The Excavation of An Early Minoan Tholos Tomb at Ayia Kyriak PDF

The Excavation of an Early Minoan Tholos Tomb at Ayia Kyriaki, Ayiofarango, Southern
Crete
Author(s): D. Blackman and K. Branigan
Source: The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 77 (1982), pp. 1-57
Published by: British School at Athens
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30102778
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THE EXCAVATION OF AN EARLY MINOAN
THOLOS TOMB AT AYIA KYRIAKI,

AYIOFARANGO, SOUTHERN CRETE
(PLATES I-2)
THIS report is concerned with the excavation of an Early Minoan tholos tomb
Kyriaki in the Ayiofarango, one of the river systems which gives out on to t
west of Kaloi Limenes (FIG. I). Details of the site location (PLATE Ia) can be f
on the Ayiofarango survey,' which, together with this report and one other a
make up the complete report of work undertaken by the authors in the vicin
in the summers of 197 1 and 1972. The excavation of the tholos, which was
there were surface indications that looting was incomplete but possibly to be
in September 1972 in collaboration with Dr. C. Davaras of the Greek Arch
The excavation lasted for a period of three weeks, and was undertaken b
supervisors and ten workmen, directed by the authors.
SUMMARY
The excavations revealed a circular 'tholos' tomb of typical Early Minoan type, with a
complex of four rooms attached to its eastern side. Although the tomb and antechambers had
been almost completely looted, it was possible to establish both the sequence and the
approximate relative dating of the tomb and its antechambers. The tomb and two antechambers
appear to have been constructed in EM I, over the traces of an earlier structure, and the other
antechambers to have been added in EM II and MM IA respectively. In addition to the tomb
complex, a rough enclosure wall was found on the south side of the cemetery area and a large
rough platform of stones between it and the antechambers. Finds from the tomb included a great
deal of pottery (estimated at not less than 1,957 vessels originally), and small quantities of
obsidian, stone bowls, figurines, and other small finds.
1 D. Blackman and K. Branigan, BSA 72 (i977) 13-84. assisting the organization of the expedition. Special thanks
2 D. Blackman and K. Branigan, BSA 70 (I975) 17-36. must go to Dr. H. Catling and Professor P. Warren in this
3 We are grateful to the Greek Archaeological Service andrespect, and to Andones Zidhianakes for considerable help in
to Dr. S. Alexiou for facilitating the excavations, and to obtaining supplies in Iraklion. For the party's accommoda-
Dr. C. Davaras for his willing help and co-operation. Dr. I.tion at Kaloi Limenes we are very much indebted to Mr. J.
Sakellarakis, who discovered the looted tomb in 1965, provided Vardiniyiannis.
much useful information during discussions with him in 1972. The excavation was directed by David Blackman and Keith
For financial assistance we are very grateful to the UniversityBranigan, with the assistance of three site supervisors: Miss P.
of Bristol and the Expeditions Committee of the University. InGreenwood, Miss. P. Williams, and Mr. A. Freedman, all of the
particular, we are pleased to record the encouragement of the Department of Classics, University of Bristol. Miss R. Haigh
Vice-Chancellor, Dr. A. Merrison; of our head of Department, also assisted on the site, and was responsible for the washing and
Professor J. M. Cook; and of Professor Peel and Mr. D. Inglepreliminary sorting of the pottery excavated in October, 197 1.
Smith of the Geography Department. We are also grateful toZacharias Spyridakis, Chief Guard at Phaistos, organized the
the British Academy, the University of Oxford, and the Britishworkmen and assisted in many ways. We should also like to
School of Archaeology at Athens, for further financial assist- record the generosity of the University of Sheffield in providing
ance. The British School must also be thanked for supportinga grant to cover the expenses of a draughtsman, and our thanks
our application for a permit, for providing our staff withare due to Mr. G. Canvin for preparing the illustrations for
accommodation before and after the dig, and for generally publication.
2 D. BLACKMAN AND K. BRANIGAN
IERAPT
MALI
03
KNOS
GORTYN
PHAISTO
IKARY.;y
FIG.Central,showigcfAyKkTd-uv17
AN EARLY MINOAN THOLOS TOMB AT AYIA KYRIAKI 3
COURSE OF THE EXCAVATIONS
A preliminary trial was carried out by Blackman in October 197 I at the r

Alexiou, and full excavations were conducted in September the following y
vicinity were divided into areas as excavations progressed, as seen in FIG. 2. A
examined by Blackman in 1971, and these areas were subsequently incorpor
as defined in 1972. Excavations began on 30 August in areas B, E, Z, and
and K were added on the following day. Further areas (F, A, M, N, Y,
opened during the next ten days. The strategy was to press on with exc
immediately adjacent to the tomb where chambers might be expected, and
explore more marginal areas where surface indications suggested the possibil
features. Clearance of the tomb chamber began on I September, and as the
sterile, work was concentrated on the areas close to the tholos where struc
being encountered. Excavations were concluded on 13 September, fifteen da
allowing additional time for the processing of the finds. All the earth throu
was removed by hand.
EXCAVATION RESULTS
THE TOMB CHAMBER
Before excavation, the outline of the circular chamber was clear to see, but the centr
chamber was full of large stones, rubble, and soil (level i). It was evident that this was
backfill by the tomb-robbers, or else the disturbed original tumble and fill which they h
pushed behind them as they dug round the interior of the tomb. This impression was co
by the scarcity of finds both within the fill and below it, and it is clear that the tomb chambe
been thoroughly and efficiently looted of its entire contents. In view of the uncertain origin o
fill as found by us, no attempt was made to study the shape and size of the stones within
estimate its volume. (Small finds in disturbed fill: stone bowl fragments 15, 16, 17
figurine 32; obsidian blade 29; clay 'horn' 31.)
The only undisturbed material found was in two small pockets in the floor of the to
one hardened lump of soil containing a base sherd, still adhering to the wall of the tomb
above the floor. The latter presumably indicates the minimum depth of the burial deposi
point, although in tombs such as Kamilari and Koumasa E4 it was noted that burial
tended to be mounded up at the sides of the tomb and lower in the central area. The two
of soil found where the hard floor surface had been loosened containedjust four small sh
dating of all of these items will be commented on below (p. 44).
When cleared the tomb architecture could be studied and recorded in detail. At groun
the tomb was roughly circular with a diameter varying between 4-5 m and 4'7 m; at it
surviving points, the circular shape was disguised by the varying degree of preservatio
tomb had been built by the excavation of a level platform into the hill-slope, to a maxi
depth of I.5 m on its western side. On the east side a thin deposit of the original subso
preserved beneath the lowest course of the tomb wall (PLATE Ib). The first course
consisted of smallish blocks, with dimensions in the range ofo.25 m-o-3 m long and o-2 m
deep (PLATE 2a, b, c). Above this 'foundation' course the next course of stones was very
larger, and the large blocks were often 'framed' by small lumps of stone which fi
interstices between the big blocks (PLATE 2a, b). The uppermost surviving courses inclu
notable proportion of large relatively thin stones, more slab-like in appearance than
4 K. Branigan, The Tombs of Mesara (1970) 107.
) 0 METRES 5
TOMB
r
'K(s)
H
(1) Z N
(2) K)
E
A M rock
11 Y
A B E
e P A
FIG. 2. The excavations at Ayia Kyriaki, showing the excavation areas. Room-numbers are given in brackets
squarish blocks used in the middle courses of the wall. These

above the floor, gradually overlapped those below, so that t
given by them. The maximum overhang achieved at the poin
greatest height (2o05 m) was o'5 m (FIG. 15).
The apparently careful choice and use of blocks on the inter
been applied to the 'exterior' face of the wall. This was only e
wall of room 2 and in the area immediately west of room i.
smaller (PLATE I b) and the wall had a much neater but muc
on its inside face. This was particularly noticed west of room
wall-facing (of small stones) suggested that here it had orig
rock from the inside. That is to say, the circular area for the
the tomb wall was then built from the exterior face inwards, the
erected against a wall of earth and/or rock and being unfac
the surrounding ground level were large slabs or blocks used
these, on the surviving evidence, were not very regular. Four
against the north face of the tomb, almost like miniature b
clearly in the tholos discovered just west of Kaloi Limenes.5
The entrance to the tomb lay 40 south of east, and was flan
edge (PLATE 2d), leaving a doorway o-6 m wide. There can b
were capped by a lintel stone, forming the sort of trilithon d
this case the doorway would have been approximately 0-75 m
limestone found overlying the position of the antechamber,

o.55 m was almost certainly the original door lintel, probab
The floor surface (level 5) both in the doorway and inside th
surface with a pinkish colour to it. It appeared to be a v
powdered limestone, which was certainly introduced to the t
removed down to the rock surface. Where the original soil w
of the tomb wall and elsewhere on the site, it was a dull yel
distinct from the material making up the tomb floor. The f
been thoroughly trampled over the whole surface of the tomb, to
any burials had begun to cover the floor surface. In two
damaged and broken, and there were small pockets of the o
floor material; it was from these that the four small sherds
The only material found in clear contexts were the four she
the floor (levels 6a and 6b). Two of these were fragments of P
and a third a sherd of red slipped and burnished Salame War
also probably of EM I date.6 The fourth sherd was indetermin
tomb wall in a lump of soil o08 m above floor level (level 4),
from the base of an EM III/MM I cup. These five sherds m
tomb's use.
From the robbers' fill of the tomb (level i), which on balance we believe to be disturbe
material originally in the tomb, rather than subsequently dumped there from elsewhere by th
robbers, came a total of III sherds. These included typical EM I (Ayios Onouphrios, Pyrgo
Salame), EMII (Vasiliki, brown-slipped), EMIII/MMI ('ashtrays', black-washed), MM
(barbotine) and MM IB ('crinkled' rim) sherds, as well as fragments of five EM III/MM I stone
bowls.
5 Blackman and Branigan, BSA 70 (1975) 17-20, fig. 2. 6 For use of the term 'Salame ware', see below, p. 29.
THE ANTECHAMBER (ROOM 5)

Immediately outside the doorway of the tomb we uncovered the much damaged remains of a
small rectangular room which we numbered room 5, and called 'the antechamber'. Room 5 was
found in the western half of excavation area K.
We had to remove part of a robbers' dump (level i) over the western half of area K, in which a
high proportion of the sherds appeared to be fragments of EM III/MM I 'ashtrays' (see below
p. 49). Beneath these a layer of loose brown earth, mixed with wall stones and smaller stones,
appeared to be disturbed robbers' fill (level 2), overlying the walls and floor deposit of th
antechamber. (Small finds in disturbed fill: obsidian blades 38, 42; stone vase i1; pounder 17.)
The walls were built of rough blocks of limestone, ranging in length between 0-2 and 0-5 m
packed with small stones and soil, and nowhere survived more than one course high on the inside
of the room. (Because of the slope of the ground, the south wall stood three courses high facing
into room 2.) Most of the north wall of the antechamber was destroyed, although a few stones
remained in situ at its junction with the tomb wall. The east wall stopped abruptly, some o06 m
short of its expected junction with the north wall, and although it was impossible to be certain
owing to the damage to both walls, it is probable that this was the location of the door betwee
the antechamber and room 3 beyond it (PLATE Id). The antechamber measured only 2-4 m x
I'3 m overall, and a small projecting pier of masonry on the south side of the tomb entrance
intruded even into this small space.
The floor of the antechamber (level 5a) was made up of the same material as that of the tomb,
and was level with the floor of the tomb entrance and tomb chamber. On it was a thin, hard-
trodden deposit of brown earth and small stones (level 5). Beneath the well-preserved floo
surface a deposit of yellowy-brown soil with few small stones (level 6), about 0-55 m thick, wa
found overlying a very fine yellow-khaki soil with only a few tiny stones and angular pieces o
rock (level 8). Sherds were found in all of these levels.
Sherds recovered on the floor of the antechamber (level 5) (which were not apparently
disturbed by the robbers) included several of EM I date (black pattern burnish, two Ayio
Onouphrios), others of EM II (grey burnished, and lattice-decorated Ayios Onouphrios) and
one sherd of probable MM I date. From the level sealed beneath the floor (level 6) came a group
of grey burnished sherds including two chalice rims and a prong-shaped handle, one brown
burnished sherd, and thirteen coarse, gritty sherds. All are thought to be EM I. The lowest level
of soil found, immediately overlying bedrock, and running beneath room 3 also (level 8),
produced seventeen sherds including six black burnished, a further black burnished prong
handle, three pattern-burnished, one of red-slipped Salame ware, and two red-on-buff-painted
sherds. These again all appear to belong to the EM I period. A single obsidian blade, 57, was also
recovered from this level.
ROOM 3
To the east of room 5 another small room was formed by the eastward continuation of the
north and south walls of room 5, and by a badly damaged return wall. This room, numbered 3,
measured 2'35 m x o095 m. Its walls were either totally destroyed or else reduced to their
foundation course (PLATE Id). The north wall and about half of the east wall were represented
by only a rubble foundation and three wall-stones still in position at the north-east corner. The
southern end of the east wall was better preserved with substantial foundation-stones in place,
and smaller stones and earth packed into the core of the wall. Its method of construction was
similar to that noted in the south wall, which continued without visible break or butted joint
from the south wall of room 5. It appears, therefore, that the outside walls of rooms 3 and 5 wer
probably built in a single operation. The dividing wall between them wa

the outside walls had been erected, for not only does it butt-join the sou
but also it appears to be of slightly different construction with fewer trace
earth and small stones. The amount of time which elapsed between
outside walls and the dividing wall cannot, however, have been long, s
built directly on the yellowy-brown soil beneath the floors of the two r
itself.
Communication between room 3 and the outside appears to have been through a doorway
o.75
that m
of wide, placed
room 5, beingtowards theofnorth
composed end of
a thinner, its eastlayer
trampled wall. of
The floor
pale greyofsoil.
roomAll 3the
wasdeposits
less solid than
overlying this floor appeared to have been totally disturbed by the tomb-robbers. Below the
floor, the same two deposits of soil were found as have already been described for room 5, and
these deposits formed continuous, pre-tomb strata beneath both of the rooms, and (as noted
later) to the east of them as well. The pottery found in the lowest of these two levels (level 8) has
already been briefly described above.
ROOM 2
Area Z proved to contain the remains of a third rectangular room

was labelled room 2 (PLATE I b). Its north wall was formed by the
which owing to the slope of the land stood up to three stones high
face. The rear wall of room 2 was similarly well preserved, for it h
wall in front of the wall of the tomb chamber. The facing of this w
in places, and the packing behind it was preserved to an even grea
only one course high, the south wall of the room was also preserved
proved to be neatly and strongly built with large facing-stones an
into the core of the wall. Only the east wall of the room was badly
having disappeared completely, along with the eastern end of the n
have run. The doorway into the room was presumably at this north-
minimum width of o5 m and a maximum width of o-75 m. Owing
east wall, it remains uncertain whether this wall was originally bu
north and south walls of the room, or whether a second facing
perhaps to buttress it. The latter seems the more likely course
detectable in the disturbed remains of the wall (see plan, FIG. I5).
The tomb-robbers had again carried out a thorough excavation of
removed its floor over most of its area, and dug a pit (level 2) thro
east corner of the room. The only possible area of undisturbed depos
room was found in the presumed doorway of the room, where a sm
(level 6) contained nearly three dozen sherds as well as small f
distinctive sherds were an Ayios Onouphrios II piece, and one rim
EM II date. Although we could not be certain, this deposit did
disturbed by the tomb-robbers. The floor of the room survived, as
in only two places: underneath two large stones lying on it in the ce
in the south-west corner of the room (level I). The material which
2 cm. deep, and produced some twenty sherds, mostly small an
single sherds of Ayios Onouphrios I ware, EM I straw-wiped wa
washed sherds of EMII. Beneath the floor in the two areas where i
else in the room, except for the robbers' sounding to bedrock
4 cm-deep deposit of fine, firm brown soil

