Conclusion: Towards Gender Equality

Ranjani K.Murthy, 2016

Prepared for Course on Gender Sensitization: Culture, Society and Change (part of B A
Programme), Indira Gandhi National Open University
1.0 Introduction

The Global Gender Gap Report 2015 measures gender equality in economic, education, health and
political spheres in 145 countries, including India. The 2015 Report notes gender gaps are highest in
economic sphere followed by the political and least with regard to health and education spheres. While
there has been progress on reducing gender gaps since 2006 in all four spheres, the progress has been
slow in economic sphere and better with respect to the others.

In 2015, India ranked 108 out of 145 in terms of gender gap, with countries like Bangladesh and Sri
Lanka scoring better than India in the South Asian region. The pattern with regard to gender gap in India
is similar to the global level, being higher in economic and political than education and health. If one
looks at trends across time, India has made progress in reducing gender gaps in education and health,
but gaps have increased in economic and political spheres between 2006 and 2015.

Thus achieving gender equality is a challenge globally and nationally. But first there is a need to
understand the concept of gender equality, global and Indian scenario on gender equality, and the
strategies to promote gender equality. See Figure 1

Figure 1: Objective of the Unit

1. To help students
understand gender
equality

3. To strengthen
2. To assist students
awareness of strategies
analyse how (un) equal
to promote gender
women are
equality

One section would be devoted to each of the three objectives, with interactive exercises at the end of
each section to help the student apply the session in their contexts.

1
2.0 Understanding gender equality

2.1 Thirsty Fox and Crane

Let us begin with a story. Once there was a thirsty fox and a thirsty crane. A saucer of water each is
placed before them (See Figure 2 below). Who will be able to drink the water- fox or crane or both?
Why?

Figure 2: Thirsty Fox and Thirsty Crane

Write your answer without looking at text below:

_____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________
Only the fox can drink the water placed in a saucer, as it has a tongue and not a long beak. The crane has
a long beak and needs a beaker or a tall drinking container to drink water.

A few examples of women/girls voicing that they have felt like the crane in the story are given in Figure
3. Please identify the source of inequality it reflects: gender, caste, religion, disability, etc . Match
column 1 to column 2 with a line

2
 Figure 3: Inequality Exercise
1.There is no child care facility at
Panchayat office, so I find it difficult Caste
to attend meetings though elected

2.My school makes all the SC* girls stand in a

line to sign for scholarship; all the others come Religion and gender
to know our caste and some do not play with us

3.The private sector company does not allow us

to wear burqa and come to work. Sari is Disability and gender
allowed

4.There is no ramp in government school

nearby, I have dropped out. My uniform goes Gender
up when people lift me

*SC: Scheduled Caste

Correct Answer at the end of this section!

2.2 Understanding gender equality

Drawing lessons from the story on the fox and crane and examples of inequality in Figure 3, there are
two concepts of equality: Formal Equality and Substantive equality

 Formal Equality: The concept of formal gender equality is premised on the principle of
sameness of women and men and girls and boys and assumes that if women/girls and
men/boys receive the same opportunity and are treated similarly (using male standards)
equality will be achieved. It does not take into account the ways in which women are different
from men (socially and a few biological differences) and how they are disadvantaged because
of these differences. The formal equality approach is similar to placing a saucer each before the
thirsty fox (men/boys) and thirsty crane (women/girls)

 Substantive equality: The concept of substantive equality recognizes that women and men
have to be treated differently and their disadvantages to begin with have to be addressed to
achieve equality. The substantive equality approach entails placing a saucer before the thirsty
fox (men/boys) and beaker before the thirsty crane (women/girls). The substantive equality
approach also recognizes that gender interlocks with other identities like caste, class, race,

3
 ethnicity, religion, ability and age to keep women/girls in unequal position. Going back to
Figure 3 substantive equality approach would entail strengthening child care facilities in
Panchayats, passing a policy that permits women to dress according to their culture, automatic
transfer of scholarships to bank accounts and compulsory ramps in all government schools (and
permitting girls with disability to wear dresses they desire .

