steps till the maximum value of current, whether it is negative or positive. The current in
the phase-1 is then decreased or increased in steps till zero. Thus, the motor will produce a small step size.
All these stepping modes can be obtained by each type of stepper motor discussed above. However, the
direction of current in each winding during these steps can be varied depending on the type of motor and
either it is unipolar or bipolar.
BLDC MOTOR
Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous motor manufacturers as these
motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many applications, especially in the field of motor control
technology. BLDC motors are superior to brushed DC motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at
high speeds, high efficiency, and better heat dissipation.
They are an indispensable part of modern drive technology, most commonly employed for actuating
drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer peripherals and also for electrical power
generation. With the development of sensorless technology besides digital control, these motors become
so effective in terms of total system cost, size and reliability.
brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric motor which is
driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes electronically controlled commutation system
(commutation is the process of producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents
through it at appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are also
referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.
Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the mechanical contact with
commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path between a DC electric source and rotor armature
windings, BLDC motor employs electrical commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a
sequence of coils. In this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying conductors
are fixed.
The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled rectifiers at the correct
rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the
force acting on the rotor causes it to rotate. Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to
sense the position of the rotor and are positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the
sensor helps to determine when to switch the armature current.
This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and brushes in a DC
motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved. Due to the absence of brushes BLDC
motors are capable to run at high speeds. The efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent,
whereas as brushed type DC motors are 75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC
motors available ranging from small power range to fractional horsepower, integral horsepower and large
power ranges.
Construction of BLDC Motor
BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on the stator windings,
these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase motors. However, three-phase BLDC
motors with permanent magnet rotor are most commonly used.
The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as well as
conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other motors.
Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings. These windings are
placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator. These windings can be
arranged in either star or delta. However, most BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator.
Each winding is constructed with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in
each slot. In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over the stator
periphery.
The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage depending on the power supply capability.
For robotics, automotive and small actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC motors are
preferred. For industrial applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating motors are used.
Rotor
BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in the rotor can vary
from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the application requirement. In
order to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of the material should be high. A proper
Ferrite magnetic material for the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic field density.
magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given volume. Rare earth alloy
magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are Samarium Cobalt (SmCo),
Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). The rotor can be constructed with different core
configurations such as the circular core with permanent magnet on the periphery, circular core with
rectangular magnets, etc.
Hall Sensors
Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with rotor position. Since
the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the stator windings should be energized in
sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of
rotor position is necessary. So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position.
Most BLDC motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into the stator. Each sensor
generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass near to it. The exact commutation sequence
to the stator winding can be determined based on the combination of these three sensor’s response.
Construction-Working-Principle-and-Operation-of-BLDC-Motor-Brushless-DC-Motor
When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes electromagnet and starts
producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching makes to
generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction between
electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.
Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited based on different switching states. With the
switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as North and South
poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with stator poles causing motor to
rotate.
Observe that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction forces (when North-South or
South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when North-North or South-South alignment). By this way
motor moves in a clockwise direction.
Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be energized and when to do.
This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on the switching sequence around the coils. As
discussed above that Hall sensors give shaft position feedback to the electronic controller unit.
Based on this signal from sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize. Hall-effect sensors
generate Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles pass near to it. These signals determine the
position of the shaft.
The increasing availability and progressive improvement of power semiconductor devices as well as
intensive computer aided study of the geometry of conventional reluctance motors for optimum torque
production have led to the introduction of yet another type of drive called the switched reluctance motor
drive. It is becoming a serious competitor to converter supplied dc and ac variable speed drive systems.
The switched reluctance motor is being considered, nowadays, for applications ranging from low power
servomotors to high power traction drives. Motors of power ratings varying from 4 to 22 kW are
commercially available at present for many applications.
Construction of SRM:
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has both salient pole stator and rotor like a variable reluctance
stepper motor. Figure 3.57 shows a one phase winding of a 4-phase switched reluctance motor having 8
poles on stator and 6 poles on rotor. While the rotor has no windings, each stator pole has a concentrated
winding around it and each pair of diametrically opposite coils comprise one phase of the motor. These
motors are designed for applications different from those for which stepper motors are designed.
A stepper motor is designed suitable for open-loop position and speed control in small power applications,
where efficiency is not significant. On the other hand a switched reluctance motor (SRM) is employed in
variable speed drives and designed to operate efficiently for wide range of speed and torque and needs
rotor position sensing. It is, also, quite different from a standard synchronous reluctance motor in two
aspects.
A synchronous reluctance motor has the same number of poles on stator and rotor but the rotor of a SRM
has lesser poles than the stator, which is an essential feature to provide self-starting capability and
bidirectional control. They are also different in stator construction—the synchronous reluctance motor has
a cylindrical stator with distributed winding, while the SRM has a salient pole stator with concentrated
coils like a dc motor.