no disturbance of this level, except in the no
pre-floor, pre-room-2 deposit. From it came
fabrics but including also a sherd from an E
obsidian blades in this deposit.
One other feature remains to be described
ran for 1-5 m along the south wall of the ro
and it had been set directly into the deposit w
was therefore part of the original furnishings o
it, although this could only be demonstrated
ROOM I
To the south of room 2, in area H, lay a rectangular room whi
Ic). On excavation it proved to measure 3.25 m x 2I m internally

slightly different axis from rooms 2, 3, and 5 (see plan, FIG. 15).
room 2, was therefore broader at its east end (0.75 m) than at it
faced on only its southern side, looking into room I, the spa
southern face of the south wall of room 2 being packed with larg
north wall of room I still stood four stones high (o-32 m). The we
built in a similar manner to the north wall, being faced on only
room. Behind the facing, earth and stones were packed into
exterior face of the tomb chamber itself. At the time room I w
surrounded the tomb in this segment was cut away, and after t
wall, the packing had been inserted. This west wall had subseque
the stones in its foundation course remained in position. The sout
built, 0o75 m wide, with both large and small facing-stones, well
rubble. The wall still stood three stones high, to a maximum hei
fourth wall of the room, the east wall, revealed that it was c
roughly oblong boulders. Owing to the preservation of the nort
o'3 m, and the fact that the west wall backed almost on to the tom
room must have been either through, or over, these two boulders
Room I proved to be incompletely robbed, only the eastern
Beneath the robbers' spoil-heap (level i) from adjoining areas
sieved soil, we found that the room was full of boulders, stone, an
room, this was less compacted and less full of large stones than
with a dusty grey soil (level 6). Suspicions that this was disturbed
discovery of two pieces of brushwood well down in this deposit.
removed, a floor of yellowish soil with small white stones was exp
(level 7). This floor continued under the large boulders and ston
which were mixed with small rubble and pale brown soil (lev
previous disturbance. This deposit at the west end of the ro
tumble, which we believe came mainly from the west wall of the
Within this tumble and soil (level 2) were found forty-nine sher
small fragments of bone. The sherds included ten of EM III-MM
red-painted on a black wash which might be later than MM
recovered from the lowest levels of the tumble, immediately over
may originally have lain on the floor of the room before the wes
that most of these sherds and bone-fragments had been incorporated

wall at the time of its construction.
When the tumble and its associated soil had been removed a small deposit of blackish soil wa
found close to the foot of the west wall (level 5), resting on the compacted floor of the room. I
contained a few small fragments of bone and just twelve sherds, three of which were from the rims
of wheelmade MM I cups, and one from a cordoned pithos.
No material was found either in the floor make-up (level 7) or below the floor material, but
further indications of the date of construction of room I were provided by small numbers of
sherds found in the packing behind the west wall and in the packing of the north wall. In tha
behind the west wall were a dozen sherds, which included two rims from red-washed fast-wheel
MM I cups, the rim of a hand-turned cup with red wash and a white painted band, probably
MM I, and a piece of a cordoned pithos of EM III-MM I date. Amongst the seven sherds found
in the packing of the north wall were three of Ayios Onouphrios ware, and one from an
EM III-MM I cup. The evidence points clearly to the conclusion that room I was built durin
MM I and went out of use, probably through the collapse of its west wall, soon after.
AREA A
To the east of area Z (room 2), area A was excavated. Beneath robbers' spoil tipped here fr
excavation of areas to the west and/or north, the modern ground surface (level I) was found t
undisturbed. As this thin layer ofgreyish-brown soil was stripped off, a group of flat slabs of ston
was found in the south-west corner of the area, close to the wall of room 2. Six large slabs
some smaller stones formed a rough 'platform' measuring 1.5 m x I13 m, which appeare
have been deliberately formed rather than to have resulted from the tumble of stones from
east wall of room 2. The four largest slabs, indeed, were all larger than any of the stones use
the walls of room 2. As the surface soil was cleared from the rest of area A, a hard, compa
layer of stony brown earth (level 3) was exposed. The 'platform' was found to rest directly on
level, which we suggest was the original Early Minoan surface at this end of the tomb com
Removing the compacted level, we found it contained seventy-nine sherds, of which seven
certainly EM I (including part of a chalice, and some Ayios Onouphrios I sherds) and five w
EMII (including three from red-washed-on-buff bowls). This surface was therefore lai
earlier than EM II, and the 'platform' was probably, but not certainly, placed in position so
after the surface was laid. Since this area is immediately outside room 2, which we have see
above was constructed no earlier than EM IIA, it is probable that room 2, the surface outsid
and the platform were all part of a single phase of work.
Below the compacted surface material, a deposit of fine, deep yellowish-brown soil (level
was found to continue down to the bedrock. In places this soil was up to 15 cm. deep, an
contained, mostly in its upper part, a good quantity of sherds. Altogether 188 sherds w
recovered from this level, all of them of EM I type. The pottery included plenty of small sher
Ayios Onouphrios I, some black and grey burnished sherds (including a prong handle),
sherds of Salame, EM I wiped, and Pyrgos ware.
At the north end of the area this level was interrupted by a pit, almost I m square. The fil
the pit (level 6) was a fine yellowish-brown soil similar to that of the level into which it was d
but not so deep in colour, and looser in texture. In this deposit a rich collection of material
found, comprising 277 sherds, six obsidian blades (68, 69, 72, 78, 79, 88) and a loom-weight
The sherds were entirely of EM I character where datable, except for a large piece fro
askos(?), and two bowls in Ayios Onouphrios ware, which all seem likely to be of EM II
Apart from many Ayios Onouphrios I sherds, there were many of Pyrgos ware including la
IO D. BLACKMAN AND K. BRANIGAN
pieces from three chalices. The interpretation of this depo

(p. 23).
AREA E
Area Z was excavated to the east of area H (room i). Beneath soil recently deposited b
tomb robbers, tumbled stones from the tomb complex were found. On removal, these we
to overlie a compacted pale brown soil (level I) which provided a surface outside room I
fifty-eight sherds found in this surfacing material in area Z, all thirteen datable piece
EM I. From the sherds found in the level of fine yellowish-brown soil (level 2) be
surfacing and overlying bedrock, there was the rim of a red painted bowl of EM II. Altho
surfacing could date to EM II, therefore, we believe it more likely that the sherds are
and that the surfacing is contemporary with the construction of room I at a later date (f
see p. 48).
AREA M
Area M was excavated to the east of rooms 3 and 5 (area K), initially to see whether fur
chambers lay to the east of these. Although traces of walls were found here they are not ide
as the remains of chambers from the tomb complex, as explained below.
There were extensive robbers' dumps downslope to the east of the tomb and its chambers
when these were removed in area M they revealed the modern ground surface (level 2). Be
the greyish-brown topsoil, a compacted surface of pale brown soil and stones (level 3) exte
eastwards from the east wall of room 3, across area M and a metre into area Y. At the nort
of area M a curving line of four large stones, laid neatly edge to edge, were found set int
surface. Sherds from the topsoil were obviously of little value for dating either the surface
alignment of stones, and only ten sherds were found in the surface make-up. Five of
appeared to be EM I. Many more sherds, however, were found in the greyish-brown soil (
5), which was sealed by the surfacing and which appears to have been deliberately introdu
here to level up the slope before the surfacing was laid. From this deposit came 192 sherds,
EM I-II date including a jug neck of Ayios Onouphrios II ware, and several sherds fro
large storage-jars in the same ware. These suggest that this surfacing, and the line of ston
into it, were put down no earlier than EM II.
When the greyish-brown make-up (level 5) was removed, remains of two further walls ca
light, running more or less parallel to each other, but on a different alignment from bot
tomb chambers and the line of four stones set in the surfacing. One wall, probably o.5 m
survived for a distance ofjust over 2 m, running into the adjacent area Y, and was partly ov
by the curving line of stones. The other wall survived to a length of only I-5 m, but clearly
under the east wall of room 3, and just emerged on the other side of it. Three isolated sto
further east might allow its length to be extended by a further 2"5 m. Neither wall surviv
more than its foundation course, and each was built of smaller stones than those used in t
construction of the facing for the walls of the tomb chambers. Their significance will be dis
below (p. 43).
There was no deposit associated with these walls, and they may well have been la
destroyed in the levelling operation before the surfacing was laid above them.
interpretation of the chronology of rooms 3 and 5 is correct, however, then these walls,
which ran beneath a wall of room 3, must be the earliest walls on the site, and must predat
construction of the tomb. The surviving foundation stones sat on the top of a deep yellow
brown soil (level 6) identical to that found in area A and described above (A, level 7). I
AN EARLY MINOAN THOLOS TOMB AT AYIA KYRIAKI II
M, however, only a single sherd of Ayios Onouphrios I ware was found

terminus post quem for the two walls is fixed by the more prolific fin
entirely of EM I. These two walls, therefore, fall within the EM I peri
and use.
AREA Y
East of area M and west of area B, area Y was excavated in order to follow the alignme
large stones found in area M. No further stones of the alignment were found here,
underlying wall described above (Area M) was traced into the western edge of the area b
extensive robber disturbance cut right through it. No other archaeological features or d
were found in area Y.
AREAS H AND T (The Peribolos Wall)

Area H was laid out east, and downslope of, area Z and A. Below the robber dumps whi
stretched across this area, the modern ground surface was found (level I), and on excava
proved to cover the remains of a wall which ran diagonally across area H. At this point, the ar
south and east of this wall was relabelled area T, the designation area H being retained for t
area to the west and north of the wall. In H an undisturbed deposit of compacted brown ear
and small stones (level 4) was found to run up to the north-west face of the wall. This depos
appeared to match the compacted, stony soil found to the west in the adjoining area A (A, le
3). From this soil forty-seven sherds were recovered, including nine attributable to EM II, as w
as a loom-weight (89). At the east end of the area, a small foundation-trench (level 3) was no
where the compacted deposit had been cut back, probably to allow for the northward sw
of the wall, and had then been back-filled after the wall had been built. Although no sherds
were found in this trench, its existence does demonstrate that the compacted level was
before the peribolos wall was built. The wall, therefore, was built no earlier than some point
during EM II.
The peribolos wall was very crudely built of medium-to-large stone boulders and slabs. Its
north-west side was unfaced, built rough against the edge of the surface area up-slope from it, but
its south-east side was roughly faced and coursed, and in places stood four stones high (30 cm).
The width of the wall varied from 0-4 m to 0-6 m wide, and it was traced for a total length of I 2.5 m.
Its western end was firmly identified and fixed, just inside area Z where the wall ended at a large
block of stone set upright, just south of the platform in A, as if to mark its termination. A similar
upright stone was placed 6 m to the east, in the outer face of the wall, at the point where it turned
through 450 to run south-west to north-east. The wall then ran for a further 6 m to a third
upright stone, before it was obliterated by extensive robber disturbance in area A.
Below the compacted deposit in area H was found a yellowish-brown soil with stones (level 5),
identical to the soil underlying the compacted deposit in area A (A, level 7). Of I12 sherds
recovered from this deposit, the great majority of datable sherds were of EM I, but there were
four sherds from a black-washed cup of EM II. A sandstone rubber was also found in this
deposit.
In area T, to the south and east of the wall, robbers' dumps and modern topsoil overlay a thin
greyish-brown soil immediately over bedrock, over most of the area. Alongside the peribolos
wall, however, tumbled wall-stones and soil (level 2) were sealed between the modern topsoil
and the thin sub-soil. In removing this tumble, fifty-nine sherds were found, but they were all
small, weathered, and of little value for dating purposes.
AREAS A, B, A, AND E (1971-2)

On the slope to the east of the tomb, an
and B were first excavated on a trial basis
led to further excavations in these a
archaeological deposits were found in eit
immediately east of area B, proved to
largely slipped down the slope from are
area E, was apparently robbed during the
1972 had been totally disturbed. There w
which might have proved worthwhile to
AREAS FAND N
To the north of rooms 3 and 5 (area K) a
north of area N, an L-shaped area, lab
initial sounding here in 1971 which sugg
area. Area F proved to have very thin to
The EM I sherds found in the surfac
fragmented than most pottery on the s
(p. 50). Area N proved to be very similar
although the surface sherds here were di
area F.
AREAS O AND P
At the extreme south-east edge of the site, robbers' pits in area O suggested an area of possible
interest, and possible wall-stones were noted on the surface at one point. Excavation showe
several groups of tumbled stones, which seem likely to have fallen from the peribolos wall furthe
up the slope to the west. There were no sealed or undisturbed deposits in the area. Area P
between area O and A, proved to be entirely without archaeological deposits, a thin surface soil
overlying a sterile, compacted pale brown subsoil, which itself lay on bedrock.
THE FINDS
The finds are grouped according to the category of object into which they fal
stratified groups or contexts. Most finds were from surface levels or disturbed
found in stratified groups are listed together with other finds in that group i
section on the excavations. Within each category of finds, the individual finds
described and any necessary parallels for them are quoted, and there then follow
a brief discussion of the whole category of finds. Under each individual find, th
listed in the following order: Small find number, illustration reference, nature/f
Material, dimensions in cm. Find spot, and where known, date of find-context
necessary discussion, including typological dating.
STONE OBJECTS
A. Stone Vases
I. FIG. 3, base of a straight-sided cup or dish. Soft, greyish examples of the type (2IA), many of serpen
serpentine; d. 4'9. Area 9, surface. Warren lists forty nearly all from the Mesara.' Probably MM I.
7 P. Warren, Minoan Stone Vases (I969) 45-6, type 2 IA.
11 10
16
30
15
83 26
28
FIG. 3. Stone vases from Ayia Kyriaki (i: i)
xo. FIG. 3, prong handle of a small cup. Greyish-green exclusively from the Mesara tholoi, and of EM III-MM I
serpentine; 1. 4'5. Area 9, surface. This appears to belong date.10
to Warren's form 17A, I of which Warren records thirty-
28. FIG. 3, fragment, probably from a ladle. Green chlorite
nine examples, mostly from the Mesara and including
schist, with incised herringbone decoration; 1. 3'4. Area
several of this material.s Probably EM III-MM I. E, robbers' pit. The combination of material and decora-
x . FIG. 3, rim of a small bowl or cup. Greenish chlorite- tion identifies this as an EM II vase, but the form it
schist?; d. 9-0. Area K, robbers' spoil. Form uncertain belongs to is uncertain. It does not appear to belong to a
owing to incompleteness, but the material and more pyxis, however, and both the curvature and the axis of the
particularly the decoration of finely incised hatching in decoration in relation to it suggest that it is a rare example
alternating triangles is typical of EM II vases. of a ladle. Warren records just four examples of this type,
15. FIG. 3, rim from a small jar with straight, sloping sides. 23A, two of which are in this same material." This
Dark grey serpentine?; d. 6-5. Tomb, disturbed tumble. fragment may come from the side of a ladle like that from
Probably Warren form 21A, and probably MM I. Platanos, illustrated by Warren,12 and dated to EM II.
i6. FIG. 3, rim of a bowl with rim lug. Purplish steatite; d. 30. FIG. 3, rim of a bowl or cup. Pale grey-green schist?; d. 6-7.
6-8. Tomb, disturbed fill. This belongs to Warren's form Tomb, disturbed fill. Whilst the form is uncertain, the
IoA, of which there are forty-nine recorded examples, material is distinctive. Warren notes the rarity of schist for
including many of steatite.9 The type is relatively scarce Minoan vases, and dates the small group known to
in the Mesara, and dates between late EM II and MM I. EM III-MM I.13 They are all from the Mesara and are
The use ofsteatite might favour a late EM II-III date but usually bowls or cups; our example could be either.
does not preclude a date as late as MM I. 83. FIG. 3, base of a bowl. Deep-greenish serpentine; d. 2-8.
26. FIG. 3, moulded base of a small bowl. Greyish-black Area H, robbers' dump. Possibly from a bowl of Warren's
serpentine; d. 3'9. Area M, surface soil. Warren's form type 8C but this is a very tentative identification. The
32A, of which there are 40 recorded examples, almost material favours an EM III-MM I date.
The nine vase fragments from the excavations correspond fairly well to stone vase groups
the other Mesara tholoi. They range between EM II and MM I, and are all of the smal
types apparently made completely, or almost completely, for funerary use.
8 Ibid. 38. g Ibid. 27-8. 10 Ibid. 78-9. n Ibid. 48-9. 12 Ibid. 49 and P288. 13 Ibid. I37.
B. Stone Figurines
51. FIG. 4,
32. FIG. 4, top halfofa pebble figurine. a heart-shaped
Pale grey figurine
schist;with a notched
1. 5-0, base. Grey
w. 4-3, th. 2-0. Tomb, disturbed fill. This type of pebble
sandstone; 1. 4"8, w. 5-8, th. s-o. Area H, surface soil.
figurine with a flat profile, tapering This carefully
body shaped,and
flat piece
roughly
of stone is confidently
indicated head was labelled the Pyrgos type,14
identified as a figurine. four
It has no exact parallels, but it
examples of it (made of 'slate') being appears
foundto be a variant
in theof the Ayios Onouphrios type, of
Pyrgos
cave burial deposit. Typologically whichthe type
five examples are belongs
known.15 All of theto five Ayios
EM I, and the finds in the Pyrgos cave Onouphrios
were type figurines
mainly have necks
of and heads, but they
that
period. share with this figurine the rounded shoulders and tiny
legs. In particular the only closely datable example, from
48. FIG. 4, a pebble with a prominent groove on each side. an EM II level in Tomb II at Lebena, has legs represented
Greyish brown sandstone; 1. 7-5, w. 5-8, th. 2-7. Area H, by a small notch in the base, as here.
robbers' dump. We know of no parallels to this piece, and
its identification as a figurine must be in doubt. The two 99. FIG. 4, a naturally shaped stone taking the form of a bull's
grooves which produce the impression of a pair of head. Buff sandstone; 1. 6- I, w. across horns 6-o. Area A,
steatopygous legs, however, have been man-made, and surface soil. There is no certainty that this piece was used
pebble figurines are found in wide variety and consider- as a figurine, but its resemblance to a bull's head is strong,
able numbers in the earlier part of the Aegean Early and natural concreations and shapes were used both in
Bronze Age. Crete and elsewhere as figurines.
None of the four items here listed can be certainly identified as a figurine; but 32 and 51 can be
placed within known categories of Early Minoan figurines, 48 is a deliberately shaped stone with
no obvious functional use, and 99 is distinctively shaped. It is a pity that none of these items was
found in sealed deposits within the tomb complex-a fate they share with almost all of the other
small finds.
C. Stone Tools (other than chipped stone)

