1

THEME 5. MAINTENANCE OF SERVICE LIFE FOR TRANSPORT

AIRPLANE
Lecture #10(14). The basic laws of fatigue
Plan:
1. Loading plane in service
2. Statistical property of durability
3. Dependence of durability from stress amplitude

1. Loading plane in service

In service on the airplane structure the load spectrum acts caused by atmospheric
turbulence, necessities of manoeuvrings, overpressure in cabin, surface imperfections of
runway at take-off and landing. From operative loads the cycle is extracted, whish
naturally repeating each flight. This cycle is named GAG (ground - air - ground).

Fig.1. The cycle GAG.

For transport planes, the cycle GAG may bring in 50 - 60  of fatigue damages for
all flight. Till 1960 years aviation structures are projected from the condition of static
strength, and then they bring up to the prescribed service life. Now the service life is
provided on early stages of designing. Designing of a structure on the prescribed service
life is distinctive feature of aviation structures in comparison with products of the general
mechanical engineering. It is connected to necessity of reception of a structure of the
minimal mass. In the monograph issued by employees of ”CAHI” –“Central air-
hydrodynamic institute” in 1990 it is marked " Now fatigue is the major reason of
premature destruction of structure elements, and the fatigue is a source of dangerous and
difficulty predicted destruction, it defines a service life of aviation structures ".
It is possible to extract some reasons, which worsted the problem:
1. Application of new high-strength materials at which increase fatigue strength is
much less than increases of static strength (for example aluminium allow 7075).
 2

2. Increase of element quantity that has the high level of stresses as a result of
application of more perfect methods of calculation of the SSS (stress strain state)
compound structures.
3. There is growth of load amount that act aboard the plane over increase of operation
intensity and speeds of flight.
р

Fig. 2. Loading by overpressure.

For achievement of the required service life two basic approaches are used in
designing of a structure:
1. The principle of safe service life is based that occurrence of a crack in a structure is
inadmissible. The structure is removed from operation after the expiration of the
appointed service life that curtained experimentally. Thus, high reliability is reached by
using of the big safety factors on durability.
2. The principle of the increased survivability supposes safe damageability of a
structure and an opportunity to continue flight during the established interval between
surveys. The structure of the increased survivability is characterized by presence of
plenty ways of efforts transfer and cracks terminators. For such structures, materials are
selected with small speed of crack development.
The specified two principles of designing do not exclude each other. The structure of
the increased survivability is more economic.

2. Statistical property of durability

As it was specified earlier, the basic units of the plane work in conditions of variable
loading. The purpose of the given part is consideration of behaviour of a material and
structure behaviour under action of such loading. Property to resist to action of variable
loads is named endurance. Representation about endurance is based basically on
experiments. While perfect methods of calculation giving enough exact result is not
present. Our purpose is correction of some qualitative positions on endurance and studying
of the approximate quantitative approaches of calculation, which there are suitable for the
decision of specific problems at calculation of the plane durability. In the beginning we
consider the simple law of variation  (t)as in mechanic of material:
 ( t ) a sint  m (1)
 3

For one cycle stress  changes in this dependence from max up to min
Amplitude -  a and mean size of stresses  m , frequency f and factor of asymmetry k
characterise such law (fig. 2):
 max   min
a  ,
2
   min
 m  max ,
2
 1
f  
2 T
 min
k ,
 max
where ω – is circular frequency.
At given a after some number of cycles Nc the specimen will be broken. The
number of cycles before destruction Nc is named durability. If experiment to repeat many
times appears, that each specimen will be broken generally speaking at various number of
cycles Nk at a=const and  m =const. Spread in values of Nc before destruction, that is
durability, at a=const is caused by cumulative action of some random factors which will
be considered further.

Fig. 3. Changing of stress in time.

Thus, to durability it is necessary to concern as to a random variable value

subordinated law of probability.
Lets at an identical level of variable load many specimens (n ≥ 500) are tested. We
shall count up number of the specimens, which have been collapsed at Nc Na, where Na.
is assigned number of cycles. This number of specimens W is named cumulative
frequency of specimen's destruction.
When we have set by various values Na it is possible to receive dependence:
W  f N a  .
Thus, to durability it is necessary to concern as to a random variable value
subordinated law of probability.
 4
W

500

400

300

200

100

N
0 2*105 4*105 6*105 8*105

Fig. 4 . Cumulative frequency of specimen's destruction.