Essential viewing:

UN Women Asia and Pacific, 2014, CEDAW - Principle of Substantive Equality (English)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZR0RJtghyY

Answers to Exercise in Figure 3

1- Gender
2- Caste
3- Religion and gender
4- Disability and gender

3.0 Global and Indian Scenario on Gender (in) Equality

3.1 Gender Gap in Health

Table 1 presents global (145 countries) and Indian statistics on gender gap in health. Trends between
2006 and 2015 are also given.

Table 1: Gender Gaps in Health- Global and Indian picture

Health Weight Global India

Indicator
2015 2006 2015 2006
Sex ratio at 0.693 0.92 0.94 0.89 0.94
birth (female-
over-male)
Female healthy 0.307 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.00
life expectancy
over male
value
Total 1 0.957 0.973 0.952 0.962

4
The Global Gender Gap Report provides an overview of the differences between women’s and men’s
health through the use of two indicators. The first is the sex ratio at birth, which aims specifically to
capture the phenomenon of “missing women” prevalent in many countries with a strong son
preference. Second, the report uses the gap between women’s and men’s healthy life expectancy.
Healthy life expectancy provides an estimate of the number of years that women and men can expect to
live in good health by taking into account the years lost to violence, disease, malnutrition or other
relevant factors. The Global Gender Gap Report gives more weight or importance is given to sex ratio at
birth, and lesser to female to male healthy life expectancy. The Global Gender Gap measures with
respect to health could be strengthened by adding measures such as male over female contraception
and gender based violence against women vs men, but still is a good indicator.

On a scale of 0 to 1 (1 implying equality), the global gender gap in health is little standing at 0.957
globally and 0.952 in India in 2015. If one takes into account trends over time, gender gap in health has
increased between 2006 and 2015, with the increase being sharper globally than in India (see Table 1).
The main reason is the decline in sex ratio at birth globally and in India, which reflects a combination of
‘spreading’ son-preference (in countries like China, India, Republic of Korea, Vietnam, Nepal, Azerbaijan
and Georgia) and the fact that female fetuses are more vulnerable to miscarriages than males. In India
too, sex ratio at birth has declined. On the other hand, the ratio of healthy female to male life
expectancy of women to men has improved during the same period. An aspect that is worth
investigating is whether this ratio has improved because women are healthier, or because men have
become more unhealthy due to smoking, alcohol consumption and stress!

Some of the ‘supply side’ (i.e. health provision) barriers to gender equality in health include distances to
health facilities, inadequate female doctors, lack of privacy, poor facilities like separate toilets and
water, introduction of charges 1 for some services and medicines, inadequate emergency obstetric
services and reproductive cancer screening services and discrimination against women and girls (with
HIV, disability, scheduled castes, tribes, poor and minorities) in health facilities. The ‘demand side’ (i.e.
family, community or market level) barriers to gender equality in health include greater work load of
women than men, health complications due to violence against women, restrictions on women’s
mobility, lesser willingness of families to invest in women’s health when compared to that of men,
private insurance services which do not cover maternal health and community norms prescribing
harmful health practices like female genital mutilation. Thus placing the same saucer of health services
or health education is not enough, these differences have to be taken into account.

Reading:

Murthy, R.K, 2015, Slipping Through the Sieve? Equitable Sex Ratio at Birth as a Post 2015 Agenda

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277817199_Slipping_through_the_sieve_Equitable_Sex_Rati
o_at_Birth_as_a_Post_2015_target

1
Women earn lesser than men, and have lesser cash in their hands.

5
Ravindran, T.K.S, n.d Engendering Health, Seminar,
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/engendering_health.pdf

3.2 Gender Gap in Education attainment

The gap between women and men’s current access to education is captured by the Global Gender Gap
Report through ratios of women to men in primary, secondary and tertiary-level education and the ratio
of the female literacy rate to the male literacy rate where the focus is on outcomes. Gender equality in
enrolment in primary education receives the most weightage or importance, and enrolment in tertiary
education the least with the weight given to the rest falling in between. See Table 2. This measure of
gender gap in education could be strengthened through adding gender gaps in access to early childhood
development and actual abilities (in mother tongue, English, mathematics, science etc) at primary,
secondary and tertiary levels.