4. flake from a polished axe? Fine-grained greenstone; 1. 17. Spherical pounder. Dark green, hard rock with white
2-4. Area H, surface soil. The polished surface and flecks: diorite? d. 7-5, ht. 5.0. Area K, robbers' dump. The
curvature suggest that this is a chip or flake from a characteristic signs of chipping and scarring on the
greenstone axe. flattened base indicate use as a pounder.
98. Large flake or chip from a polished axe. Micro-crystalline x8. Spherical pounder. Hard purplish rock, d. 5-0, ht. 3-7-
pale green rock, indentical with 4; 1. 3.9, w. 4-5. Area Z, Area A, surface soil. Again, the base is marked by signs of
wear.
surface soil. This piece is clearly recognizable from its
shape as well as its surface working, as a piece of 103. Spherical pounder. Buffsandstone, d. 7.5,
greenstone axe. robbers' dump. Badly chipped and dama
surface.
9. FIG. 4, unfinished perforated axe or hammer. Material
identical to that of 4 and 98 above. 1. 1. oo, w. 5-o, depth: o105. Spherical pounder. Material identical to I8; d. 8-3, ht.
6.2. Unfinished shaft-hole 3 x 4. Area e, surface soil. 6.2. Area H, surface soil. Traces of wear on base.
Perforated axes or hammers were used in the Aegean All these four of the spherical pounders here can be broadly
EBA, and examples exist from the Troad, and the compared to the six found in the settlement at Myrtos, made of
mainland, as well as from Crete. A good parallel to this similar materials.19
piece was found at Ayia Triadha.'n
o102. Cylindrical pounder or pestle. Grey limestone; d. 5-0, 1.
73. FIG. 4, perforated weight? Soft grey limestone; oval, d. 8-2 7.5. Area A, surface soil.
x 9-o(?). Perforation: 2"5 narrowing to 0o5. Area ', level 90. FIG. 4, small pestle? Hard, dark green pebbles held
2: Minoan surfacing make-up, EMI-early EMII. together by a calcareous concretion; ht. 2-6, 1. 3- I. Area T,
Warren found an identical weight in the EM II settlement surface soil. This is a natural product, but the polished
at Myrtos."1 surfaces of the pebbles, and the concave wear on the
calcareous material suggest that it has been used as a
54. FIG. 4, perforated weight? unfinished. Buff sandstone;
small pestle, perhaps for preparing 'cosmetics'.
oval, d. 8.2 x 12.o(?). Perforation: 3o. Area A, surface
soil. An identical unfinished example was found in the Io4. Elongated rubber. Buff sandstone; 1. 8-2, w. 3-I. Area H,
EM II settlement at Myrtos.s8 level 5. Pre-peribolos wall level, and probably pre-tomb.
14 K. iranlgan, BSA tbbt (1971) b5. (BSA Supp. Vol. 7) (1972) 213, fig. 105-
15 Ibid. 65-7- is Ibid. 222, fig. Io6.
16 C. Zervos, L'Art de la Crlte (1956) pl. 103, 3, left. 19 Ibid. 233-
1" P. Warren, Myrtos: An Early Bronze Age Settlement in Crete
74
9
73
54
90
.51
101 -1001
W--48.
99
67
32
FIG. 4. Stone objects from Ayia Kyriaki (1:2)
The context is therefore EM I. Three examples were 1oo. FIG. 4, whetstone? Purplish-red sandstone, I. 4-8, section 4
found at Myrtos, and Warren suggests they were used for x 2.5. Area a, surface soil.
burnishing pottery.20
74. FIG. 4, whetstone? Soft, greyish limestone; 1. 6-o, section

0ox. FIG. 4, whetstone? Hard, pale grey limestone. 1. 5"o,
section 2-6 x 1-2. Area A, level 7: pre-tomb soil deposit,
3-0 sq. Area E, level 2: Minoan surfacing make-up, EM I. This stone is similar in form and material to that
EM I-early EM II. found at Myrtos.21
The collection of stone tools is reminiscent of the collection from Myrtos, but less so of the stone
items usually recorded from the Mesara tholoi. To some extent this reflects the early excavators'
20 Ibid. 235, fig. I02, n. 198. 21 Ibid. 236, fig. I03, n. 202.
lack of interest in simple stone tools such as poun

of these tools reached the site and were used here before the tomb was built. Of the four items
found in sealed contexts, two came from pre-tomb levels, and two were found in a surfacing
make-up laid down early in the history of use of the tomb complex. In addition, the appearance
of two unfinished tools (9 and 54) might suggest that they were being made on site, rather than
deposited in a tomb, although unfinished tools can be explained by funerary beliefs and practices
too. Polished axes have been found before in EM burial deposits, including tholoi,22 and there is
no reason to think that stone axe fragments 4 and 98 must necessarily relate to a Late Neolithic
occupation of the site. The three items identified as whetstones cannot be accepted as such
without question, for none showed clear signs of grinding along their edges and surfaces.
Whetstones, usually perforated, have been found in several other Mesara tholoi (Porti,
Kalathiana, Koumasa, Platanos, Drakones, and Siva). It is worth noting here, however, that
one of the three from our excavations, zox, was found in a pre-tomb level. If identification as
whetstone is correct, this would suggest that metal knives/daggers were in use on the site in EM I.
D. Beads
84. Disc or quoit bead. Steatite; d. 0o9. Area H, surface found, suggesting that the robbers had set out to recover
clearance. This simple type of bead was found in quantity all complete small items such as beads and sealstones, and
(over sooo) in tholos A at Platanos. Their scarcity on our perhaps all fragments of gold. Apart from this one bead,
site may be explained by the heaps of sieved earth that we no such small items were found by us.
E. Chipped Stone
The chipped stone from the excavations comprised sixty-six pieces of obsidian (thirty of which
came from stratified deposits), a small flake of flint, and a core of chert. The core ofchert and the
flake of flint might be thought indicative of working on the site, but in the absence of any other
ddbitage this view cannot be supported.
The obsidian assemblage (FIG. 5) is similar to many others of the Aegean EBA, containing
mainly parallel-sided prismatic blades, represented by proximal, medial, and distal fragments,
as described and defined by Torrence.23 All the blades were incomplete and must be presumed to
have been utilized before deposition, particularly in view of the absence of cores, flakes, or
ddbitage. The only flake of obsidian found (No. 88d) had probably been utilized. It seems clear,
therefore, that obsidian found on the cemetery site had been manufactured into blades elsewhere
and subsequently brought to the site. It may also have been used elsewhere before being
transported to the cemetery. Some of the obsidian, at least, can be shown to have belonged to
domestic occupation debris, for some of the blades were found in A7, which is an EM I pre-tomb
level. It is certainly possible that other obsidian blades, particularly those sealed beneath the
EM II surfacing, also came from pre-tomb levels originally, although this cannot be proved. The
stratified groups and their dating are as follows:
i. Blade 57, found sealed beneath the floor of the ante- 4. Blades 13(2), 14, 19, 20, 22, found in the floor make-up of
chamber, level K8. EM I, pre-tomb. room 2, level Z4. EMI-IIA.
2. Blades 76, 77, 81, 87 found in the pre-tomb deposit, A7.
EM I, pre-tomb. 5. Blades 35, 36, 52, 58, 59, 6o found in the make-up of the
surfacing outside room 3, level M5. EM I-II.
3. Blades 68, 69, 72, 78, 79, 88a-f, found in the pit, A6.
Mainly EM I material but one EMII askos, and strati- 6. Blade 49, found in the tumble of the peribolos wall, level
graphically EM I-IIA. T2. Post EM IIA, probably MM.
22 e.g., Kalathiana: S. Xanthoudides, The Vaulted Tombs ofCycladic Prehistory ('979) 67-8, fig. I. We should like to take
Mesara (1924) pl. XLVI, '35' and 1351a. this opportunity to thank Robin Torrence for discussing the
23 R. Torrence in J. Davis and J. Cherry (eds.), Papers in obsidian corpus with us.
0 5
cms.
88f
88c
88e
88b 88d
72 88a
78 79 68
69
13 19
- 13 14 20
35
81 22
76 77 36
87
57
58
60 49
59 7
2 8
6
12
52 39
37
33 42
47
44
45 50 64
23
40 65
29
38
43
24 34.
93
94
86 96
bb 80 85
95 55
71
70 75
FIG. 5. Obsidian blades from Ayia Kyriaki (1:2)
I8 D. BLACKMAN AND K. BRANIGAN
METAL OBJECTS
97. Part of a small finger-ring. Copper or bronze. d. 2.0. Area
two examples of EBA date are known from Zygouries and
M, surface soil. This ring, of flat section, belongsSamos,
to so that this example could belong anywhere in the
period EM II-MM I.
Branigan's type 4, of which two are known from MM
Knossos. The type is not common in the Aegean EBA, but
CLAY OBJECTS
A. Weights
behind peribolos wall. The context is EM I-II. The form
63. FIG. 6, hemispherical spindle-whorl. Red clay with traces
of pale brown slip; d. 4-5, ht. 2-6. Area A, level 6: pre-
is comparable to that of some clay weights from Myrtos
tomb pit. The context is EM I. Several similar examples
which Warren identified as spindle-whorls rather than
found in the EM II settlement at Myrtos.24 loom-weights.25 This example, albeit incomplete, is larger
than any of Warren's spindle-whorl group, and may be
89. FIG. 6, truncated conical loom-weight. Coarse grey better
clay. compared with two cylindrical loom-weights from
the same
d. 4-8, ht. 5-2 (incomplete). Area H7, level 4, packing settlement.26
B. Figurines
61. FIG. 6, zoomorphic handle or projection from a vase? certainly a third example of the type represented by 61
Gritty, buff clay, traces of red paint; two small holes at and g91.
point where the 'ears' are broken off; 1. 6-2, w. 30. Area P, I. FIG. 6, two joining fragments of a 'plaque' figurine. Pale
surface soil.
buff, smooth clay, with red painted decoration in the form
of zones of chevrons on one side and hatched triangles on
9I. FIG. 6, zoomorphic handle or projection from a vase?
Gritty, buff clay, red paint around the base of the the other; 1. 5-8, w. 5-1. Area A, surface soil; Area II,
robbers' dump. There are no Minoan or Aegean paral-
'nose', and on one ear; 1. 4"4, w. 3-2. Area A, surface
soil.
lels to this item known to us. Its fabric and the decorative
motifs, however, are common amongst the pottery from
Io6. FIG. 6, fragment of a similar zoomorphic figure? Red clay; the site and there is no doubt that it is a local product,
1. 3"7, w. 2"9. Area 17, robbers' dump. This piece is not probably of early EM II date.
The two or three zoomorphic projections almost certainly come from vessels. The curvatur
shows that they were part of larger items originally, and no fragments of possible clay bodies fo
these necks and heads were noted by us. They seem more likely to be projections from jugs or
closed jars, and a general tendency to add plastic zoomorphic decoration to Minoan vases is well
known. The Koumasa tholos cemetery produced several clay jugs or jars with projecting ox
heads,27 and our examples may have come from similar vessels. Other suggestive parallel
include some of the EM I suspension vases from Lebena,28 and a small clay head and neck found
by Warren at Myrtos.29
The plaque figurine is to our knowledge a unique find in the Aegean and immediately recalls
the mid-third millennium schist 'idols' from Iberian burials.30 It must be emphasized, however
that the fabric and decoration are entirely EM I-II, and in our present state of knowledge it is
best to interpret this piece as a variant of the general Aegean family of flat figurines of EB I-II. I
should also be said that the item may have fulfilled some function other than as a figurine.
C. Various
56. FIG. 6, circular clay counter. Buff fabric, with fine pale of counter or gaming-piece; Warren found eighteen small
brown slip, lightly burnished; d. 5-0. Area T, surface soil. triangular clay counters cut from pottery vessels at
The fabric is probably EM II. It is presumably some sort Myrtos.31
24 P. Warren, Myrtos fig. 99, nos. 149-5I, 156. 28 S. Alexiou, ILN (6 Aug. 198o0) figs. 9, 14.
25 Ibid. 228-9, fig. Ioo. 29 Warren, Myrtos fig. 95, n. 5.
26 Ibid. 220-I, fig. 96, nos. 83-4. 30 H. Savory, Spain and Portugual (1968) pl. 19.
31 Warren, Myrtos 217-18, fig. 107.
s' Xanthoudides, op. cit. pl. XX, 4140, 4141 .
56
89 )61
63
91 106
82
FIG. 6. Clay objects from Ayia Kyriaki (I:I)
THE POTTERY
It is necessary to preface this pottery report with a r

pottery corpus and this study of it. The pottery recov
from which all but one of the complete vessels had
incomplete one, and also a disturbed one; only 7-7 per c
were found in stratified deposits. All the sherds
examined, and recorded during the excavation period
the excavation. No type fabric series was establishe
processed and the shortage of time available, but the p
addition to a selection of scarce EM III-MM II types, an
wares were not subdivided and form the largest g
represented in the assemblage from the 1972 excav
comparison of the sherds of that season, with particu
spouts. The sherds from the 1971 surface collection had
days' work in the Iraklion Museum. All sherds were e
assigned to a 'ware' group, but the minimum number o
less reliable for this group of sherds by reason of the
which they were subjected.
This report first describes the stratified groups, wit
other sites. It then describes the whole pottery corpu
being unstratified, this corpus is the first from a th
published in its entirety. Finally, the report considers
it to that from the EM II settlement at Myrtos, and att
elsewhere in Crete in the Ayia Kyriaki corpus.
There is of course, a dearth of stratified and/or p
which we have considered in studying the stratified ma
follows in the discussion:
Annuario-L. Vagnetti, Annuario 50-1 (1972-3) 7-138 (Phaistos, neolithic).