Though various combinations of stator and rotor pole numbers are possible in SRMs, the commonly used
are 8/6 and 6/4. The stator has concentrated coils and diametrically opposite coils are connected in series
or parallel to provide one phase. Thus, motors with pole numbers 6/4 and 8/6 will have three and four
phases respectively.
Operation of SRM:
Reluctance torque is produced when a stator phase is excited by means of unidirectional currents. This
results in the magnetic attraction of an adjacent rotor pole as it tends to align into a position of minimum
reluctance. When the numbers of stator and rotor poles differ, the sequential switching of the excitation
from one set of stator poles to the next, in synchronism with the rotor position, produces an almost
constant torque resulting in an uniform rotation of rotor. The synchronisation of the switching on the
excitation with rotor position can be accomplished with simple rotor position feedback.
Neglecting nonlinearity of the magnetic circuit, the instantaneous torque produced in such machines may
be given as-
where i is the instantaneous current in the exciting winding and L is the self-inductance of that winding
varying as a function of the angular position of the rotor. It may be noted that the torque developed is
independent of the direction of current flow in the windings, so that unidirectional currents can be used to
control the motor. The direction of rotation can be reversed by exciting the phases in the reverse sequence.
The motor can also provide regenerative braking. If a phase is excited after the rotor has crossed the
position of minimum reluctance, the rotor will experience a torque in opposition to its motion, it will
decelerate, and mechanical energy drawn from it will be converted into electrical energy and supplied to
the source. In fact, the possibility of operating in all of the four quadrants of the speed-torque plane and
obtaining flexible speed-torque characteristics simply by appropriate switching of current pulses makes
the motor very versatile.
Figure 3.58 (a) and (b) illustrates the ideal variation of inductance of the exciting winding with respect to
the angular position of the rotor over a periphery of one rotor pole pitch and the corresponding torque
developed, for an assumed value of constant current [using Eq. (3.60)].
Different circuit configurations are available for the power converters for SRM drive. All of these have
two essential elements—a controlled switch or switches to connect the dc voltage source to the exciting
winding to build up current and an alternative path for the current to take when the switch is turned off.
The alternative path is provided by a diode or diodes such that the winding experiences a reverse voltage
to collapse the current.
Three alternatives for one phase of a SRM power converter are depicted in Fig. 3.61. A flexible circuit
using two switches per phase is shown in Fig. 3.61 (a), whilst the use of bifilar wound motor (as in stepper
motors) or a centre tapped supply permits the use of only a single switch per phase as depicted in Figs.
3.61 (b) and (c). The correct choice of power circuit configuration will depend on the power level of the
drive, the supply voltage and the application.
Hence, accurate monitoring of the exciting current is required for obtaining high degree of controllability
possible. During high speed operation, current control is not essential because the inductance of the
winding and the motional back emf induced restrict the excitation to single pulses of current. Torque is
controlled by optimal positioning of these pulses rather than the current level. Current monitoring,
however, is retained for the sake of protection.
ypical phase current waveforms of the two modes (low speed and high speed) of operation are shown in
Figs. 3.59 (a) and (b).
The complete drive system, comprising a SRM coupled to a load, a power converter and a control system
involving rotor position transducer and current sensor is shown in Fig. 3.60.
Power Converter for SRM:
Since the SRM needs only unidirectional currents, its operation is possible with only one switching device
in service per phase, instead of two in series in each phase leg of an inverter for an ac drive. So, the power
converter circuits employed for energization of SRMs have few semiconducting devices than the inverters
supplying ac motors and those devices have only one forward voltage drop in series per phase so that the
power losses may, in general, be lower than in conventional inverters. Because of these facts, other factors
being the common, results in reduction in the physical size of converter and increase in its reliability.
Power Systems Generation, Transmission and Distribution systems are the main components of an
electric power system. Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines. Normally, transmission lines imply the bulk transfer of power by high-voltage
links between main load centers. On the other hand, distribution system is mainly responsible for the
conveyance of this power to the consumers by means of lower voltage networks. Electric power is
generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is increased by stepped up transformers to the main
transmission voltage. At sub-stations, the connections between various components are made, for
example, lines and transformers and switching of these components is carried out. Transmission level
voltages are in the range of 66 kV to 400 kV (or higher). Large amounts of power are transmitted
from the generating stations to the load centers at 220 kV or higher. In USA it is at 345 kV, 500 kV
and 765 kV, in Britain, it is at 275 kV and 400 kV and in Egypt it is at 500 kV and 750 kV. The
network formed by these very high voltage lines is sometimes called as the super grid. This grid, in
turn, feeds a sub-transmission network operating at 132 kV or less. In Egypt, networks operate at 132
kV, 66 kV, 33 kV, 11 kV or 6.6 kV and supply the final consumer feeders at 380 volt three phase,
giving 220 volt per phase. Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 shows the schematic diagram of a power supply
network. The power supply network can be divided into two parts, i.e., transmission and distribution
systems. The transmission system may be divided into primary and secondary (sub-transmission)
transmission system. Distribution system can be divided into primary and secondary distribution
system. Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short circuit current and better
protective coordination. Distribution networks are different than transmission networks in many ways,
quite apart from voltage magnitude. The general structure or topology of the distribution system is
different and the number of branches and sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
consists of a step-down transformer (e.g., 132/11 kV or 66/11 kV or 33/11 kV) at a bulk supply point
feeding a number of lines with varying length from a few hundred meters to several kilometers.