The data from the Global Gender Gap Reports, 2010 and 2015 (see Table 2) indicates progress in
reducing the gender gap in education globally and in India between 2006 and 2015, with greater
progress being made by India than the global average. Disaggregating further, progress has been higher
in bridging gender gaps in tertiary education globally, but on the other three (literacy, enrolment in
primary and secondary education) gender gaps seem to have widened globally. This could be due to
enhanced vulnerability of young girls during conflicts which have been increasing (hence not sending
them to school). On the other hand in India, gender gaps with regard to all four indicators have reduced
with maximum reduction on tertiary education and least with regard to primary enrolment (wherein
gaps were little to begin with). However, equality is still not achieved especially with regard to literacy in
India and enrolment in secondary education globally.

Table 2: Gender Gaps in Education- Global and Indian picture

Education Weight Global India

Indicator
2015 2006 2015 2006
Literacy rate 0.191 0.89 0.91 0.75 0.65

Enrolment in 0.459 0.93 0.97 0.97 0.94

primary education
Enrolment in 0.230 0.64 0.94 0.86 0.79
secondary
education
Enrolment in 0.121 0.92 0.86 0.92 0.66
tertiary education
Total 1 0.946 0.939 0.896 0.819

Some of the ‘supply side’ (i.e. education provision) barriers to gender equality in education include lack
of safe transport for girls, female teachers, separate female toilets with water, code against sexual
harassment in schools and colleges, adequate girls hostels for studying, and discrimination against girls

6
with disability, scheduled castes, tribes and minorities in education institutions. The ‘demand side’
barriers to gender equality in education include preference for sons’ education over girls’ (especially
when family resources are scarce), domestic work load of girls, restrictions on girls’ mobility after
puberty, employment availability for girls (e.g. as domestic helps) and increase in dowry with (greater)
girls education. Thus placing the same saucer of education services is not enough, but these differences
have to be taken into account.

Reading

Ramachandrna, V, 2009, Education for All: Mid Decade Assessment, Towards Gender Equality in India,
National University of Education Planning and Administration, New Delhi,
www.teindia.nic.in/efa/Vimla_doc/EFA_Paper_Vimala_2009.pdf

3.3 Gender Gap in economic sphere

This gender gap in economic sphere measures three aspects: the participation gap, the remuneration
gap and the economic advancement gap. The participation gap is captured using the difference between
women and men in labour force participation rates 2. The remuneration gap is captured through a hard
data indicator (ratio of estimated female-to-male earned income) and a qualitative data 3 (wage equality
for similar work). Finally, the gap between the advancement of women and men is captured through
data on the ratio of women to men among legislators, senior officials and managers, and the ratio of
women to men among technical (e.g welders) and professional workers (e.g doctors). Maximum
weightage is given the ratio of women to men in technical and professional work and least weight is
given for wage equality for similar work.
Table 3: Gender Gaps in Economic sphere- Global and Indian picture

Economic sphere Weight Global India

indicator
2015 2006 2015 2006
Labour force 0.199 0.37 0.41 0.35 0.41
participation
Wage equality for 0.310 0.60 0.64 0.51 0.62
similar work
Estimated earned 0.221 0.54 0.52 0.25 0.38
income
Legislators, senior 0.149 0.27 0.37 No data 0.03
officials, and
managers
Professional and 0.121 0.64 0.79 No data 0.27
technical workers
1 0.592 0.596 0.383 0.397

2
Labor force participation rate is the proportion of the population ages 15 and older that is economically active: all
people who supply labor for the production of goods and services during a specified period.
3
Indicator for which data is gathered through the World Economic Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey

7
Data presented in Table 3 reveals that gender gap in economic sphere has increased globally and in
India with the increase being more prominent in India. Disaggregating further, globally the gap has
widened on 4 out of 5 indicators, barring estimated eared income which has gone up slightly between
2006 and 2015. Gender gap has widened most with regard to proportion of women in professional and
technical work. This could be due to the global recession, and the tendency of employers to retrench
women employees than men employees due to added expenses on child care and maternity leave. Data
is not available with respect to India on two indicators for 2015: gender gap with respect to professional
and technical workers and gender gap with regard to legislators, senior officials and managers! Gender
gap in labour force participation, wage equality for similar work and estimated earned income has
widened between 2006 and 2016, with the gap on estimated earned income being widest. One reason
could be that the country has seen an increase in economic growth and men who were poor earlier now
feel that it is their prestige if their wives do not work- just like women from upper caste and well off
background. Mechanization of agriculture has also led to lesser demand for women for transplanting
and harvesting. While men migrate, rural women rarely own land and hence are not able to access
institutional credit to cultivate land. Bulk of the women labour force in India is in agriculture, but this is
the sector growing the least.

Some of the ‘supply side’ (informal sector employers, government and companies) factors which
hamper gender equality in economic sphere in India is the lower valuation of the work that women do,
lack of child care facilities in work place, lack of clean public toilets (informal sector), the modeling of
work around timings suitable to men (lack of flexible timings and work space), gender-stereotyping in
work allocation, unequal access to training programmes, the preference of men in promotions, the lack
of quotas of women at all level in private sector 4, unsafe transport, and sexual harassment at work
space and lack of awareness of guidelines on the same. On the demand side, some of the barriers
include the perception that caring for the family is the primary role of women, (related) the lack of
acceptance of house husbands, the perception that women should not live separately in case of transfer
linked with promotions, norms against women traveling and living alone with regard to work, social
norms against women coming late from work, (some) women not having control over earnings and
women having lesser assets and resources to start their own business.

Reading
Sorsa, P, 2014, India – Igniting inclusive growth by raising female economic participation, VOX CEPR’s
Policy Portal, 8 June, 2014 http://www.voxeu.org/article/india-s-female-economic-participation

4
There is a quota that a minimum of 1 woman in the Governing Board of private companies, which is not
adequate.

8
3.4 Gender gap in political sphere

Gender gap in political sphere captures the ratio of women to men in minister-level positions and the
ratio of women to men in parliamentary positions. In addition, includes the ratio of women to men in
terms of years in executive office (prime minister or president) in the last 50 years. A drawback in this
measure is the absence of any indicators capturing differences between the participation of women
and men at local levels of government, which is likely to be higher for India than the global average 5

Table 4 provides data on gender (in) equality in political sphere globally and in India in 2006 and 2015. A
positive trend is that gender gap in this sphere has reduced globally and in India, with the reduction in
gender gap being more prominent in India than the global average. Disaggregating further, gender gaps
have reduced with regard to all three indicators in the political sphere globally and in India (women in
parliament, women in ministerial posts and years with female heads of state). Gender gap has reduced
most with respect to ratio of women in Ministerial positions in India. Globally the reduction in gender
gap has reduced most with regard to years with female heads of state (in 50 years). Concerted
advocacy by women’s groups on representation of women in political leadership has played a role in
reducing gender gap in political sphere globally and in India. However, advocacy efforts by Indian
women’s groups on reservation for women in Parliament are yet to succeed. A bill has been passed by
Rajya Sabha (upper house of Parliament) to amend the Constitution of India and reserve 33% of seats in
Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) and state assemblies for women, but is yet to be passed by Lok
Sabha. The main reason for the stalemate is the resistance from male politicians and concerns on how it
would affect reservation on the basis of caste.