Festos-D. Levi, Festos e la civilta minoica Pls. i** (Phaistos).
Kanli Kastelli-S. Alexiou, Kr. Chron. (i 951).
Knossos-J. D. Evans, BSA 59 (1964) 132-240.
Myrtos-P. Warren, Myrtos (1972).
Pyrgos-S. Xanthoudides, A. Delt. 4 (1918) 136-70.
Where phases of the site are referred to in the discussion of the stratified groups, these are
tabulated below on p. 42 and discussed in detail in the text which follows that tabulation.
Individual sherds in the stratified groups are referred to by a letter (indicating to which group
they belong) and a following number (which corresponds to the numbering of the pottery
drawings in figs. 7 and 8).
Stratified Groups
All the principal stratified groups from the site are described even though in some cases the
material was too fragmentary to allow worthwhile illustration of the pieces. The groups are
described in the chronological order of their deposition.
A. Pre-tomb soil. Levels A7 and N6. (FIG. 7 AI-6)

This deposit produced 188 sherds, mostly very small pieces suggestive ofa period of deposition
and disturbance before the soil was finally sealed by the building of the tomb, or possibly at an
earlier date by the construction of the building to w

top of the deposit belonged.
Apart from indeterminate small coarse-ware sh
Onouphrios ware, characterized by thin, reddish, o
and flat red paint used for decoration in vertica
sherds in this fabric are illustrated, A4 and 5, from
sherds included Ai, and another like it, which ap
burnished sherds were a dark grey 'Pyrgos' chalice
grey burnished including the fragment of a prong h
slipped and burnished ware (hereafter Salame ware
EM I wiped war. The latest sherds may be two bowl-
fine painted decoration in red paint (A6) and b
triangle).
This group was dominated by distinctive EM I wares, but the last two sherds described could
be early EM II, and A4 might be EM II although the fabric is identical with the classic Ayios
Onouphrios sherds in the deposit. The two latest sherds, also the largest in the deposit, may
perhaps have intruded when the surfacing material of the tomb phase 2B was laid over this area;
or our dating of them may be in error.
B. Pre-tomb soil below antechambers. Levels K8, K6 (FIG. 7., B7-II)

Level 6 overlay level 8 and, being immediately overlain by the floor of rooms 3 and 5, might
have been contaminated at the time of the tomb's construction, although none of the twenty-one
sherds in this level appear to be later than EM I. Level 8 may be equated with A7 and M6.
Deposit K8 yielded only seventeen sherds. These included six black-burnished pieces, including
the prong handle, B7, three pattern-burnished sherds, and two buff sherds with red painted
linear decoration including B8. There was nothing which need be later than EM I.
Deposit K6 contained 21 sherds, most of which were gritty buff and dark brown fabrics. There
were 7 sherds of grey-burnished pottery, however, including two chalice rims like Bii and
another prong handle, B9. Finally, a dark brown-burnished sherd, possibly also from a handle,
was sufficiently distinctive to illustrate, BIo.
Although grey and dark burnished wares continue in use into EM II, as Warren had
demonstrated at Myrtos,32 it is difficult to place the prong handles of these deposits, and of A7
above, as late as EMII. Indeed the only obvious parallels for them are in the Middle and Late
Neolithic levels at Knossos (Knossos fig. 35, 3 and 4). Sherd Bio is broadly paralleled in stratum
II at Knossos, too (Knossos fig. 36, 21). Other prongs in burnished fabrics occur in the late
neolithic pottery of Phaistos (Annuario fig. 69). These prongs, the appearance of chalice rims from
tall chalices, and the general predominance of burnished fabrics in these deposits and A7,
suggest that the material in these levels goes back well into EM I and that the earliest sherds may
even pre-date EM I.
C. Probably pre-tomb soil, sealed by phase 2B surfacing. Level H5 (FIG. 7, C12-15)

Level H175 appears to equate both stratigraphically and in terms of colour and texture, with
level A7, although it was not sealed until phase 2B, when the surfacing before the tomb and its
chamber was laid. As in A7, the majority of the 12 sherds in H5 were small, and although they
included many burnished and Ayios Onouphrios fragments, most were unsuitable for
32 Warren, Myrtos 269-7
A31[
All
A6
A51
C12
A41
A2
v4d
B111 C151
"-B7
C13N
B9
-Bl rB81
Dl1 4D17
RI E231
E221
44
,6-
E26
'El8 E20
E21l
F281
_F27/
F31A
F341 bd
F301 F291
F32
a
36
G38[ SG371
FIG. 7. Stratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. Groups A-G (1:4)
illustration. A 'Pyrgos' chalice rim and the neck of a jar (C12) were in
and the Ayios Onouphrios ware included an EM I collared jar rim
the base of a jug in a red fabric with a thick red slip and vertical white
style is referred to as Lebena Ware); we believe it to be EM I by reaso
deposited shortly before the level was sealed in tomb phase 2B includ
EM II cup with a black wash on a hard brownish-red fabric, and a lar
(C15) .
D. Soil beneath floor of room 2; possibly pre-tomb. Level Z4 (FIG. 7, Di6-i7)

This deposit, containing 27 sherds, was sealed by the floor of room 2 at the start of tomb phase
2B, but much of the deposit may belong to the pre-tomb phase with intrusive material which was
incorporated during the building of room 2.
The more distinctive fabrics included seven of black burnished ware, four of which were
pattern-burnished--three with vertical lines, and one with diagonal lattice. Two of these sherds
probably came from Pyrgos chalices, and another was the base of a large, thick-walled vessel
(Di6). There was only I Ayios Onouphrios sherd, but there were 5 plain sherds in a fabric
identical with that of the painted sherd. Of 4 grey burnished sherds, one came from a prong
handle like those already noted in earlier groups above (A2, B7, 9) and a second was the rim of a
small cup or bowl (Dx7). The other two distinctive sherds were one in a straw-marked buff fabric
with a black wash, and a small piece of Fine Grey ware with an incised herring-bone pattern.
Most of this pottery is probably EM I, although some of the grey burnished may be EM II and
the Fine Grey ware sherd is certainly EM IIA as demonstrated by Warren.33
E. Fill ofpit A6; not later than the beginning of phase 2B. Level A6 (FIG. 7, E18-26)
Most of the 277 sherds in this pit were small, and about half were black, grey, and reddish-
brown coarse wares. The pit was sealed by the surfacing put down in phase 2B, but it could have
been dug and filled before this event, possibly during the first phase of tomb use (2A). The fact
that no recognizable layer of soil or trample accumulated over it before the 2B surfacing was laid
does, however, suggest that it was dug shortly before the surfacing was put down. This does not
preclude the possibility that many of the sherds in the deposit came from the earlier levels
into which the pit was dug. The soil in the pit was very similar to that of the level into which
it intruded (A7); this and the large quantity of small sherds (only 18% of the sherds were
large enough to merit individual recordings) both suggest that much of the material may be
residual.
This is unlikely to be true, however, of the substantial pieces of seven vessels from the deposit,
which are illustrated. The chalice stems, E18-2o, the first two in brown burnished fabrics and
the third in black, are paralleled in the Pyrgos and Kanli Kastelli deposits, and are found a
Phaistos too in pre-palatial levels (Pyrgos, figs. 8 and Io; Kanli Kastelli pl.I A, fig. 1.5; Festos P. II,
pl. 14c). The chalice base with horizontal grooves (E2x, and another identical) in blac
burnished fabric is a type well represented in the Pyrgos deposit too, and although Myrto
produced chalice stems of similar type, the fabrics here are plainly EM I. There were eight large
sherds from the bowls of other Pyrgos chalices in the deposit. Ayios Onouphrios ware, we
represented amongst the small sherds in the deposit, included recognizable pieces from EM I
jugs and jars with vertical stripes, and fragments of collared jar necks like E22. Most of these
sherds were in a buff to pinkish fabric with small grits, often with a thin white to pinkish surface
33 Warren, Myrtos 269-71.
wash, and were decorated in red paint. The bowl,

hatching was made of the same fabric and we sugge
dating than the style of decoration, and that it bel
(E23), however, is similar in form and decoration to
thought to belong to EM II. They normally have
burnished, and are decorated with a rich brown pai
pinkish-buff fabric with a thin buff slip, and decor
therefore EM I, its form and decoration early EM
piece. A further rim and sherd of this type were fou
from bowls with a thicker buff slip and brown-pai
askos (E25), was made in reddish-orange fabric with
brown paint. The fabric is nearer to EM I, the paint
this vessel have been found in the Pyrgos and Ka
mostly EM I material but some that is a little later (Pyr
Other material in this deposit, not illustrated, inclu
ware, and about a dozen sherds each of black and gr
wares was the curious foot or handle, E26, which has
This deposit contains much that is of EM I date
of EM II and the three unillustrated sherds of brow
fall in EM II. On balance the deposit appears to b
EM i and EM II, and the demonstration that Pyrg
helps to explain the appearance of close derivativ
(Myrtos P 39-42).
F. Levelling material, sealed beneath phase 2B surfacing.

This material appears to have been introduced to lev
and 5, before the surfacing was laid down in phase
from this deposit, of which a quarter were recorde
deposit should contain material of phases I and 2A.
In fact there are few sherds which are clearly of
the EMI-EM II brackets. The most distinctive EM
pyxides with suspension lugs in red slipped and bur
the neck of an Ayios Onouphrios jug decorated in E
but falling within EM I or EM IIA, include, grey-bu
shallow bowl (F27), and brown slipped and burni
pattern burnish, one the rim of a bowl (F3i), should
orange fabric with a smoothed surface (F34)-a fo
Onouphrios Ware-and the small spherical pyxis in a
be early EM II. The remaining sherds include eight
reddish-buff fabric, decorated in red paint. One carr
broad bands bordering the lattice, and the other
decoration is usually attributed to EM II, but the fab
neck of a typical Ayios Onouphrios EM II jug wi
rings.
Overall, the material belongs in late EM I-early EMII, and appears to have been derived
from pottery deposited in connection with the tomb and its burials rather than from the pre-
tomb occupation.
G. Make-up of the surfacing laid down in phase 2B. Levels A3, M3, 14 (F
The phase 2B surfacing was traced across three trenches and from its
136 sherds, from which five profiles are illustrated. Most of the mate
I and 2A, but it is possible that some later material became incorp
deposit by treading in, during phases 2B-2D.
Pottery from the earlier phases on the site included 5 sherds of EM
with red painted decoration on a white or pinkish wash, and 4 sherds
including two Pyrgos chalice rims. A two-handled jar in the EM I
(G35) is a well-known EM I shape and its lattice decoration should not
EM II date. One sherd of brown burnished, and three of grey burnish
EM I or EM II, and there were 4 sherds of Ayios Onouphrios ware in
on buff slip fabric of EM II, including a spouted bowl (G36). Also of E
in an orange fabric with red slip (G37), and two carinated cups or gobl
brown wash (G38). The latest sherds, perhaps, were four of orange
metallic blackish-brown wash, one of which came from a handled cup
were found in the phase II levels at Myrtos (Myrtos fig. 64), and these
from post-surfacing phases on our site.
H. Floor deposit in room i, phase 2C. Level H5 (FIG. 8, H39)

The small undisturbed area of floor deposit at the west end of room
small sherds, seven of which were fragments of buff coarse ware. The
which is illustrated, included one from a buff pithos with a narrow ap
incisions, and the rim of an 'ashtray' with two white painted bands ov
Three sherds from two similar 'ashtrays' were notable for their thin w
as made on the wheel. On the basis of Hood's Knossos deposits34 these
MM IB or later date, but we believe that the wheel may have appeared
I. Floor deposit in the antechamber, room 5, phases 2A-2D. Level K5

Sherds lying on the floor of the antechamber may have been distur
although there was no clear evidence of this; these sherds could, howev
any time during the period of the tomb's use and they in fact
EM I-MM I. Although ninety-eight sherds were found on the floo
fragments and only nine were recorded individually. EM I materia
black burnished ware, and one of a round-bottomed Ayios Onouphrio
pale cream wash. EM II sherds included two Ayios Onouphrios sher
buff slip, one with a hatched triangle on the shoulder, and two sherd
There was also a plain buff cup of EM II shape. The latest sherd wa
'ashtray' with brown wash, recorded as made on the wheel, and ascrib
J. Floor deposit, room 2, phases 2B-2D. Level Z6

A small area of apparently undisturbed floor deposit, near the door
thirty-four sherds, of which eight were recorded individually. EM I pie
early Ayios Onouphrios ware, with decoration in red on a white wash
round-bottomed jug and a cup rim. A chalice rim with interior pattern
34 M. S. F. Hood, The Minoans (i971) 39-
either EM I or possibly EM IIA. One small rim s

Onouphrios sherd with bold diamonds painted
both be EM IIA. Finally, a carinated bowl with a
K411
Vt~391 t4o4
S42j L431
kL44 k46
~L45~
L47
L481
FIG. 8. Stratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. Groups H, K, L (I:4)
K. Undisturbed wall tumble, room I, phase 2D. Level H2 (FIG. 8, K4o-2)

The forty-nine sherds found in this level may include some which originally lay on the floor of
room I, which became mixed with sherds and soil from the core of the west wall when that wall
collapsed. Only one early sherd was noted (black burnished), the rest being of EM III-MM I
date. These included ten 'ashtrays', one of which in a yellowish-white fabric with black wash and
horizontal bands left in reserve, is illustrated (K4o). There were single sherds of barbotine ware
with a black wash, and of red painted on black wash, as well as a small cup with two diagonal rim
bars in brown paint (K41). Most significant there were six rims recorded by us as wheel-made,
mostly from black-washed goblets. One, however, was decorated with three broad horizontal
bands in thin but glossy red paint over an orange fabric (K42). This deposit may include
material of somewhat advanced MM I date (barbotine, red-on-black painted and wheel-made),
but this is uncertain.
L. Tomb clearance, disturbed but materialfrom original tomb fill? Tomb, Level I (FIG. 8, L43-8)
Although we cannot be certain, we believe that the I I I sherds recovered in the robbers' fill
the tomb came originally from the burial deposits in the tomb. They certainly include a wid
variety of fabrics covering the whole period of the cemetery's usage. EM I material included tw
red slipped and burnished sherds (Salame), one straw-wiped, three pattern burnish, one black
burnished, and five Ayios Onouphrios including a base and a body sherd from EM Ijugs. EM I
was represented by two grey-burnished, including an eared lid (possibly EM I, L43), tw
Vasiliki, and an Ayios Onouphrios cup in buff slipped ware with dark brown paint. Two red-
slipped on hard buff fabric sherds were probably EM II, and two sherds of red-to-black wash o
buff fabric pieces could be EM II-III. Two further sherds possibly of EM III were from fl
based jugs with a black wash and white painted vertical lines. There were fourteen fragments
MM I 'ashtrays', many with one or two horizontal bands in white paint on a red or black was
(L44, 45). Pieces of later MM I date may include six sherds from cups recorded as wheel-made
covered with a black wash, and sherds from at least two vessels with barbotine decoration. On
of these, L48, also had a crinkle rim, and white and red paint spots decorating the lower half, an
appears to be of MM IB date. Two cup rims are of uncertain date but both L46 painted with a
brown band on a deep bufffabric, and L47, covered with a flaky brown wash, are thought m
likely to be of MM I date.
THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE
A total of 15, 1 16 sherds of pottery were recovered by us in unstratified dep