Several three-phase step-down transformers, e.g., 11 kV/400 V are spaced along the feeders and from
these, three-phase four-wire 3 networks of consumers are supplied which give 220 volt single-phase
supply to houses and similar loads. Figure 1.3 shows part of a typical power system.
Types of Power Plant
Power Plant
A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000 Watts.
These are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the cities or the load
centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with several operating
constraints like the waste disposal etc.
For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact
that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and that’s why, the transformer switch
yard to regulate transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.
At the center of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC generator or an alternator,
which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the mechanical domain
(rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors.
The energy source harnessed to turn the generator shaft varies widely, and is chiefly dependent on the
type of fuel used.
Types of Power Station
A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the type of fuel used. Since for the purpose of
bulk power generation, only thermal, nuclear and hydro power comes handy, therefore a power
generating station can be broadly classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in these
types of power stations in details.
Thermal Power Station
A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by far, the most conventional method of
generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water
available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine.
The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the
generation of electric power. Generally in India, bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler
which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16 %. To enhance the thermal
efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its pulverized form.
In coal fired thermal power plant, steam is obtained in very high pressure inside the steam boiler by
burning the pulverized coal. This steam is then super heated in the super heater to extreme high
temperature. This super heated steam is then allowed to enter into the turbine, as the turbine blades are
rotated by the pressure of the steam.
The turbine is mechanically coupled with alternator in a way that its rotor will rotate with the rotation of
turbine blades. After entering into the turbine, the steam pressure suddenly falls leading to corresponding
increase in the steam volume. After having imparted energy into the turbine rotors, the steam is made to
pass out of the turbine blades into the steam condenser of turbine. In the condenser, cold water at ambient
temperature is circulated with the help of pump which leads to the condensation of the low pressure wet
steam.
Then this condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater where the low pressure steam
increases the temperature of this feed water, it is again heated in high pressure. This outlines the basic
working methodology of a thermal power plant.
Advantages of Thermal Power Plants
Fuel used i.e coal is quite cheaper.
Initial cost is less as compared to other generating stations.
It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric power stations.
Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants
It pollutes atmosphere due to production of smoke and fumes.
Running cost of the power plant is more than hydro electric plant.
Nuclear Power Station
Nuclear power plants are similar to the thermal stations in more ways than one. However, the exception
here is that, radioactive elements like uranium and thorium are used as the primary fuel in place of coal.
Also in a Nuclear station the furnace and the boiler are replaced by the nuclear reactor and the heat
exchanger tubes.
For the process of nuclear power generation, the radioactive fuels are made to undergo fission reaction
within the nuclear reactors. The fission reaction, propagates like a controlled chain reaction and is
accompanied by unprecedented amount of energy produced, which is manifested in the form of heat.
This heat is then transferred to the water present in the heat exchanger tubes. As a result, super heated
steam at very high temperature is produced. Once the process of steam formation is accomplished, the
remaining process is exactly similar to a thermal power plant, as this steam will further drive the turbine
blades to generate electricity.
Hydro-Electric Power Station
In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the turbine which in turn runs
the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earth’s surface has potential energy relative to
the oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through an
appreciable vertical distance. The hydraulic power is therefore a naturally available renewable energy
given by the eqn:
P = gρ QH
Where, g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2
ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
H = height of fall of water.
This power is utilized for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to equivalent electrical energy.
An important point to be noted is that, the hydro-electric plants are of much lower capacity compared to
their thermal or nuclear counterpart. For this reason hydro plants are generally used in scheduling with
thermal stations, to serve the load during peak hours. They in a way assist the thermal or the nuclear plant
to deliver power efficiently during periods of peak hours.
Advantages of Hydro Electric Power Station
It requires no fuel, water is used for generation of electrical energy.
It is neat and clean energy generation.
Construction is simple, less maintenance is required.
It helps in irrigation and flood control also.
Disadvantages Hydro Electric Power Station
It involves high capital cost due to dam construction.
Availability of water depends upon weather conditions.