While the gender gap in political sphere has been reducing in India, it is higher than gender gap in health
and education (but better than economic sphere). The gender gap in political sphere is 0.433 (on a scale
of 0-1) is however lower than the figure at the global level of 0.230 in 2015. If the indicator of gender
gap in women’s participation in local government is added India would perform better.

Table 4: Gender Gaps in political sphere- Global and Indian picture

Political sphere Weight Global India

indicator
2015 2006 2015 2006

Women in 0.310 0.27 0.22 0.14 0.09

Parliament
Women in 0.247 0.24 0.21 0.29 0.04
ministerial
positions.
Years with female 0.443 0.20 0.04 0.72 0.43
head of state (last
5
With 50% reservation of women in rural local bodies (Panchayati Raj) and 33% in urban local bodies
(Nagarpalikas)

9
50
Total 1 0.230 0.138 0.433 0.227

The ‘political system side’ barriers to women’s political participation include lack of quota at Parliament
level, corruption associated with politics, biases and harassment (gender, caste and others) in political
system, women being made to enter politics as proxies for their husbands, elected women being given
lesser infrastructure and budget than elected men, allocation of soft portfolios to women and lack of
child care and other facilities in political institutions. Households and communities, perceive that
politics is the domain of men. Most women do not have financial resources to contest elections, and
rarely is credit available for expenses. Men rarely come forward to support child care while their
spouses are engaged in political decision making. Poor mobility and lower levels of female literacy are
also constraints.

Readings:

Rathod, A, 2014, Women’s Political Participation and Representation in India, Delhi Policy Group Issue
Brief, April
http://www.delhipolicygroup.com/uploads/publication_file/1066_Women_in_Politics_final.pdf

3.5 Gender-based violence

According to European Institute of Gender Equality, gender‐based violence against women shall mean
violence that is directed  against a woman because she is a woman or that affects women
disproportionately. One can extend this to girls as well.

Gender based violence is not taken into account separately in the Global Gender Gap Index, and data on
this issue is not systematically gathered globally. UN Women, 2012 estimates that 35 per cent of
women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual violence 6 at some point in their lives.
However, some national studies show that up to 70 per cent of women have experienced physical
and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner in their lifetime. It further observes that women who
have been physically or sexually abused by their partners are more than twice as likely to have an
abortion, almost twice as likely to experience depression, and in some regions, 1.5 times more likely to
acquire HIV, as compared to women who have not experienced partner violence

As per the National Family Health Survey 3 (2005-6), 40% of ever married Indian women in the age
group of 15-49 years faced physical, sexual or emotional violence from their spouses (husbands) during
their married life. See Figure 4. Most spousal violence begins in the first five years of marriage. While
37% of men were physically violent against their wives, only one percent of wives reported being

6
By a intimate partner like husband or boy-friend or by a non-intimate partner

10
physically violence against their husbands. Ten percent (10%) of women reported being subject to
sexual violence by spouses and 16% to emotional violence. The NFHS-3 observes that spousal violence
against women increases with age, number of children, alcohol consumption of husband and history of
spousal violence in husband’s family. It decreases with economic status of household and education of
women. Reported spousal violence was highest in Bihar and least in Himachal Pradesh. Spousal violence
led to injuries and health problems. Only one if four abused women sought help, and mainly from family
members. More recent data from National Family Health Survey 4 is yet to come!

Figure 5

Sex-selection, incest, girl child marriage, forced marriage of girls, dowry harassment etc are other forms
of gender based violence within family on which hard data is not available. Similarly, there is little
comprehensive data on violence against women and girls in public sphere. In 2012, a study conducted in
New Delhi found that 92 per cent of women reported having experienced some form of sexual violence
in public spaces in their lifetime, and 88 per cent of women reported having experienced some form of
verbal sexual harassment (including unwelcome comments of a sexual nature, whistling, leering or
making obscene gestures) in their lifetime. Acid violence on women is not uncommon, in particular by
men who have been rejected by a girl. Cyber-crimes against women are increasing with spread of
technology. Trafficking of girls is not common, and at times even women are abducted and trafficked.
Gender and other identities interlock when violence is unleased on women (and men) marrying outside
their caste, religion, nationality, and of other abilities.