the surface, in robbers' dumps, and in robber-disturbed levels. There were som
the spatial distribution of varying wares, even within these unstratified levels
notable anomalies in the distribution are commented on and their significance
discussion of robbers' activities on the site. The stratified sherds, totalling
discussed and described in the preceding section. The whole assemblage, s
unstratified, is now described. and discussed in some detail. It is hoped that th
useful in the preparation of future pottery reports from Early Minoan sites in
The Wares and Forms
Although it was not possible to establish a type fabric series and assign all sh
other of these fabrics, we were able to look in detail at eighteen different war
may have included more than one fabric; some certainly included several). Two
pottery, however, did not fall into these categories of wares and are left as 'un
sherds belonged to coarse plain wares in the main-buff (FIG. 9, 9- I1), red (FIG.
(FIG. 9, 5) and grey (FIG. 9, 4)-but also included a small number of plain buff b
(FIG. 9, 33-4). Although no detailed analysis of these 'unclassified' sherds was u
estimate that about 50 per cent of the whole pottery assemblage consisted of p
sherds, but some of these may have come from undecorated parts of Ayios On
wares. Plain red and brown wares are estimated each to account for about 5 per c
assemblage and plain grey and buff burnished wares each to account for 2-3 per
The following description and discussion is concerned mainly with the remaining
the pottery assemblage, except that the totals of different forms include vessels
well as classified wares.
The wares are each described in turn below, in approximately chronological order, a brief and
general description of the fabrics being followed by description of surface treatment and
decorative motifs. The principal forms associated with each ware are then indicated, the type
forms being shown in FIG. 14 and there numbered Ci-x4 (cups), Bx-x2 (bowls and dishes), JI-9
(jars), and Si-9 (jugs and teapots). Other forms occur very rarely and are specifically mentioned
as they arise. The main forms shown in FIG. 14 are general classifications within which there are
several minor variations. At present there is no standard type form series for Early Minoan
pottery and this series presented here may prove useful to future excavators, although it will
certainly need to be extended-particularly for pottery assemblages coming from domestic as
opposed to funerary sites.
Wiped ware. Red or brown rather soft and coarse fabric with surface marked by all-over wiping
with cloth or grass. The ware is found in Late Neolithic and EMI levels at Knossos. No
recognizable forms in our deposits, but large jars suggested by curvature of sherds.
Black gritty ware (FIG. 9, 1-3). Although a plain ware, this was quite a distinctive type fabric on
this site, dark brown or black with plenty of white and yellowish grits, with no surface treatment
or decoration. Used for cup Ci, bowl Bi, and for several lids.
Pyrgos ware (FIG. IO, 52-9). We use this term for all pattern-burnished sherds. These occur on
our site mainly in brown and black fabrics but occasionally in buff and grey fabrics. Burnishing
has been applied differentially to produce lattice decoration, alternating bands of burnished
and unburnished, vertical stripes, and (very rarely) chevrons. By far the commonest form is the
chalice Ci, but other forms include C4, B5 (without handles), Bxo, BxoA, J3 and J8.
L2
3s
1
I4
5 8
17
6
112
9 11o
11
13 14
J15
16
17 18
19 ]20 21
22-
123K 124\ 26
(25
27 281 ,29-
30
132 133
131
135 36
34
140
L38j 39
37
FIG. 9. Unstratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. I -3 Black Gritty; 4-1 I Coarse Plain wares; 12-14 Cooking-pot; 15-18 Red/Brown
slipped ware; 19-32 Black burnished; 33-5 Grey burnished. 36-40 Red slipped and burnished (Salame) (1:4)
Dark burnished ware (FIG. 9, 19-32). This ware includes all plain
surface colour of brown to black. The fabrics are generally gritty or
Forms are remarkably varied: Ci, 2, 4, 10, ii; B3, 6, 8, 9, 1o and IoA;
these forms are distinctively EM I (e.g. Ci, B9, J3, and SI); but other
EM II shapes and suggest that some plain dark-burnished wares su
that period.
Grey burnished ware (FIG. 9, 33-5; 10, 41-5, 47). The fabric varies from rather coarse and sandy
to fine and hard, and the burnish from a smooth all-over burnishing to the striated burnish
typical of straw-burnishing. The shapes are mainly cups (CI, 3, 4) and bowls (BI, 8, 9, io), but
the ware is occasionally used for a jar (J3) and for small lids. The forms are a mixture of EM I
(CI, B9, J3) and EMII (B8), and it seems certain that the ware was used in both phases. This
is true at Knossos, and Warren has demonstrated that grey burnished ware was in use in EM IIA
at several sites.35 The bowl B9 looks somewhat out of place in an Early Minoan context and the
coarser, straw-burnished variety of grey burnished ware may well span at least the Final
Neolithic and EM I. Grey burnished ware is certainly found in neolithic levels at Phaistos and is
identified as Final Neolithic by Vagnetti and Belli.36
Salame ware (FIG. 9, 36-40). This is the term proposed by Branigan to designate red slipped
and burnished ware, which on our site occurs in a red-to-orange, rather soft fabric with few grits.
It appears in forms CI, Bi, B6, J4, J6, J8 and for spherical pyxides. Only J4 is a distinctive
EM I form, and it is likely that Salame ware covers both EM I and EMIIA periods. It is
presumably superseded in EM II by red and brown slipped ware, often made in a similar fabric
but never found with burnishing.
Lebena ware (FIG. IO, 71-4). It was proposed by Branigan in 1970 that this term be applied
to the early white-painted-on-red ware found at Lebena in the EM I levels. The fabric on our
site varies from orange to buff, medium hard and fine, with a thick, even slip. The paint is
usually thick, even white or off-white in colour. The ware is not common on the site, and
occurs in a limited range of forms-C6 (without handle), J3, J5, J7, and as both lids and
spherical pyxides.
Ayios Onouphrios I ware (FIGS. IO, 77-92; I I, 93-5; 12, 132, 135-9). The division of Ayios
Onouphrios ware into two classes was proposed by Schachermeyr in I962,37 although the
variety of fabrics, paints, and decorative motifs included under this general heading was
recognized long ago. Schachermeyr's earlier type (which he proposed to call Lebena ware) was
characterized by red painted decoration, as opposed to the brown paint of the second type. To
some extent this difference does seem to be important, but fabric and surface treatment also seem
to be important criteria to consider. From our observation of the various forms associated with
the differing Ayios Onouphrios fabrics, and also from the admittedly limited evidence of our
stratified groups, we would suggest that Ayios Onouphrios I ware be broadly defined as follows.
The fabric varies in colour from pale buff to orange-pink or reddish-buff, often with small
brown and red grits. The surface is sometimes left plain or slightly smoothed, but often has a thin
wash of white or pinkish white paint. Over this, the decoration is applied in a matt red paint,
either washy or thick and even. Occasionally the paint is a dark red, close to the browns
characteristic of Ayios Onouphrios II. Decorative motifs are predominantly vertical and
horizontal lines, the former mainly on the body and the latter on the neck and shoulders, but
chevrons, zigzags, and hatched triangles are found on the necks of collared jars, and suspension
5 Warren, Myrtos 269-71. (1978) 128.
36 L. Vagnetti and P. Belli, Studi miceni ed egeo-anatolici 19 37 F. Schachermeyr, Arch. Anzeiger 77 (i962) 105-
41
42 143 44
45
49
A48
147
461
50 51
53' 54
52
591
58
571
55 61
r561 162
60
64 66
165
L63-
67
169 170
68
a71j
741
J61
J31 75
172
801
79
177 78
821 83 841 85
81
86 87l
88
901 911
89 92
FIG. IO. Unstratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. 41-5, 47 Grey burnished; 46, 48-51 Incised Grey; 52-9 Pyrgos; 60-3 Dark-wash
ware; 64- 70 Urfinis; 7 -4 White-on-red (Lebena); 75-6 'Ash-tray' ware; 77-92 Ayios Onouphrios I (1:4)
951
,931
94
961 98
97
99
101
100
102 104;
103
107
1051
106
1101
1081
109
113
1111
112
116
115
114
1181 119r
117i
FIG. I I. Unstratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. 93-5 Ayios Onouphrios I; 96- I 19 Ayios Onouphrios II (1:4)
jars of type J2 often have fine cross-hatching or latti

hatching is much commoner in EM II on Ayios Ono
pottery in the limited positions and on the few forms
Ayios Onouphrios I ware occurs on our site in the fo
and as lids and probably as spherical pyxides. The jars
EM I forms, known from the EM I level at Lebena.38
Ayios Onouphrios II ware (FIGS. I I, 96-IIg; 12, 120-
on-light painted ware which does not fall into Ayios O
all been included by us under the label of Ayios On
Zoes's Koumasa ware.39 Although this has meant that
in this group, by far the majority of sherds so labelled
these is a plain buff ware with no surface treatment, th
a smoothed surface, and the third a fine buff or off-w
sometimes lightly burnished. The painted decoration i
in colour from light to dark, and either matt or with a
very dark brown or black paint which is flat and tends
very faint, washy red. The decorative motifs emp
Onouphrios I ware, although the most common treatm
which may overlap to form a lattice at the apex, or el
Cups and bowls treated in this way often also feature
inside of their rim. Cross-hatched triangles, both on bo
alternate on bowls with triangles of chequer-board pat
(which Warren has demonstrated to be an EM IIA trait
particularly frequent on Ayios Onouphrios II ware, res
motifs or from overall cross-hatching. The range of fo
wider than that in Ayios Onouphrios I ware, even allow
unusual Ayios Onouphrios II fabrics. Cups include form
and 8 (spouted and unspouted); jars J6, 9; and jugs
Onouphrios II ware, and there are two askoi in this wa
and sometimes burnished fabric with brown paint
exclusively) for cups C3 and CI2, bowls B8, and jugs S7
varying mainly in the differing forms and provision of
size. Many of these vessels could have come from a sin
form, fabric, paint, and style of decoration.
Incised Grey ware (FIG. 10, 46, 48-51). This is a ware cl
we have not used that term for it here since Warren's
sherds and vessels, which we have classed separately (s
ware is specificially not burnished, although it may be l
identical to Warrens' incised Fine Grey ware. The fabr
inclusions, and it appears to have a self-slip of pale grey
make herringbone patterns, concentric semicircles, zig
only form recognizable from the small quantity of sh
pyxis, of which one good example was recovered (FIG.
Vasiliki ware (FIG. I3, I57-63). This distinctive ware, w
38 S. Alexiou, ILN (6 Aug. 1980) fig.
40 20.
Warren, Myrtos 269-71.
39 A. Zoes, Epevva rr Ept TM7 MLVW'K9s KEPalELK9 I (1967).
122
120
j31i
127
1231 1!241
j2r5
126
J129
128
1311
130
132 133
_1341
135
139
136
137 138
140c
141
142
,145
143
144 146
147
148 149"
1501 151
FIG. 12. Unstratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. 120-3 I, 133-4, 140-51 Ayios Onouphrios II; 132, 135- 9 Ayios Onouphrios I (1:4)
1531
152
156
158
1541
157
155
1161
160
159
165 166
163
162 1644
1671
168"
169
170
174
1171
1172
175
173
M76J 177, 178,
182
4183 '184
"179 180 '181
1186 187 188 189 190'

185
FIG. 13. Unstratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. 152-6 Ayios Onouphrios II; 157-63 Vasiliki; 164-6 White-on-black (Gournia);
167-8 Polychrome; 169-72 Pedestal bowls; 173 Large bowl; 174 Double-vase; 175 Crucible(?); 176-90 'Ash-tray' ware (1:4)
black through brown and red to orange, was probably produc

east of the island, but was also copied by local potters. We incl
although all the illustrated pieces except 162 are 'original' Vas
a fine buff fabric with no visible inclusions, evenly fired but
thick walls even for small cups and bowls. Its surface ha
differentially, to produce mottled patterns often with a dist
evidence of actual burnishing on Vasiliki ware (pace War
sometimes made in a fine buff fabric but usually in a rather
effects painted on in a thick paint which sometimes flakes whe
gloss. On our site Vasiliki Ware was used mainly for cups C2, 3
or splayed rims, B2, 4, io, but two pieces from 'teapots' (S8) w
Red/brown slipped ware (FIG. 9, 15-x8). This ware occurs in
orange or pink tone, with a few small brown grits. Its charac
slipped surface which is never burnished but often has a slig
small quantities of this ware recovered it appears in a wide ran
12, bowls B2 and 5, and jars J5 (without handles) and J8 (wit
lids. Its forms suggest it falls mainly in EM II, but it is possibl
later.
Red-wash ware (none illustrated). This ware occurs in both a

both with small white and brown grits, and is characterized by
It occurs in small quantities, and for only a handful of fo
pyxides. Forms C2, 12, and B6 are characteristic EM II forms
that phase; at Myrtos red painted (or washed) ware is ch
occupation of the site.42
Dark-wash ware (FIG. Io, 60-3). This is a far commoner ware
occurring in the buff and red fabrics mentioned above it also
with white grits. The surface is covered with an all-over was
dull and matt, and tends to flake when weathered. It appears
and Io, and jars J7 and 9, as well as for pyxides and lids.
Urfinis ware (FIG. Io, 64-70). We use this term for light-col
over wash in black or dark brown paint which, when fire
appearance. The fabrics vary from fine buff through pale or
forms are those found in the similar but non-lustrous dark-w
ware is certainly ofEM II, it appears never to have been used f
dark-wash ware. Forms in Urfinis include C5, 8, xo, I2, I3, 14
restricted to a small range of cups and bowls.
Gournia ware (FIG. I3, 164-6). This term was suggested in I9
on-dark pottery as typified by the early deposits at Gournia.44
with an even black wash on which designs are painted in a po
than Gournia, however, the paint is thick and creamy-white, a
small group of Gournia ware includes both buff and pale
inclusions, and paint which is both creamy-white (i65-6)
41 Ibid. 93. It may be that we have different views
43 K. Branigan, onofwhat
The Tombs Mesara (1970) 20.
constitutes evidence for burnishing. 44 E. Hall, Trans. Free Museum of Science and Art I (1905)
42 Ibid. 94. 191-205.
decoration and the forms, however, suggest that the sher

case. The only forms found on our site are C2 (in an EM III f
Conical cup ware (FIG. 13, 76-90o). The term 'ashtray' has bee
to label conveniently the small, handleless cups, usually of con
in large numbers on many Minoan sites. These cups are usually
fabric. We use the term Conical cup ware, however, for the
cups on our site, which include a majority with either a part
usually in a somewhat flaky paint. The fabric varies from a
creamy-white, and a rather coarse yellowy-white with black
wash many sherds have decoration in a powdery white or ye
universally applied as one or more horizontal bands around th
of the sherds in this group come from the small cups (or 'asht
variants thereof, a few examples of forms C8, B4 (with hand
(FIG. Io, 75, 76).
Cooking-pot ware (FIG. 9, 12-14). As might be expected, little
is a gritty purplish-brown fabric with no surface treatment,
Jxo, and also for two shallow baking platters. The unused
coarser and thicker but otherwise very similar ware.
Polychrome and barbotine wares (FIG. 13, 167-8). Only eight
recorded. They included both buff and red fine fabrics with
in red and white paint. Forms included B6, Sg9 and a crinkle
Apart from the various wares described above, there were fo
were not identified as 'wares' but stood out by reason of their
Pedestal bowls (FIG. 13, 169-72). Gritty pinkish-red fabrics w
or pedestalled bowls. They were sometimes left undecorated
light-coloured wash or slip and then red or brown paint was
band and either a red cross on the inside face (171) or variou
Large bowls (FIG. 13, I73). Found in the same areas as the
notable for their size, thickness, and hammer-head rims. They
fabric, covered with a yellowish-buffslip, and then given a re
a scatter of red spots or splashes on the inside surface.
Pithoi (none illustrated). Coarse, gritty buff and yellowish-b
found only in small fragments. The only decoration was foun
room I (level H5), where an applied cordon was marked with
Larnakes (none illustrated). The fabric was very similar to tha
rims were found.
The only other Minoan vessel requiring mention is the curious double vase, 174, made in dark
brown gritty fabric, fired to dark buff on the exterior and covered with a poor buff slip on which
washy red paint was applied in diagonal lines. Various forms of double-vase have been found in
the Mesara tholoi, and generally seem to belong in the earlier deposits. The fabric of this piece,
however, although clearly decorated in Ayios Onouphrios fashion was quite different from that
of all other dark-on-light painted sherds on the site.
Post-Minoan pottery (none illustrated). Four sherds of post-Minoan pottery were found in
surface levels on the site. The earliest was a fragment of a late classical cup with a poor black
glaze, followed by a first-to-second-century AD Roman flask rim in har

there were two sherds of glazed Second Byzantine ware.
The Frequency of Wares and Forms