It requires high transmission cost as the plant is located in hilly areas.
Types of Power Generation
As mentioned above, depending on the type of fuel used, the power generating stations as well as the
types of power generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications for power production in
reasonably large scale are:
1. Thermal power generation
2. Nuclear power generation
3. Hydro-electric power generation
Apart from these major types of power generations, we can resort to small scale generation techniques as
well, to serve the discrete demands. These are often referred to as the alternative methods or non
conventional energy of power generation and can be classified as :-
1. Solar power generation. (making use of the available solar energy)
2. Geo-thermal power generation. (Energy available in the Earth’s crust)
3. Tidal power generation.
4. Wind power generation (energy available from the wind turbines)
These alternative sources of generation has been given due importance in the last few decades owing to the
depleting amount of the natural fuels available to us. In the centuries to come, a stage might be reached
when several countries across the globe would run out of their entire reserve for fossil fuels.
The only way forward would then lie in the mercy of these alternative sources of energy which might play
an instrumental role in shaping the energy supplies of the future. For this reason these might rightfully be
referred as the energy of the future.
Variable Loads on Power System
Today’s interconnected power systems supply a variety of loads depending upon the consumer’s
demands. These demands, of course, vary constantly which leads to the variable loading of the system and
all its consequences.
Effects of Variable Loading on Power System
Variation in loading has certain undesirable effects, the most appreciable of which are given below:
Another variation of the load curves is a ‘Load duration curve’. This is shown below:
Connected Load
It is defined as “the total sum of all the loads (ON and OFF) connected to the power system.
All the loads may not be switched ON together, but such loads have to be calculated to determine the
required power and hence the capacity of the units.
For example, if one of the consumers has three lamps of 200 W each, four lamps of 100 W each and a
machine consuming 5 kW, then the connected load of the consumer = 3(200) + 4(100) + 5000 = 6000 W
Average Load
As the name implies, it indicates the average value of all the loads occurring on the station for a given time
period (such as day/s or month/s or year/s)
It can be expressed as
Average load =
No. of units (kWh) generated in given time period
The time period
Maximum Demand
It is defined as “the maximum value of load that occurs on the system during a specific time period.”
In the figure no. 1, the maximum demand is 40 MW and it occurs around 8 pm. Maximum demand is
measured by a max demand meter.
Knowledge of max demand is necessary because the installed capacity of the plant is decided on the basis
of max demand since the power station must be capable of supplying the max demand.
Factors Related to Variable Loading
Demand Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of the system.”
Demand factor =
Maximum demand
Connected load
Since, all the connected loads are not ON all the time, Maximum demand < Connected Load.
Hence, Demand factor < 1
It is necessary for determination of the required plant equipment capacity.
Load Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of average load to the maximum demand in a given time period.”
Load factor =
Average load
Maximum demand
It can be daily/monthly/yearly load factor according to the time period considered. It is less than unity
because Average load < Maximum demand.
Value of load factor affects the production cost too. It should be as high as possible. If the load factor is
high, max demand is low and required station capacity (which depends on max demand) is reduced. This
reduces cost of production. Load Factor should be as close to 1 as possible.
Also, a higher value of load factor reduces the variable loading problems. This is because, a higher value of
load factor implies less variation in demands at various times. Due to this, the effects of variable loading
are minimised. Hence Load factor should be as high as possible.
Diversity factor
A power station supplies a variety of consumers. Each consumer will have an individual maximum
demand and such max demands may not occur all at the same time.
Diversity Factor is defined as “the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands to the total
maximum demand on the system. It can be expressed as,
Diversity factor =
Sum of individual maximum demands
Maximum demand of the power station
Obviously, Diversity Factor is greater than 1. This factor gives us the diversification of the load and is
necessary to decide the installation, transmission and distribution capacities of the plants.
It should be as high as possible. Higher diversity factor means that maximum demands of different
consumers occur at different times, and hence, interchange and scheduling is easier and operation is
optimum.
Another implication of higher diversity factor is that total max demand is lower. This reduces the size
(capacity) of the required units and also the production cost.
In order to increase the diversity factor, following methods have been employed:
1. Scheduling office times with certain time differences (known as staggering of timing.)
2. Making use of different time zones.
3. Giving incentives to particular consumers to utilize electricity at off-peak hours (such as night time.)
4. Use of daylight savings.
5. Using two part tariff schemes.
Plant Capacity Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of actual energy produced in a given time period to the total energy that could’ve
been produced in the same time period.”
Solved Numerical
A plant has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW. 73.8 × 106 kWh energy is
generated in a year. Calculate: [i] demand factor, [ii] average load, [iii] load factor
Solution:
Given data:
Connected load = 40 MW
Maximum demand = 20 MW
Generation = 73.8 × 106 units per annum.