11
Some of the social reasons for violence against Indian women and girls are the patriarchal mindset in
society the social norm of viewing girls as father’s or husband’s property, viewing girls as holders of
community prestige, portrayal of violence against women in media, weak economic and political
standing of women and very little presence of informal pro-women mediation mechanisms. At the
service provision level, there are delays involved in writing First-hand Information Reports, police and
judiciary are not always gender and socially sensitive, there are inadequate gender sensitive people in
judiciary, there are delays in giving verdicts, verdicts are not always progressive and the entire process
is expensive and takes time (which poor women cannot afford).

Reading:

Sircar, O and N, Bhanot, Violence Against Women, Infochange Women, 29 th February, 2016
http://infochangeindia.org/women/backgrounder/violence-against-women.html

3.6 End of the section exercise

To sum up, gender gaps are high in India in economic and political sphere, and Indian women
and girls face a significant degree of gender based violence within and outside the family.
While gender gaps are less in the area of health and education, gender equality has not been
achieved. In the health, education and economic spheres, India lags behind the global average,
and the situation is reverse with regard to political. If one examines trends, India has reduced
gender gaps on health, education and political sphere, but gender gaps in the economic realm
have increased. There is not concrete day to comment on trends with regard to gender based
violence.

12
In Box 1 is an exercise for you

Box 1: Write your story/her story

Female Students:

1. Were there any ‘gender gaps’ you faced when compared to your brothers, male cousins,
male friends, or male classmates? Why? How did you respond?
2. Think back- did your caste, religion, economic background or other identities also have a
role to play in leading to the ‘gender gaps’? If yes, how? How did you respond ?

Male students

1. Was there any ‘gender gaps’ your sisters, female cousins, female friends or classmate
sfaced? Why? How did you respond? How did she respond?
2. Do you feel any pressure on you because you are a male youth which you do not think a
female youth would experience? What are they? How do you deal with them?

4.0 Towards substantive gender equality

4.1 International conventions and agreements

The four important international and agreements towards substantive gender equality that are relevant
now are given in the Figure 6 below.

There is a difference between the two international instruments Convention on Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 1981 & the Vienna Declaration, 1993 and the Beijing
Platform for Action (BPFA) 1994 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 2015. The first two are
legally binding on the countries which have ratified it, while the last two are not. The country reports
submitted by the government on the CEDAW, for example, are reviewed by the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. This committee also receives ‘shadow’ or alternative
reports from NGOs and compares the government reports with the NGO reports & other literature and
gives its Concluding Observations. In the next report, the governments have to report on progress in
implementing recommendations listed in the Concluding Observations. Through a similar process, the
implementation of Vienna Declaration, 1993 is monitored by the United Nations Human Rights Council.
While the governments do submit reports on Beijing Platform for Action and will have to do so on  SDGs
the system of shadow reports is not insisted and varies from country.

13
 Figure 6: Important Conventions and Agreements Related to Gender Equality

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

Women (1981)
Covers elimination of gender stereotyping, trafficking & prostitution and discrimination with respect to
CEDAW nationality, marriage & family, application of law, health, education, employment, politicis and economic &
social benefits

Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993)

States Violence Against Women is a Human Rights Violation.
Vienna States violence can be eliminated through legal measures at national level and international cooperation
Declaration Inter-governmental organisations and NGOs should work to strengthen their work to eliminate VAW

Beijing Platform for Action (1994)

Equality, Development and Peace
Women and poverty economy, education,health, violence, armed conflict, decision making, human rights, media,
BPFA environment, girls and institutional mechanism

Goal 5- Gender Equality, Sustainable Development Goals (2015)

Eliminate gender discrimination, violence against women, harmful practices, reduce unpaid care; promote
leadership & decision making, economic resources, technology, sexual and reproductive health and rights; and
Goal 5 SDGs
(adopt) required policies & legislation

