A Textbook of Applied Physics

A Textbook of Applied Physics

Volume II
Second Edition

Dr. A.K. Jha

M.Sc. (DU), Ph.D. (IITD)
Department of Applied Physics
Delhi Technological University
Delhi-110042
Presently
Professor & Head
Applied Sciences Department
Ambedkar Institute of Advanced Communication
Technologies & Research, (GGSIPU)
Geeta Colony, Delhi-110031

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

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 Preface

This gives me immense pleasure in bringing out the second edition of volume II of Textbook of
Applied Physics. I hope that the book will be helpful to the students of B.E. / B.Tech/ B.Sc. and
Diploma in Engineering. Due to the short duration of semester, the students need to have subject
materials in a simple and easy to understand way. This is where the book is intended to serve the
students. To further cover the syllabi of various other universities four new chapters, namely,
Physics of Semiconductors; Dielectric, Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Properties of Materials;
Superconductivity; and Nanomaterials have been added in the present edition. This addition will
make this book useful for Materials Science paper also. Despite our best efforts, some mistakes
might have crept in. We shall be thankful to the students and teacher colleagues who kindly point
out such mistakes to us. We wish reader students grand success and a bright future.

Dr. A. K. Jha
E-mail: prof.akjha@gmail.com
 Contents

Preface v
1. Quantum Physics 3
1.1 Introduction–Limitations of Classical Mechanics 3
1.2 Planck’s Radiation Law—Quantum Theory 3
1.3 Photons 7
1.4 Interaction of Photons with Atoms 8
1.5 Photoelectric Effect 9
1.6 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation 12
1.7 Photoelectric Cells 14
1.8 Compton Effect 21
1.9 Pair Production and Annihilation 27
1.10 Dual Nature of Radiation: De-Broglie Waves-Matter Waves 28
1.11 De-Broglie Wavelength of Electron 29
1.12 Davisson and Germer Experiment–Verification of Matter Waves 30
1.13 Wave Packet: Group Velocity and Phase (or Wave) Velocity 32
1.14 Uncertainty Principle 35
1.15 Wave Function 41
1.16 Bra-Ket Notation in Quantum Mechanics 43
1.17 Expectation Values 44
1.18 Operators in Quantum Mechanics 45
1.19 Schrödinger Equation: Time Dependent Form 47
1.20 Schrödinger’s Equation: Steady State Form (Time Independent) 48
1.21 Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions 49
1.22 Degenerate and Non-degenerate Eigenfunctions 49
1.23 Particle in a Box 50
1.24 Simple Harmonic Oscillator 52
1.25 Rectangular Potential Barrier: Tunnel Effect 55
2. Statistical Mechanics 67
2.1 Introduction 67
2.2 Microscopic and Macroscopic Systems 67
viii Contents

2.3 Phase Space 68

2.4 Equal Probability Hypothesis 69
2.5 Statistical Equilibrium 69
2.6 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Law 70
2.7 Maxwell’s Speed Distribution Law 71
2.8 Law of Equipartition of Energy 74
2.9 Quantum Statistics 76
2.10 Bose–Einstein Statistics 76
2.11 Fermi-Dirac Statistics 79
2.12 Fermi Distribution Function–Fermi Energy 81
2.13 Energy of a Fermi-Dirac System 82
3. Nuclear Physics 89
3.1 Introduction 89
3.2 Structure of Nucleus 89
3.3 General Properties of Nucleus 90
3.4 Nuclear Force 93
3.5 Nuclear Binding Energy–Stability of Nuclei 96
3.6 Decay of Unstable Nuclei 100
3.7 The Radioactive Decay Law 101
3.8 Artificial (or Induced) Radioactivity 108
3.9 Applications of Radioactivity 119
3.10 Alpha Decay 110
3.11 Beta Decay 115
3.12 Gamma Decay 119
3.13 Nuclear Reactions 120
3.14 Nuclear Models 123
3.15 Nuclear Fission 128
3.16 Nuclear Reactor 131
3.17 Nuclear Fusion 133
3.18 Nuclear Holocaust 135
3.19 Accelerators 138
3.20 Linear Accelerator (LINAC) 140
3.21 Cyclotron 141
3.22 Betatron 144
3.23 Nuclear Radiation Detectors 147
3.24 Geiger-Muller (GM) Counter 149
3.25 Solid State Detectors 150
3.26 Scintillation Detectors 150
3.27 Cloud Chamber 151
3.28 Bubble Chamber 151
4. Electromagnetic Theory 157
4.1 Introduction 157
4.2 Motion of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Force 157
4.3 Magnetic Focussing 160
4.4 Gauss's Law 161
Contents ix