The frequency with which the various wares appear in the surviving co
shown in Table I. The percentage figures are approximated to the
in view of the incompleteness of the corpus (due to robbing) and the
wares are thought to give only an impression of the popularity of the
TABLE I. The Frequency of Pottery Wares at Ayia Kyriaki
Ware Unstratified Stratified Total %
Wiped ware 27 2 29 0.2

Black Gritty ware 90 o0 90 05
Pyrgos ware 131 40 171 10
Dark burnished ware 120 47 167 1-o
Grey burnished ware 96 32 128 0.8
Salame ware 213 9 222 1-4
Lebena ware 43 5 48 0'3
Ayios Onouphrios I ware 1,289 69 1,358 8-3
Ayios Onouphrios II ware 1,82138 1,859 113
Incised Grey ware 35 2 37 0-2
Vasiliki ware 101 2 103 0-7
Red/Brown slipped ware 69 Io0 79 0'5
Red-wash ware 59 I 6o 0-4
Dark-wash ware 208 20 228 1-4
Urfinis ware 104 18 122 0-7
Gournia ware 9 o 9
Conical Cup ware 507 29 536 3"3
Cooking-pot ware 57 o 57 0'3
Polychrome and Barbotine wares 7 I 8 --
Pedestal bowls 50 I 51 0'3
Large bowls 73 0 73 0'5
Pithoi 29 1 30 0-2
Larnakes Io o o 0- I
Unclassified sherds 9,968 949 I0,917 66-6
Total 15, I16 1,276 16,392 100oo.0
(All totals, except percentage, refer t
Apart from the fact that two-th

most notable feature of Table I
together comprise about 20 per ce
Dark Burnished and Grey Burnish
'ashtrays' account for 3-3 per ce
Gournia ware, and Vasiliki ware a
and Vasiliki ware, on the other h
for about 16 per cent of the assem
would be interesting to compar
domestic and funerary groups,
45 Warren, Myrtos, table
the figures
of surface
for decoratio
Vasiliki a
I I, p. 94. For comparative
Kyriakifigures from
we have not Myr
dist
Apart from the incompleteness of our sample, the Myrtos a

whereas ours spans EM I-MM I. We cannot always decide whi
these periods, and so cannot pick out our own EM II assembl
Warren's, though similar in many respects, do not alwa
correlated. It is possible to make some broad comparison,
fabrics or wares which Warren details in his table of surface d
reasonably close, or identical, parallels. The results are as fol
TAB LE 2. The frequency of Some Wares at Ayia Kyriak
Myrtos Ayia Kyriaki
Fabric/Ware % Fabric/Ware %
Red-brown unburnished 23-0 Red-wash ware 2.0
Dark, unburnished 19,7 Dark-wash ware 7.8
Vasiliki, Pseudo-Vasiliki I8-2 Vasiliki ware 3T5
Dark-on-light 12-8 Ayios Onouphrios II 63.4
Cooking-pot (two fabrics) 13-8 Cooking-pot ware 2-o0
Red-brown burnished 7"9 Red/Brown slipped ware 2-7
Grey burnished 2.6 Grey burnished and Fine Grey ware 5-6
Ivory burnished 20o Buff burnished 13To
('Percentage' here refers to the percentage of the total of

category. The Myrtos figures are slightly higher than tho
trickle-decoration and 'others' have been deleted as no com
Kyriaki.) What emerges very clearly from this is that the
and dark-washed wares, red-brown burnished wares, an
frequent on the occupation site (Myrtos), and that
burnished/Fine Grey ware are in much greater use on
difference in the quantity of Vasiliki ware is almost certa
distribution of that ware, and the figure for Ayios Onoup
by its regional distribution too.
The frequency of forms at Ayia Kyriaki is broken down
frequency of all the type-forms shown in FIG. 14. These f
coarse wares as well as those discussed in detail above. Am
'ashtrays' and the large 'breakfast cups' of form C12 is not
is a close relation of the C12 cup and usually occurs in ide
are not very numerous in general, by far the most popula
often with two handles (form J3). This is an Ayios Onoup
most ubiquitous is S5, which is mainly but not entirely ofE
most popular form, S3 with tripod feet, and the quantity
Onouphrios II ware, is again notable in view of its relat
Ayios Onouphrios II ware.
There are of course other shapes which do not appear
pithoi, pedestals, and large bowls. All of these are inclu
shows the general breakdown between types of vessel. The
into EMI-II and EMIII-MM I form preferences is tenta
46 Warren, Myrtos 94.
4 6
2 3
5 9
1 FORMS
7 7A" 8 12 C
10"
13
11 1
14 5
10 BORMS
2 3 6 B
11
9 8
4
12
7
1 2 5
4
6
3 7 8 9
FORMS J"
1 2
3 4
9
FORMS S
8
7
FIG. 14. A chart of pottery forms found in the Ayia Kyriaki excavations. Forms C cups; forms B bowls; formsJ jars; forms S spouted
jugs (not to scale)
fabrics overlap these boundaries. It can be taken only as a very general indication of changing
preferences in the funerary use of vessel forms.
The Sources of Pottery used at Ayia Kyriaki

It must be said at once that no thin-section or heavy mineral analysis was undertaken ofsherds
from Ayia Kyriaki, and none has been done and published on any Early Minoan pottery at the
TABLE 3. The Minimum Number of each Type Form
Form Min. No. Form Min. No.
CupCI 50 JarsJI 7
C2 30 J2 9
C3 69 J3 34
C4 59 J4 2
C5 21 J5 I
C6 12 J6 iI
C7/7A 490 J7 13
C8 39 J8 Io
C9 3 J9 32
Cio 25
CIi II Total jars 119
CI2 228
C13 3 Jugs SI 54
CI4 18 S2 28
S3 85
Total cups I,o58 S4 27
S5 Io4
Bowls BI 27 S6 2
B2 14 S7 67
B3 19 S8 I
B4 6 S9 2
B5 24 Askoi 2
B6 47
B7 15 Total jugs 372
B8 18 Others 207
B9 3
BIo/IoA 22
BiI 3
BI2 3
Total bowls 201 Grand Total: 1,957
TABLE 4. Frequency of Main Ves
Vessel Form EM I-II EMIII-MMI Total /
Cups 494 564 1,058 545I

Jugs
Bowls
325
150
47
51
372
201
19"0
o103
Jars 105 14 119 6.I
Spherical pyxides 32 0 32 I-6
Lids 53 o 53 2-7
Pedestal bowls 45? ? 45 2-3
Large bowls 39? ? 39 2.0
Pithoi o 18 18 0-9
Larnakes o 6 6 0-3
Cooking-pots ? 12? 12 0-6
Double-vase I o I
Crucible 1? o I 01o
Total 1,245 712 1,957 100.0
(All figures refer to minimum nu
time of writing.47 Only a few particularly distinctive sherds c

provenance other than 'Southern Crete' or 'Mesara', by reason
decoration.
Of the Pyrgos Ware, only one chalice was firmly identified as a likely import from northe
Crete, on account of its fabric, form, and distinctive pattern burnish with inverted chevro
which is found on chalices from the Pyrgos cave. This is the piece in FIG. Io, 55. Vasiliki Wa
which in fabric and form exactly matched that found in eastern Crete at Mochlos, Vasiliki,
Myrtos was more frequent. Of the illustrated pieces, those in FIG. 13, 157, 158, 159, I6I, and 1
are thought to be imports from the east. There were another 30 sherds which were also thoug
to be eastern Vasiliki Ware.
Two other eastern imports were the cup and cup handle, FIG. 13, 165 and x66, which in fabri
form, paint, and decorative motifs are matched at Gournia and Mochlos.
The rim of the crinkle-rim cup with polychrome and barbotine decoration, FIG. 8, 48, seem
likely to be an import from at least as for as Phaistos, and a sherd of red and white on black
probably a Kamares piece from Phaistos too.
Earlier imports from Phaistos may include the Ayios Onouphrios II jar, FIG. 13, 154 (an
another, identical). These two jars are unique at Ayia Kyriaki and in a slightly unusual Ayios
Onouphrios fabric. The quality of the painted decoration is high, and the unusual motif
paralleled at Phaistos.48
The Ayios Onouphrios IIjugs, FIG. 12, 141-3, 145, and sherds I55-6, closely parallel in form,
decorative motif, fabric, and paint, the jugs excavated in the tholos at Koumasa by
Xanthoudides, and re-published by Zoes.49 Our examples may well have come from nearby.
In addition, we suggest that many of the Ayios Onouphrios II bowls, cups and spouted bowl
of forms B6, CI2, S7, were made in one or two centres. These could have been in the Ayiofarang
catchment itself, but we think this unlikely. The fine buff slipped and sometimes light
burnished fabric with rich brown painted decoration is very similar if not identical to Ayios
Onouphrios ware in these forms at Phaistos.50 We believe it likely that many of our vessels in th
particular fabric came from the Mesara and possibly from the vicinity of Phaistos.
Similarly, we suggest that many of the EM III-MM I 'ashtrays' were made in a single centre
and brought to Ayia Kyriaki, although we have no particular locations to suggest for th
potteries which produced these.
We have no direct evidence to offer to support these claims, but we did examine groups of
vessels of identical form and fabric with a view to identifying any which showed either addition
close similarities in distinctive decorative motifs or signs of standardization of size such as might be
indicative of semi-specialist production in a single workshop or centre. The results of the
studies are of interest in five cases.
(i) Ayios Onouphrios II cups of form CIo with slightly concave shoulders, and painted
decoration above the shoulder of alternating triangles filled with cross-hatching and chequer-
board patterns. All are in a pale yellow-buff fabric with smoothed surface and decorated in a
reddish-brown paint. See e.g. FIG. 12, 12I. There were four examples of this distinctive type.
(2) Vasiliki ware cups. All were in eastern Vasiliki ware fabric, and six cups had rim
diameters of 7-o, 7-4, 7-6, 8-6, 8-8, and 8-8. This may be too great a range to signify semi-specialis
production in a single workshop.
47 Dr. Peacock and Professor Renfrew have recently begun a 49 Xanthoudides, Vaulted Tombs pl. xxvib, nos. 4o09, 4112,
programme of analyses on prehistoric Aegean pottery. 4113, 4114. A. Zoes, op. cit., especially pls. I 1-17.
48 D. Levi, Festos i * (Incunabula Graeca 60) (1976) fig. 275, 50 Cf. Levi, figs. 252, 275, and i* plates, pl. 12 b, g, h.
row 2, centre.
(3) Seven jars of form B6 in Salame ware were all o

bowls had diameters of I3-8, I4-o, 14-o, 14.o, and I4-4.
source.
(4) Five cups of form CG2 in Ayios Onouphrios II ware were id

fabric, cream slip with a low burnish, flat red painted decorat
groups of seven parallel diagonal lines. The rim of each was de
the exterior and regular red dots on the interior. All five cups
are convinced that these five vessels came from a single source.
(5) Eleven conical cups in a soft medium buff fabric covered
decorated with two horizontal bands of fugitive white paint, va
and 9-o cm. We are convinced that all eleven cups came from
There is at present no evidence that the communities of the A
pottery production centre of their own, although surface she
survey, and especially from sites E9- I I, were generally of simil
those from Ayia Kyriaki. Some wares may have been produ
suitable for potting were not plentiful in the Ayiofarango low
identify in our corpus between twenty and thirty imported v
thirds of which came from eastern Crete. A much greater pro
may have been imported from contemporary communities in so
various communities of the Asterousia mountains and the plai
less distinct from one another than they are from the products of
imported vessels are therefore much more difficult to identif
detailed study of forms, fabrics, paints, and decoration of a lar
Kyriaki or Lebena might prove a rewarding undertaking, partic
petrological or chemical analysis of fabrics.
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION
There are three topics which require interpretation and discussion, and th
the following order: history and development of the site; evidence for ritual
with the Minoan tomb complex; and the social and economic implications of
history.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
We recognize four phases of human association wit

divided into four sub-phases. These phases are:
(i) Pre-tomb occupation of the site.
(2) Construction and use of the tomb complex:
(A) Construction and use of tomb chamber, room 3 a
(B) Continued use of all of above, construction and u
area east of rooms 2 and 3 and in area Z. Construc
of the 'platform'.
(C) Continued use of all of above, construction of ro
(D) Collapse of west wall of room I, gradual aband
decay and collapse of tomb and anterooms.
51 Blackman and Branigan, BSA 72 (1977) 24-
(3) Hiatus from MM II to the mid twentieth century AD

Classical, Roman, medieval, and modern ages.
(4) Robbing of the tomb and its anterooms in 1965, small s
I. Pre-tomb Occupation
The only structural remains of the pre-tomb phase a
foundations found in areas M and Y, the southern one of w
room 3, which is itself identified as part of the original tom
these foundations, and levels A 7 and H5 are in turn associate
deposits, pit A6 is sealed by the trampled surface outside r
Its pottery places it almost certainly in EM I, but it could be
than to pre-tomb occupation. There are also levels K6, 7,
anterooms 3 and 5, and therefore pre-tomb in date. The na
use of the site is not certain; but on balance it appears
occupation of some kind. The scant structural remains could
or a small ossuary like those of the EM period in north
destroyed to allow of worthwhile discussion. It is perhap
different alignment to the overlying tomb chamber. The pr
tomb use of the site is the discovery of stone tools in the pr
A7 was a whetstone and in 175 a sandstone rubber (104).
whorl, whilst from surfacing laid down early in EM II cam
(73), and a whetstone (74). One is tempted to suggest also th
might also belong to this pre-tomb occupation, since it is dif
use of the tomb. Even excluding these, however, it remains t
functional tools or items of clay and stone were found eith
EM I-II mixed material which formed the make-up of the e
ritual objects from the site-stone vases, sea-shells, and figu
came from such levels. This surely suggests, though it does
tools-other than the obsidian blades-were brought to th
possible to suggest ritual usage for some of these ston
Whetstones are certainly found in several tholos assemblag
those published are fine specimens, usually with one or two
ceremonial or symbolic; our examples in contrast are plain
be used for pounding materials to make cosmetics for ri
below, p. 53), but the signs of wear on ours suggest heavier d
serve a symbolic function as grave-goods,52 but whereas this
products of specialist craftsmen it is much less so for an item
(54), which is more simply explained by assuming it was be
might recall that in our brief discussion of the stone tool as
that from the settlement of Myrtos and its marked differences
With all these considerations in mind, we suggest that befor
small domestic structure stood on the site, associated w
weaving, and no doubt with farming. It remains possible that
ritual deposit dating to the time of the tomb's construction
The date of the pre-tomb occupation is indicated by two g
52 K. Branigan, The Tombs of Mesara (1970) 92.
construction of the tomb, obtained from sherd

pottery found in the pre-tomb deposits themsel
of the tomb are the four small sherds found in
'Pyrgos' ware and one red-burnished triangular
tomb deposits is much more prolific and is al
sherds are a few which could be EM II (see discus
but in the context of these groups seem best as
early EM II Ayios Onouphrios ware is nowher
excavations may provide useful evidence here. A
groups are as securely EM I as all the sherds but
the six 'rogues' are firmly dated to EM II, an as
stratified parallels from elsewhere.
More problematic in some ways are the earliest
the whole site which we initially sorted as possib
deposits, and a further six from the original su
they may well be from pre-tomb occupation, bu
the latest. These thirteen sherds include three of
with a thick, high-gloss burnish grey-brown in c
with two small rim projections. Other notable sh
lug from a grey-burnished bowl, three further r
a prong handle. There has been a general dis
therefore come to the conclusion that some of th
Neolithic date. We could accordingly place the p
Final Neolithic-EM I, but would emphasize that
EM I.
2A. The Tomb Complex, Phase A (FIG. I5)