If one examines the differences in priorities over time- as well as how far these Conventions and
Agreements raise attention to address gender gaps raised highlighted in previous section- one can see
that over the years progress has been made in two areas: placing reducing unpaid care and sharing of
household work as one of targets and emphasis on equal access to technologies. However, attention to
issues of diversity amongst women was perhaps stronger in CEDAW and BPFA than the Goal 5 of SDGs.
Further, sensitisation of men and boys on gender and social equality has not received priority.
Comparable data is not available globally and nationally on some of the issues like women’s asset
ownership and incidence of violence against women. Nevertheless, these instruments and agreements
are useful to know and use strategically to negotiate gender equality vis a vis state, work place,
community, family and marriage!

There are many more agreements on gender equality from the year 1975 (which was the International
Year of Women) and the decades of women’s development that followed. Details of which can be found
in the references

Reading:

Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 2014, Concluding
observations on the combined fourth and fifth periodic reports of India,
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CEDAW%2fC
%2fIND%2fCO%2f4-5&Lang=en

14
4.2 Indian government’s approaches, legislation, policies and schemes  

4.2.1 Approaches

Historically Indian government legislation, policies, and schemes have followed different approaches.

In the 1960s-1970s, the ‘Welfare approach’ was popular amongst government. This approach gave
importance to women’s role as mothers and care givers. The Maternal and Child Health programmes are
one example. The focus was mainly on the reproductive roles of women.

In 1974 the report Toward Equality drafted by Committee on the Status of Women heralded the shift
towards an ‘Equality’ Approach. The report called for promoting equality- in all spheres- economic,
political and social. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 is an example of an offshoot of this approach.

The 1980s saw a shift to ‘Women’s Poverty Reduction’. Schemes such as the Development of Women
and Children in Rural Areas started in 1982-83, with focus on group building, savings, credit and income-
generation amongst women. The National Commission on Self Employed Women and Women in the
Informal Sector published the report Shramshkati in 1989 to highlight the plight of poor women in this
sector.

In the 1990s, there was a move towards ‘efficiency approach’ . That approach uses women’s skills as
resource for other goals like using women’s nimble fingers towards sericulture development and for
seed hybridization.

It is from late 1990s onwards the empowerment approach are emerging, reflected in the Mahila
Samakhya Programme (1989), National Policy on Empowerment of Women (2001), and the National
Mission on Empowerment of Women (2010). A second study on Status of Women in India has submitted
a preliminary report on findings has been submitted to the government.

As depicted by the Figure 7 laws, polices and schemes related to four of the five approaches (other than
efficiency) are central to substantive equality. For example, child care support (welfare), money in one’s
hands (poverty approach), 33-50% reservation in local government (formal equality) and realization of
one’s potential and roles of oneself in local government (empowerment) are key to substantive
equality gap in political sphere.

15
 Figure 7: Towards Substantive Equality

Welfare

Empowoerme Substnative Poverty

nt Reduction
equality

Formal
equality

4.2.2 Policies, legislation and schemes  

Listed in Table 5 is a list of important legislations, policies and schemes to address different spheres of
gender-inequality. Please try and match which legislation, policy or scheme addresses what sphere of
inequality. If you are not sure of the details of the scheme/law/policy, surf on the internet and check!
You may find that some legislation, policy or scheme has a bearing on several spheres. For example,
Swach Bharat Abhiyan, one of the objectives of which is to eliminate open defecation, may not only
improve health and safety7 of women, it may also enhance school attendance of girls as well as
women’s involvement in markets and panchayats and municipalities. Thus, Swach Bharat Abhiyan may
directly/indirectly contribute to gender equality in health, economic and political. Hence there is no one
right answer to the exercise in Table 5 (match column 2 to 3)!