4.5 Applications of Gauss's Law 163

4.6 Maxwell's Displacement Current 176
4.7 Continuity of Current 178
4.8 Maxwell's Equations 182
4.9 Wave Equation for Plane Electromagnetic Wave in Vacuum 183
4.10 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Waves 186
4.11 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves 188
4.12 Poynting's Theorem: Energy in Electromagnetic Waves 192
4.13 Electromagnetic Waves in a Dielectric Medium 196
4.14 Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium 198
4.15 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 201
5. X-rays Production and Properties & Ultrasonics 207
5.1 X-rays: Production and Properties 207
5.2 Ultrasonics and Acoustics of Buildings 217
6. Physics of Semiconductors 239
6.1 Formation of Energy Bands in Solids 239
6.2 Distinction between Metals, Insulators and Semiconductors 240
6.3 Current Carriers (Electrons and Holes) in Semiconductors 243
6.4 Intrinsic Semiconductors 245
6.5 Doping of Semiconductors: Extrinsic Semiconductors 245
6.6 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors: N- and P-type Semiconductors 245
6.7 Comparison between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor 248
6.8 Comparison between N- and P-type Semiconductors 248
6.9 Characteristics of a Semiconductor 249
6.10 Electrical Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors 249
6.11 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductors 254
6.12 Electrical Conductivity: Variation with Temperature 258
6.13 Drift and Diffusion Currents: Einstein’s Equation 260
6.14 Generation and Recombination of Minority Carriers 263
6.15 Hall Effect 264
6.16 Formation of p-n Junction Diode 270
6.17 Depletion Layer and Barrier Potential in a p-n Junction Diode 271
6.18 Biasing of p-n Junction Diode 272
6.19 Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode 273
6.20 Zener Diode 277
6.21 Tunnel Diode 280
7. Dielectric, Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Properties of Materials 286
7.1 Dielectric Materials: Introduction 286
7.2 Review of Basics 287
7.3 Dipole Moment and Polarization 288
7.4 Dielectric Constant 288
7.5 Dielectrics and Coulomb’s law 291
7.6 Gauss’s Law in Dielectrics 291
7.7 Electrical Susceptibility and Polarizability 293
x Contents

7.8 Local Electric Field: Claussius-Mossotti Equation 297

7.9 Types of Polarization 302
7.10 Electronic Polarization 304
7.11 Dielectric Dispersion: Dielectric Loss 307
7.12 Dielectric Smart Materials 308
7.13 Piezoelectricity 308
7.14 Pyroelectricity 311
7.15 Ferroelectricity 311
7.16 Electrets 318
7.17 Ceramics 319
7.18 Electrostriction 319
7.19 Dielectric Strength/Breakdown 320
8. Superconductivity 325
8.1 Discovery of Superconductivity 325
8.2 Zero Resistance - Persistent Current 328
8.3 A.C. Resistivity in Superconductors 328
8.4 Effect of Magnetic Field: Critical Magnetic Field 329
8.5 Meissner Effect – Flux Exclusion 333
8.6 Type I and II Superconductors 335
8.7 Penetration Depth 337
8.8 Thermal Properties 338
8.9 Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation 342
8.10 Isotope Effect 343
8.11 London Equation 344
8.12 BCS Theory 348
8.13 Magnetic Flux Quantization 353
8.14 Tunnelling of Single Particle 354
8.15 Josephson Effect-Cooper-Pair Tunnelling 355
8.16 Macroscopic Quantum Interference - SQUID 359
8.17 High-Temperature Superconductors 361
8.18 Superconducting Fullerides 364
8.19 Applications of Superconductors 365
9. Nanomaterials 370
9.1 Introduction 370
9.2 Nano Science & Technology: Past and Future 371
9.3 Nanoparticles: Deviation from Bulk Behaviour 372
9.4 Metal Nanoclusters 373
9.5 Quantum Structures: Dimension Effects 375
9.6 Carbon Nanostructures 379
9.7 Other Applications of Nanomaterials 387
Index 395
Unit VI
Unit III
 1
Quantum Physics

1.1 INTRODUCTION–LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS

We start studying mechanics based on Newton’s laws of motion from early classes. The mechanics
based on the Newton’s laws, particularly second law of motion, is often referred to as classical
mechanics or Newtonian mechanics. The classical mechanics successfully explains the motion of
macroscopic bodies including terrestrial bodies. However, it fails to explain the motion of atomic
particles. For example, if classical mechanics is applied to an atom, the electrons moving around the
nucleus experience centripetal acceleration and hence must radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Therefore, the energy of the electrons should decrease continuously and
ultimately they should collapse in the nucleus, contrary to the reality. The classical mechanics also
failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Raman effect, black body radiations, discrete
nature of atomic spectra, etc. These problems could be overcome with the development of quantum
mechanics or wave mechanics. The development of quantum mechanics revolutioned the different
branches of physical sciences. Planck played an important role in establishing the quantum nature
of radiation. Later Schrodinger, Heisenberg and other developed what we call quantum or wave
mechanics. Not only physics but entire physical sciences such as chemistry, materials science, etc.
are interpreted using quantum mechanics.