At some point during EM I, then, the hillside was cut back in a semi-circle to accommoda
the new tomb. The soil was excavated to bedrock in the area to be occupied by the burials,
the tomb wall itself was built on a shallow deposit of sub-soil left in situ by the builders. Sinc
edge of this ledge of soil coincided exactly with the edge of the wall, and since the builders c
hardly have known exactly how thick the wall would be all the way around, it is likely that
soil was originally excavated down to within 6 cm of bedrock, the wall then erected, and the
inside the wall finally removed to expose the bedrock. The outer face of the tomb wall was bu
small stones up to the height at which the surrounding ground level stood, from which po
upwards the outer face was built of larger stones, and in particular roughly slab-like stones.
inside face was built of larger, and sometimes very large, blocks from the foundations upwar
Although we cannot be sure, the easiest way in which this style of wall could have been built
for the inside face to be built up to a height of between 0-5 m and I m, and the outside face
packing then to have been inserted up to that height, and then the process repeated, until
point was reached where both inside and outside faces were being built of large stones. From
point upwards there are clear signs of corbelling, such as has been noticed on many other Me
tholoi.53 Unfortunately, because of the clear robbers' disturbance, and partial removal, of t
tumble and debris inside the tomb, it was impossible to find any indications of fallen vaultin
confirm the absence of such indications. The selection of large, flattish blocks or slabs of ston
53 K. Branigan, The Tombs of Mesara (1970) 38, 162-3-
12
, -1
3-
-1
1
2
3-u
C
3
3
PLATFORM
N
PERIBOLOS
WALL
, metres 5
FIG. 15. The tomb complex at Ayia Kyriaki, as excavated in 1972. Features of phase I (pre-tomb) are shaded horizontally. Hatched
stones in the peribolos wall are stones stood on end
the upper parts of the inner face does, however, convince us t

successfully, to corbel fully this roof.
After the tomb wall had been built, the west ends of the nor
were butt-built on to it outside the entrance. Initially, a room
this was soon subdivided into two small oblong chambers by
almost certainly planned from the beginning, for it was const
room 5, and the floor of room 5 was a continuation of the f
through its doorway. The two small chambers were therefore c
tomb was used.
At this point, some discussion is needed of the remains found 50 m up the hillside above the
tomb complex. These were briefly described in our survey report,54 and are again illustrated her
(FIG. 16). Although the remains were fragmentary, it is difficult to interpret them as anything
other than two conjoined tholoi. All the evidence-lack of surrounding building debris, burial
deposits, pottery, and other artefacts--suggests that the tombs were never finished. As they stan
so close to the tomb complex of W6, their history must in some way be related, and they can most
plausibly be placed either at the beginning of the tomb complex's history, or at the end ofit. That
is, they can be either interpreted as an initial pair of tombs whose construction was abandoned
and replaced by that of the excavated complex, or else they can be seen as tombs intended to
replace the full, and possibly collapsing W6 tomb in MM I. In the survey report we inclined
slightly in favour of the late date, on the basis of the style of wall-build, which was compared
with the walls of EM III-MM I tombs such as Kamilari I and III, and E22 (Ayios Andonios) in
our survey. We are now less inclined to accept the wall-build as a useful indication of a late date
of construction. Where, as here, only the foundation course of stone survives, then it is misleading
to compare it with the wall-build of tombs which survive to a greater height. In our own tomb,
and in EioA in the survey area,55 we noted that the bottom course of stones was often of smal
squarish blocks, such as we see in the foundation course of W6A and B, and used for upper
courses too in many of the later tombs. The only remaining clue to the date of the conjoined
tombs (if we ignore the one EM I/II sherd and eight EM coarse sherds found around the tombs,
which could have arrived here from the W6 complex) is the peculiar conjoined plan itself. The
only parallel to this construction in Crete is Lebena tombs II and IIA, tomb II of which was built
in EM I and tomb IIA added in EMIIA. On balance, therefore, we would slightly favour
placing our two conjoined tholoi at the start of the site's history as a cemetery. It should be noted
that the complex of rooms outside the excavated tholos is an almost exact parallel to the four
rooms found outside Lebena II and IIA. Why the tombs were first to be built further up the
slope, and why they were abandoned at an early stage of construction and the new site adopted is
uncertain.
2B. The Tomb Complex, Phase B (FIG. 15)

We assume that the tomb and rooms 3 and 5 continued in use in phase B, although in
absence of any undisturbed deposits in any of these areas this cannot be demonstrated. Room
was now erected to the south of rooms 3 and 5, although it must be emphasized that there is
direct stratigraphic or architectural evidence that its construction was significantly later th
the building of the tomb and rooms 3 and 5. All that could be established architecturally wa
that room 2 was built after the tomb and these other rooms had been built, its west wall abutt
on to the tomb wall and on to the south wall of rooms 3 and 5. That a significant period of ti
54 Blackman and Branigan, BSA 72 (1977) 56-8, fig. 28.55 Ibid. 39.
SITE W6A/B
0 METRES 5
FIG. 16. The unfinished double tholoi just west of the Ayia Kyr
did, however, elapse between the completion of the to

building of room 2, is indicated by the pottery sealed be
Rooms 3 and 5 yielded only EM I sherds from these leve
EM I sherds from primary deposits inside the tomb, and b
by the pre-tomb wall which ran under the east wall of ro
as well as the tomb, belong to EM I is therefore clear. Sim
and in the floor material in room 2, but here there was
sherd of Fine Grey ware. Both its stratigraphic position
and if we are right in believing that Fine Grey ware is a
construction of room 2 must be placed no earlier than th
than the building of the tomb and the first two outer chambe
built later than EM IIA, since the small surviving area of depo
piece of Fine Gey ware and Ayios Onouphrios sherds probabl
EM II. From the first, the room possessed a 'bench' alongside
hard, compacted floor ran. Outside the room, a roughly le
ing over areas A, M, 7I, and Z. There is no stratigraphic evid
time with the building of room 2, but the evidence of th
recovered from the surfacing material and its make-up in all
tent. Most of the pottery was of EM I date, but there were a
each area.
Features associated with this surfacing are not closely datable, but for various reasons th
most likely to have been constructed soon after the surfacing was laid, rather than later in
C. The peribolos wall was constructed after the surfacing was laid, since towards its easte
the surfacing was cut back to allow for the curve of the wall. Running as it does towards
south-east corner of room 2, it would appear to have been constructed to delineate the ed
the cemetery area at the time when room 2 was in use, but room I was not yet built.
therefore be attributed to phase B. The platform, which fills the gap between the end of
peribolos wall and the corner of room 2, is similarly attributable to phase B, on the ground
if it were built in phase C then it would form an impediment (though not a total barrier) to
to the newly built room; this would be an unlikely, though not impossible, arrangement. F
the alignment of stones found along the northern edge of area M, set into the top of the surfacin
is attributed to phase B only on the grounds that they appear to have no function other th
delimit the cemetery or ritual area in the same way as does the peribolos wall on the far side
surfacing. They do not resemble the peribolos wall in construction, and they may well ne
have supported any superstructure (wall) at all. Nevertheless, they seem more likely to be p
the enclosure or demarcation work of phase B rather than to be associated with the constru
of room I with which they could have no possible functional connection.
2C. The Tomb Complex, Phase C (FIG. I5)

Room I was constructed after the erection of room 2, its north wall being built by erect
facing and then packing in stones between the facing and the south face of the south wall of
2. The construction date is firmly placed in MM I by sherds found in the north wall, and i
small deposit on the floor of the room, and probably also by sherds in tumble which app
have come from the west wall of the room. Room I was therefore built a considerable time after
the erection of room 2-between three and five centuries later, on conventional chronologies.
We are uncertain as to whether or not the tomb and other antechambers were still in use at this
time; the latest material to come from what we believe are undisturbed deposits in room 5 and
stuck to the wall of the tomb itself are two sherds of EM III/MM I.
2D. The Tomb Complex, Phase D (FIG. I5)

The west wall of room I collapsed, probably not long after the room was built to judge from
the tiny amount of material found sealed beneath its undisturbed tumble. One sherd found in the
tumble might be as late as MM IB, but this is uncertain.
The quantity of unequivocal MM I pottery on the site is quite small, and the use of the
cemetery appears to have been in decline even by the time room I was constructed. Its final use,
however, appears to extend into the MM IB/II period to judge from eight sherds of that period
found on the site. Thereafter, there is no trace of any conti

further Minoan pottery at all.
3. Hiatus: MMII- Twentieth Century AD

There is no trace of any activity on the site during th
Classical, early Roman, and Second Byzantine periods were
these are periods of occupation in the Ayiofarango when th
and the occurrence of these single sherds is of no significanc
4. Robbing, 1965 and 1971-2

The known history of the robbing activities is that Dr. I. S
almost certainly interrupting looting at that time. The looter
site, but left clear signs of their recent activity on the site. Alm
work as soon as Dr. Sakellarakis had left the district, and w
summer of 1971 the looting had covered the whole site and
pottery littered the surface. Following the trial excavations
disturbed and dug over by looters in the winter of 197 1/2. T
we may tentatively add some detail. Observation not only on
tholoi in the Ayiofarango and elsewhere, convinced us in 1
these sites very well but that they robbed them in a method
sherds from all the disturbed levels in some detail in the be
robbing could be identified, then it might be possible to iden
deposits, at least in a general way. A differential pattern in
EM III/MM I pottery did in fact appear in our plotting of s
spoil heaps with concentrations of EM III-MM I sherds in
in areas A, B, and H. The way in which this distribution
assuming that the robbers began by excavating the rooms 2
downslope. Most of the material in these rooms would be o
had been cleared by the users of the cemetery at the start
been cleared now, but since we believe from the scant traces
tumble that this room had never held much, the robbed part
identifiable 'MM I' spoil-heap. From the antechamber, ro
followed the entrance into the tomb. Members of our workf
tombs by pushing their debris behind them and digging ro
The tomb was so thoroughly looted, however, that we are c
deposit in the tomb must have been completely removed
'excavated' in the manner described and every item from
high percentage of sherds from EM III-MM I 'ashtrays' in a
uppermost deposits in the tomb were looted and the soil th
from the tomb over the already excavated antechambers
been looted in the way described by the locals, any surp
disposed of downslope from areas Z and K.
An alternative reconstruction of events would see the tomb
downslope into areas A, M, H, A, and B, in the expectation
just outside the tomb. Rooms 3 and 5 were then robbed, thei
before rooms I and 2 were located and robbed, the spoil fro
completely excavated areas, K and N. The EM III-MM I 'as
this interpretation chronologically, but since room I h

cups would have to be seen as coming primarily from
such as sealstones and beads is explained by the heaps o
in area H but also elsewhere on the site.
One complication to the distribution pattern as recorded in the surface levels and spoil-heap
is the possibility that there were periodic clearings of the tomb and/or its antechambers durin
EM I and II. This sort of activity certainly occurred at other tholos sites, although it was usuall
related to the use of storage trenches or sheds.56 Several sites also produce clear evidence
fumigation or at least fires inside the burial chamber, sometimes associated with clearance of
burial remains.57 Burnt bones were noted by us in areas H and P, two areas with very hi
percentages of EMI-II pottery. It is possible that a clearance, or clearances, in EM II saw
material dumped in this area, and that this material was disturbed by the extensive robbers'
diggings in I965 and after. It is also possible that this part of the site was used in EM II, after t
surfacing was laid and the peribolos wall built, for ceremonies involving pedestalled bowls and
very large shallow bowls, over forty of which were found on the site, all but two along the easte
fringes in area A, P, and E. Finally, it is worth noting the deposit of EM I sherds found in area
These were notably smaller and more weathered than those from other deposits on the site, and
were of a consistent fabric and style of decoration. We suggest that these may be the remains of
EM I clearing operation or EM I ceremony performed close to the tomb, rather than sher
displaced from the tomb by robber activity.
THE EVIDENCE FOR RITUAL
In a thoroughly robbed and looted tomb such as the Ay

evidence for burial customs and ritual has obviously be
the surviving artefacts it is possible to draw some
discussing the finds at this tholos in the light of discov
Of the manner and mode of burial we can say virtual
that inhumation was the norm in the Mesara tholoi,
remains anywhere in the complex, with the exception
room I in the surviving area of floor deposit. These
certain that they were human bones at all, although we
inhumations were being joined, if not superseded, by lar
tomb's period of usage is strongly suggested by the ten f
pithoi or large amphorae found in the excavations. Alth
sealed deposit, in level 5 of room I, where it was clearly
many other tholos cemeteries suggests that these bu
possibly first appearing in EM III.
The grave-goods deposited with the burials are of c
grave-robbers of modern times have removed much. Th
that the complete absence of sealstones, the appearance
only one item of copper/bronze, should not mislead us i
buried in this tomb complex in larger quantities. On
should expect thatjewellery, copper artefacts, and sealsto
of this tomb and its antechambers. Of the few artefacts
us, some are of potential interest. Amongst the stone to
56 K. Branigan, The Tombs of5' Mesara

Ibid. 0o8-9. (1970) io6-8.
whetstones is paralleled in several other Mesara tholoi, but in every c

been finely shaped examples, usually with suspension holes; this distin
more workmanlike examples from this tholos and perhaps suggest that
of whetstones have been symbolic or ceremonial, ours was possibly as
activity on the site. We have also suggested above that the same concl
likely that can be drawn from the appearance of two unfinished ston
weight (54) and the hammer or macehead (9). An alternative interpret
chosen as symbolic grave-goods for the burial of stoneworkers. Of th
figurines are unimpressive but again are what escaped the attention o
therefore an unrepresentative sample. The obsidian blades may have i
deposited with burials, but there were sufficient from the pre-tomb de
may have had no connection with burial rites. Finally, we should take
shells found on the site. Two were in sealed deposits, but none w
locations. Nevertheless, we believe they were probably brought to the
reasons. Sea-shells have been found at other Mesara tholoi includin
both Siva tombs, Kaminospilio, and Chrysostomos,58 and they formed
the cult furniture of the 'Temple Repositories' at Knossos at a later dat
speculate about their ritual significance and meaning.
Turning to the pottery, it must be immediately stated that it can on
terms if we make the assumption that the corpus recovered by us br
composition of the pottery corpus, before the tomb-robbers rem
complete vessels and perhaps any vessels of special interest and value,
This proposition could be argued at length, but in no objective manne
that the conclusions reached were correct. We make this assumption, t
following comments with the reminder that they are based on an inc
and may be regarded as tentative in the extreme.
Several points emerge very clearly from the pottery corpus. The first
another are more numerous than any other vessel type, and that this a
and EM III-MM I periods. Jugs are the second most popular form, fol
How these various forms were used in burials is a matter for conj
Mesara tholos excavation has yet produced clearly associated burial gr
some sort of 'norm' in the deposition of grave-goods--a traditional gr
the figures given for the approximate number of vessels of each typ
(above, Table 4, p. 40) a tentative interpretation would be that s
consist of between two and four cups, a jug, and either a bowl or jar.
modified in looking at the vessels attributable to EM I-EM II (above, p
that period there were normally two cups only alongside the jug a
pyxides all belong to EM I-II, one might further speculate that abo
accompanied by one of these vessels. We do not, of course, know from
complex the various vessels came, but in discussing burial rites in the M
has been suggested that in EM I-II cups, jugs, bowls, and jars were gen
were placed with the body inside the tomb chamber, probably after t
some sort of ritual 'toast'.
Traces of any vessels produced specifically for ritual were very scant, with the exception of th
large bowls and stands discussed below. The zoomorphic clay items labelled as figurines m
58 Ibid. 164-5.
well have been projections from such vessels, although