Table 5: Law, policies and schemes and spheres of influence

Sl.No Law, policies and scheme Sphere

1 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Health

Act/Scheme, 2005- 33% quota for women in employment at
equal wages with child care
2 The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005

3 The Criminal Law Amendment Ordinance (2013)8

7
Harassment of women when they go to toilets in the night is not uncommon
8
It recommends that whoever commits sexual assault on his own wife, without her consent, who is living
separately under a decree of separation or under any custom or usage, shall be punished with imprisonment

16
4 Maternity benefit Act, 1961
5 Janani Shishu Suraksha Yojana, 2011
6 The Pre -conception and Pre- natal Diagnostic Techniques Education
(Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994
7 Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

8 Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986

9 National Rural Livelihood Mission 2011- special focus on single
women, SCs, STs, women with disability etc.
10 Reproductive, Maternal, New Born, Child and Adolescent Health
(RMNCH+A)
11 Mahila Samamkhya Programme (Education for women’s equality) Economic
12 Protection of Children from Sexual Offence Act, 2012

13 Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956

14 Indian Penal Code, 18609

15 Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
16 Equal Remuneration Act, 1975
17 Sarva Siksha Abhyan- programme for achievement of Violence against women
Universalization of Elementary Education -6-14 years- 2000-2001
18 The 73rd Constitutional Amendment 1992 reserving one third of
seats in Gram Panchayats, Taluk Panchayats and Zilla Parishads
and 74th Amendemnt 1993 with respect to municipal corporation
19 Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 granting equal inheritance
right
20 Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana, 2011 (part of NRLM) –
women farmers empowerment

Government of India, 2015, India’s Report On the Implementation of Beijing Declaration and
Platform for Action
http://www2.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/csw/59/nati
onal_reviews/india_review_beijing20.pdf?v=1&d=20141113T235024

4.3 Be a Judge: Challenges in moving towards gender equality in India 

   
In-spite of these legislations, policies and schemes, gender gaps in economic, political, health
and education persist in India. What do you think are the challenges at family/marriage,
community, religious institutions, media, private sector and government levels? Put it in the
appropriate circle in Figure 8.

9
Section 326 A and B of the IPC on voluntarily causing harm by use of acid, Sec. 375, 376 A-D of the IPC on Rape,
Sec. 363 - 373 of the IPCIPC on Kidnapping & Abduction, Sec. 302/304-B of the IPC on Homicide for Dowry, Dowry
Deaths or their attempts, Sec. 498-A of the IPC on Torture - both mental and physical, Sec. 354 IPC of the on
Molestation

17
 Figure 8: Challenges towards gender equality
Governmen
t
Family/
Private sector
marriage
Gender, caste, class,
religion disability etc

Community Media

Religious
institutions

Challenges towards gender equality emerge from the interlocking of all identities in different
institutions of society. The Indian government’s approaches, laws, policies and scheme seek to
change some of the norms governing these institutions and identities, but not all. For example
the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 gives equal inheritance rights to women, but there
are not too many schemes for building assets of women from landless household or helping
women in urban areas move from graduation to employment.

5.0 Let us sum up

The key points emerging from the Unit on Gender Equality
 Formal equality is not enough for achieving equality in outcomes, substantive equality is
essential
 The concept of substantive gender equality recognizes that women and men have to be treated
differently and that women’s disadvantages (in particular marginalized) to begin with have to be
addressed to achieve equality.
 The gender gaps globally and in India are higher in economic and political sphere than education
and health. Skewed sex ratio at birth is becoming a global and Indian concern, as well as high
incidence of gender based violence against women
 The four important international conventions and agreements towards substantive gender
equality are the CEDAW, 1979, Vienna Declaration, 1993 that violence against women is a
human rights violation, Beijing Platform for Women, 1995 and Goal 5 of Sustainable
Development Goals, 2015

18
 National approaches towards gender equality are many and include a combination of welfare,
formal gender equality, women’s poverty reduction, efficiency and empowerment.
 These international and national initiatives together can lead to substantive equality of women,
provided they are backed by funds, human resources, gender-transformative services, films and
media and gender transformative norms at community and family levels

19