1.2 PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW—QUANTUM THEORY

It was observed from the black body radiation curves (energy E vs wavelength l) that the energy
is not uniformly distributed in radiation spectrum. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation
increases with increase of wavelength and becomes maximum at a particular wavelength (Fig. 1.1).
Beyond this wavelength intensity of heat radiation decreases. An increase in temperature causes a
decrease in lm such that lmT = const. = 0.2896 cm K (Wien’s displacement law). Also, an increase
in temperature causes an increase in energy emission for all wavelengths.
It was difficult to understand the black body radiations using the existing classical theory. In
order to explain the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the spectrum of black body,
 4 A Textbook of Applied Physics

Planck in 1901 introduced the extremely important idea of quantum theory of heat radiation.
According to Planck, energy is emitted in the form of packets or quanta called photons. Each
photon has an energy hn, where h is the Planck’s constant and n is the frequency of radiation.

1650 K

El
0K
150

K
00
13

K
00
11
900 K

1 2 3 4 5 6
l in microns

Fig. 1.1 Energy spectrum of black body radiations.

Plank derived this law by making the following assumptions.

(i) A chamber containing black body radiations contains simple harmonic oscillators or
resonators of molecular dimensions (known as Planck’s oscillators or resonators) which
can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
(ii) The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its
vibration.
(iii) An oscillator can emit (or absorb) energy in the multiples of a small unit called quantum
(photon) and cannot emit (or absorb) energy in a continuous manner. An oscillator vibrating
with frequency n can emit (or absorb) energy in units or quanta of magnitude hn, i.e. an
oscillator can emit (or absorb) only discrete energy values of hn, 2hn, 3hn,….. or nhn
where n = 1, 2, 3,…..
In other words, exchange of energy between radiation and matter cannot take place continuously
but only in discrete values, integral multiple of hn.
If N is the total number of Planck’s oscillators and E their total energy, then average energy per
Planck’s oscillator is given by
E
e= ...(1.1)
N
According to Maxwell distribution law, if e is a certain amount of energy, the probabilities that a
system will have oscillator with energies 0, e, 2e, 3e,….. are in the ratio

FG -e IJ : exp FG - 2e IJ : exp FG - 3e IJ : .....

1 : exp
H kT K H kT K H kT K
Quantum Physics 5

where k is Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature. If No is the member of oscillators
having zero energy, then the number of oscillators N1 having e energy will be N0 e–e/kT. Similarly, the
number of oscillators N2 having energy 2e will be N0 e–2e/kt. In general, the number of oscillators Nr
having re energy will be N0 e– re/k T. Therefore, the total number of oscillators is given by
N = N0 + N1 + N2 + .... + Nr + ....
= N0 + N0e–e/kT + N0e–2e/kT + .... + N0e–re/kT + ....
= N0 [1 + e–e/kT + e–2e/kT + ... + e–re/kT + ....]
Putting e–e/kT = y, we get
N0
N = N0[1 + y + y2 + .... + y r + .... ] = ...(1.2)
1- y
The total energy of Planck’s oscillators is given by
E = 0 × N0 + e × N1 + 2e × N2 + .... + re × Nr + .....
= 0 + e N0e–e/kT + 2e N0e–2e/kT + .... re N0e– re/kT + ....
= N0e [e–e/kT + 2e–2e/kT + .... + re–re/kT + .....]
= N0e [y + 2y 2 + .... + ry r + .....]
Let S = y + 2y2 + ...... ry r + .....
\ Sy = y2 + 2y3 + .... + (r – 1)y r + ....
Subtracting, we get
S – Sy = y + y2 + ..... + y r + ......
y
S (1 – y) =
1- y

y
or S=
(1 - y ) 2
y
E = N0 e S = N0 e
(1 - y) 2
Therefore, the average energy is given by
y
N0 e
E (1 - y) 2
e= =
N N0
1- y

ey ee - e / kT
= =
(1 - y) 1 - e - e / kT
 A Textbook of Applied Physics

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