them. A fragmentary double-vessel of a general cla
Koumasa and Christos, and to which the stone 'kern
surface level. There are two other groups of vessels whi
of grave-goods. One is the cooking-vessels, made in th
pottery. Only fifty-seven sherds were found altogethe
these were associated with the pre-tomb occupation of
been used for cooking. They seem likely, therefore to
This is the first time that this type of vessel has been
funerary ritual in the tholoi in 1970,59 attention was
seems likely that they have turned up at other tholos
coarse-ware undeserving of attention. The second type
crucible found in a surface level. In fabric it is not ver
both its unusually thick walls and its shape suggest th
tentatively suggest that it was buried with a metalwo
suggested for other unusual finds from various tholoi.6
We have so far been concerned with burial rites and
concerned with activity inside the tomb chamber itself
attached to the tomb, and to any evidence for the way
deposits were found in the antechamber, room 5, it pro
outside Mesara tholoi in two respects: it was very sma
was regarded as an integral part of the tomb."6 In a p
the tholoi it has been proposed that these two features
kept clear of offerings and burials; that corpses may
tomb proper; and that the number of participants in a t
the ceremonies, was very small.62 The function of the
tomb room 3, is more difficult to identify. Many tholoi
antechamber, and others possess additional rooms built
than immediately in front of it. The most precise para
Lebena II/IIA, where, as with our chambers, the antec
and of roughly the same size. In each case, access to the
be gained through the outer chamber. For this reason,
offerings were normally left here. One might conject
temporary deposition of offerings whilst a corpse was
in tombs without an outer chamber such offerings cou
tomb.
Room 2 is the only one of the outer rooms which has
the 'bench' built alongside one of its walls, similar to t
to be part of the original construction of the room, b
therefore be seen as the remains of a later pier or wall
the Mesara tholoi, in the complex at Lebena II/IIA. Thi
however, since attention has already been drawn ab
whole complex at Lebena II/IIA and at Ayia Kyriaki, in
tholos' at the latter site which is the only parallel yet f
At Lebena II/IIA, the oblong room at the south-wes
59 K. Branigan, The Tombs 60

of Ibid. 90-2.
Mesara 61 Ibid. 93- 92. 62 Ibid. 94-5-
(1970)
chamber is that which contains a low bench, just as it is

possibility that room AN as it was labelled at Lebena fulfill
Ayia Kyriaki. At Lebena, a hint as to this function is given
which mention that many conical cups andjugs were found i
from other sites, this has been interpreted as evidence for
outside the tomb chamber.63 There is no direct evidence for
concentration of conical cups in the two areas immediately t
might reflect, it was suggested above (p. 49), material whic
The part which the 'bench' played in this rite is unclear, and
Ayia Triadha, for example, where rooms with many conical
been crucial to the ritual.
Finally, room I is clearly identified as a late addition to the complex, and must represent
either a change (or addition) to existing ritual or a replacement of an existing room which was no
longer available for its original purpose. The gradual filling-up of outer rooms with burials and
offerings has been noted at several tholoi, so that the latter situation is one which may well have
arisen here. On the other hand, the markedly oblong room, somewhat larger than the other
rooms in the complex, recalls the main room of the suites of chambers found in front of late
(EM III-MM I) tholoi such as Apesokari I-II, Ayios Kyrillos, Platanos A and B, and Kamilari
III.64 It also recalls the single, large oblong room built in front of the MM II tholos at Knossos.65
In all these instances except Knossos, the room was clearly a place of funerary ritual, often
containing an 'altar' or 'pillar', and also producing some of the more exceptional ritual items.
The need for these rooms may have persisted through Middle Minoan times (when an example
occurs at Arkhanes) to the Late Minoan age and the Temple Tomb at Knossos. At present,
room I at Ayia Kyriaki is perhaps best interpreted in this way. The alternatives, that it replaced
room 2 as the location of the 'toasting' ritual, or that it was meant as an additional burial
chamber when the tomb became full, seem less likely to be correct. There were no traces
in the undisturbed deposit at the west end of the room of the deposition of cups, nor of any
burials. The handful of small fragments of bone, even assuming they are human, are bette
explained as connected with ritual practices than as the very scant remains of burials mad
here before the west wall collapsed.
The almost complete absence of human bones from the area excavated at Ayia Kyriaki is
inexplicable. It is difficult to accept that the tomb-robbers removed bones from the site, and
although the bones may well have been in a very poor state of preservation, some of the more
resistant bones and parts of bones should have survived. As it was, less than a hundred fragments
of bone were recovered by us, the longest of them under 6 cm in length and mostly much
smaller. There were no toe- or finger-bones and not a single piece of cranium. It is possible
therefore, that many of the bones from the burials had been removed in antiquity. There are
several examples of this practice from amongst excavated tholos tombs in the Mesara, a
Platanos, Koumasa, and Kamilari for example.66 In some cases, clearance was accompanied by
fumigation, and there is a little evidence, in the form of charred bone fragments found in areas 1
and P, to suggest that this happened at Ayia Kyriaki too.
Amongst the few bone fragments recovered in the excavations, we noted at least five which
appeared to have been clearly chopped at each end. To this observation we may add the small
size of all the bone fragments here and at other tholos sites surveyed by us in the Kaloi Limenes
area, and the discovery at Kaminospilio of a quernstone on which fragments of bone were
63 Ibid. 98- Ioo. 65 M. S. F. Hood, ILN (22 Feb. 1958) 299.
64 Ibid. IOI. 66 K. Branigan, The Tombs of Mesara (1970) io6-8.
'cemented'. All of these observations raise the

tholoi during the period of their use and were
ritual purposes. It is interesting to note tha
butchery on human bones from Knossos,67
ritual eating, we would make no such claim
recovered and cut or ground long after the cor
and the removal and use of bones clearly fall in
It is likely that other post-funerary rituals w
Kyriaki, for it shares several features with ot
the cemeteries were places where ceremon
communities. The enclosure wall at Ayia Kyr
and Kamilari, and the 'platform' is paralleled b
Although we have no paved surfaces outside
trampled surfacing which was laid down in EM
wall, and perhaps the 'platform', were built. A
sites, the impression is that the enclosed areas
libations or token offerings/sacrifices. At Ayia
owing to the discovery of the pedestal bowls an
pedestal bowls and seventy-three sherds of larg
area A. Four came from area P, flanking A, and
we cannot be sure where these sherds original
eastern edge of the area, but within the line o
originally deposited within the enclosure but no
the tomb itself. Comparable objects have been
seen at Ayia Kyriaki are not published by X
were found by him at Platanos (3), Drakones
he recorded was an incomplete one, identified
differed from all our examples in having a sol
single comparable example was found on the
Ayiofarango.69 The close correspondence be
identified by us might suggest that they were
can only be speculation. The bowls and pedesta
of decoration we believe to belong in the perio
of EM I date. Thus the pedestals and bowls wer
would have been made in the tomb. In this
identified suggests either that they were used f
that they may have been used for rituals which
funeral ceremony. Branigan suggested in 1970
enclosures and paved areas for the practice of n
the bowls and pedestals of Ayia Kyriaki might
The only other evidence for rituals external
The stratigraphic context of this pit allows it
phase or else early in the history of the tomb
that the pit probably belonged to the pre-tom
67 P. Warren, personal communication.
69 Blackman and Branigan, BSA
70 K. pl.
68 Xanthoudides, Vaulted Tombs Branigan, The
L, 6898, Tombspl.
6918-19; of M
XLII, 5687; pl. XXVII, 4127-8, 4283.
some sherds from the pit looked as though they might

cleaning, drawing, and study has confirmed that impres
contemporary with the building of room 2, the laying of a
and the building of the enclosure wall. Since the pit is sealed
to belong to the very beginning of this phase of the cemete
best to see the pit as a ritual deposit made in connection
cemetery. One further observation may be made about the
substantial parts of both EM I and early EM II pots, possibl
the ceremony, suggests that this is a truly transitional
relatively short period of time when both styles of pottery
EM II pottery together in a deposit of this kind serves as a u
are not watertight and mutually exclusive periods of t
development of ceramic styles and shapes which must over
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
There is no direct evidence from the excavations for the subsistence economy of th
group who utilized the site in the EBA, although some light may be thrown on it in t
discussion of social organization. Similarly, the limited evidence for the economics
may be more conveniently discussed in the context of social organization.
It has long been considered likely that the Mesara tholoi were the tombs of clans
extended families, and it is not intended to repeat the arguments and evidenc
survey in the Ayiofarango supported this thesis, and suggested that in this catchme
was possible to identify tentatively the territories occupied by the clans in the val
which included a peak sanctuary, a tholos cemetery, a spring, and settlement
suggested pattern of settlement is seen in FIG. 17, where it can be seen that the A
tholos, site W6, has three farmsteads ascribed to it (sites E5, E2o, and W7). In the a
skeletal remains from the tholos, and in view of the probability that the ceramic asse
the tomb is incomplete owing to looting, it may be possible to use these survey da
approximate estimate of the size of the population group using the tomb, and of t
burials originally made at this cemetery. We believe the tomb complex was in use f
period of between 8oo and 900 years, but that its use was slight and intermittent f
century or so of its existence; effectively, its period of regular use was between 700 a
If it was serving the needs of three nuclear families occupying the three EM farmste
we would expect a total number of burials each century of about 6o, each family c
five burials per generation of twenty-five years.73 The total number of burials mad
during its period of use might thus have been 420 to 480, to which must be added a
for the declining numbers in its last century of usage. A final total of between 450 a
might be envisaged, made by three nuclear families, each of five or six persons, whi
formed a clan or extended family. We might compare this estimate of the total numb
in the tomb, with that which we can make from the suggested 'burial assemblage' of
cups, ajug and either a bowl orjar, with each burial (above, p. 51). On this basis,
of the remaining unlooted pottery suggests a minimum of about 320 to 370 burials
of bowls/jars and jugs).
There is nothing in the size or construction of the tomb to imply that its constru
have needed a larger labour-force than that which three families could provide. All
71 Summarized, ibid. 128-31 . 73 J. Bintliff, ibid. 83-4-
72 Blackman and Branigan, BSA 72 (i977) 65-72.
E 24
E 25
E 18
E 17
OW 7
OW 2
E 12
E 10 11
OW 3 E74
E9
13
E57
AYIOFARANGO E. B. A.
Tholos
E4
W6
E 4A
Tholos reported
W7
W8
E 20
Peak sanctuary
ditto probable
ditto possible
Settlement
COPPdga H Farmstead
W 11
Spring
Arable
E 22
KMS
FIG. 17. Early Minoan settlement in the Ayiofarango. The tholos of Ayia Kyriaki is Site W6
materials are available nearby, and the largest stones used could be
using levers.
The families which used the cemetery at Ayia Kyriaki must be presumed also to have utilized
the small, discrete areas of cultivable land on the edge of which their houses were built. The
alluvial deposit at Ayia Kyriaki itself was by far the richest of these arable areas, but all were
small and totalled a maximum potential acreage of 8o acres (32 ha). Due to the poor quality of
the land, a maximum of 4o acres (16 ha) might be sown in any one year, so that the three families
might produce over 300 bushels of grain and 600 litres ofoil. Rather less than halfof this would be
needed for domestic consumption,74 so that if the arable was utilized to its maximum potential,
in good years there would be a sizable surplus. It is, of course, very unlikely that maximum
exploitation was achieved or even sought, but it remains likely that the population unit using the
Ayia Kyriaki tholos could produce a surplus of grain and olives in most years. In addition, sheep
and goats may have contributed to the surplus, and certainly contributed to the subsistence diet.
Copper may have been acquired locally from the source I km to the south-east, and clay for
pottery manufacture could be found elsewhere in the valley. Whether the copper and clay
sources of the valley were for common use or were the property of those clans within whose
territory they fell, is unknown. The economic relationship between the clan groups in the valley
is thus uncertain. Beyond the valley, however, exchange must have taken place to procure at
least some of the pottery which we are convinced was imported from the plain of the Mesara and
beyond (above, pp. 41-2), as well as other items. From the excavations, the obsidian and at least
some of the stone vases stand out as obvious imports, and it was presumably to acquire such
goods that the agricultural surplus was used.
There is much more that could have been discussed had our excavations found an unlooted
tholos rather than a disturbed and looted one. One looks to the publication of the Lebena th
and the future discovery and excavation of further tholos tombs in the region to throw furt
light on society, economics, and ritual in the Early Bronze Age of southern Crete. We believ
however, that our work at Ayia Kyriaki has demonstrated that even looted tholoi can provi
valuable information and new insights, if they can be totally excavated with a view not just
recovering artefacts, but to establishing the nature and history of their construction and use,
their relationship to surrounding, contemporary sites.
D. BLACKMAN
K. BRANIGAN
74 J. Bintliff, BSA 72 (1977) 28.
B.S.A. 77PLATE 1
(d)
(b)
E20
-4A
BMOTSLHNAIYREFVCX
)dnuorgef(2m,tl5siac3R
W6
;tsaEgnikol,ImR)c(2bhrNeMyd6WTKA
W8
(c)
(a)
PLATE 2 B.S.A. 77
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
THE EXCAVATION OF AN EARLY MINOAN THOLOS TOMB
(a) Tomb wall, interior face, immediately south of doorway.

(b) Tomb wall, interior face, west side of tomb.
(c) Tomb wall, interior face, west side of tomb.
(d) Tomb wall, interior face, immediately north of doorway. North door jam

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The Excavation of an Early Minoan Tholos Tomb at Ayia Kyriaki, Ayiofarango, Southern

THOLOS TOMB AT AYIA KYRIAKI,

COURSE OF THE EXCAVATIONS

A preliminary trial was carried out by Blackman in October 197 I at the r

squarish blocks used in the middle courses of the wall. These

limestone found overlying the position of the antechamber,

THE ANTECHAMBER (ROOM 5)

probably built in a single operation. The dividing wall between them wa

Area Z proved to contain the remains of a third rectangular room

4 cm-deep deposit of fine, firm brown soil

To the south of room 2, in area H, lay a rectangular room whi

Ic). On excavation it proved to measure 3.25 m x 2I m internally

that most of these sherds and bone-fragments had been incorporated

pieces from three chalices. The interpretation of this depo

M, however, only a single sherd of Ayios Onouphrios I ware was found

AREAS H AND T (The Peribolos Wall)

AREAS A, B, A, AND E (1971-2)

7 P. Warren, Minoan Stone Vases (I969) 45-6, type 2 IA.

FIG. 3. Stone vases from Ayia Kyriaki (i: i)

C. Stone Tools (other than chipped stone)

74. FIG. 4, whetstone? Soft, greyish limestone; 1. 6-o, section

lack of interest in simple stone tools such as poun

FIG. 5. Obsidian blades from Ayia Kyriaki (1:2)

It is necessary to preface this pottery report with a r

Annuario-L. Vagnetti, Annuario 50-1 (1972-3) 7-138 (Phaistos, neolithic).

A. Pre-tomb soil. Levels A7 and N6. (FIG. 7 AI-6)

earlier date by the construction of the building to w

B. Pre-tomb soil below antechambers. Levels K8, K6 (FIG. 7., B7-II)

C. Probably pre-tomb soil, sealed by phase 2B surfacing. Level H5 (FIG. 7, C12-15)

FIG. 7. Stratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. Groups A-G (1:4)

D. Soil beneath floor of room 2; possibly pre-tomb. Level Z4 (FIG. 7, Di6-i7)

wash, and were decorated in red paint. The bowl,

F. Levelling material, sealed beneath phase 2B surfacing.

H. Floor deposit in room i, phase 2C. Level H5 (FIG. 8, H39)

I. Floor deposit in the antechamber, room 5, phases 2A-2D. Level K5

J. Floor deposit, room 2, phases 2B-2D. Level Z6

34 M. S. F. Hood, The Minoans (i971) 39-

either EM I or possibly EM IIA. One small rim s

FIG. 8. Stratified pottery from Ayia Kyriaki. Groups H, K, L (I:4)

K. Undisturbed wall tumble, room I, phase 2D. Level H2 (FIG. 8, K4o-2)

THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

A total of 15, 1 16 sherds of pottery were recovered by us in unstratified dep

The Wares and Forms

jars of type J2 often have fine cross-hatching or latti

M76J 177, 178,

1186 187 188 189 190'

black through brown and red to orange, was probably produc

Red-wash ware (none illustrated). This ware occurs in both a

decoration and the forms, however, suggest that the sher

glaze, followed by a first-to-second-century AD Roman flask rim in har

The Frequency of Wares and Forms

TABLE I. The Frequency of Pottery Wares at Ayia Kyriaki

Ware Unstratified Stratified Total %

Wiped ware 27 2 29 0.2

(All totals, except percentage, refer t

Apart from the fact that two-th

Apart from the incompleteness of our sample, the Myrtos a

TAB LE 2. The frequency of Some Wares at Ayia Kyriak

Myrtos Ayia Kyriaki

('Percentage' here refers to the percentage of the total of

The Sources of Pottery used at Ayia Kyriaki

TABLE 3. The Minimum Number of each Type Form

Form Min. No. Form Min. No.