Lets at an identical level of variable load many specimens (n ≥ 500) are tested. We
shall count up number of the specimens, which have been collapsed at Nc Na, where Na.
is assigned number of cycles. This number of specimens W is named cumulative
frequency of specimen's destruction.
When we have set by various values Na it is possible to receive dependence:
W  f N a  .
This function is termed the integrated law of distribution for destruction frequency.

W
100

100000 600000

Fig. 5. Relative frequency of specimen's destruction.

Instead of concept "frequency” it is more convenient to use relative frequency. The

relative frequency W is the attitude of number of the specimens, which had been
 5

collapsed at NcNa, (that is frequency) to the general number Nt of the tested specimens.
The relative frequency it is usually expressed in percentage.
W
W   100 (2)
Nt
While the general number of the tested specimens is not enough (10-20 piece)
curves W  f  N a  are not stable. If to continue test in process of accumulation of
experimental data, the curve W  f  N a  are changed a little, it is especial at very small
and very big N. At the big number of specimens the curve W  f  N  is stabilized.
If indefinitely big number of specimens had been tested it would be possible to
speak not about frequency, but probabilities of destruction of tested specimens. Usually
this concept is used practically, considering P W %.

100

100000 600000

Fig. 6. Integral law of probability.

Experimental dependence of probability is compared with theoretical laws of

distribution of probabilities. Yet the theoretical law of distribution longevity is not
established. The most widespread and authentic is the hypothesis about the logarithmic
normal law of distribution longevity. According to it values x=log (N-N0), where N0 - a
threshold of sensitivity cycles are submitted to the normal law of distribution but N:
log N  N0 
1  1 x  M 2
PN  
 x 2  exp  
 2  
x
 dx =
x  
 
2
1 xM x 
log( N  N 0 )   
2 σx  dx
  e (3)
N0
 6

 xk
where x=log(N-N0), Mx  k - the mean of distribution,
k*

  x k  M x  2

x  k - the mean-square deviation, k* - number of the tested

k*  1
specimens.
f

Fig.
N0 7. Probability
Mx density from durability.
Nmax N
dP
f – is the probability density, N – durability, f  .
dN

The mean of distribution Mx characterizes mean durability of specimens. The mean-

square deviation x characterizes spread of values of longevities of separate specimens.
Size N0 represents Nmax, at which any of specimens does not collapse, how many them
was. For authentic presence N0 it is necessary to test hundreds specimens. Therefore
frequently in practice this value remains unknown. If character of the law of distribution is
established, it is possible to pick up also scales that it turns to a direct line. In practice
frequently assume, that the law of distribution logarithmic-normal, and N0=1.

3. Dependence of durability from stress amplitude

The results considered above were received at one level a. For each value a curve
P=f (N) may be plotted as function from probability of destruction P. On curves P=f (N)
for various a and Pa we may find sizes Nip.
Using these values, it is possible to plot the diagram of dependence longevity from
a at P N=f(a,P). Usually a curve is plotted in logarithmic coordinates (log N, log a).
Dependence N=f(a) is investigated while insufficiently especial at big N (N>106). It is
known, that it is caused by structure of an alloy, presence of concentrators, size of stresses,
 7

and also size P. At such sizes ai at which N107, the curve a = f(N) in logarithmic
coordinates is close to a straight line for elements of a structure of the plane. The equation
of such straight line:
N am  C
or
log  a = C1 – (1/m) log N, (4)
where C1 = log C/m; m - the logarithm of the angle of an inclination of a straight line
log a = f( log N ) to the abscissa axis.

P% a3  a2  a1

99

90

50

10

4 5 6 lg N
Fig. 8. Probability of longevity for different stresses.

Fig. 9. The fatigue curve.

At values N>107 linear dependence log a = f(log N) apparently is broken. The

inclination of curves log a = f(log N) to an abscissa axis decreases. Possibly, for steel
details, it is especial at big P, curves asymptotically aspire to a parallel abscissa axis.
Usually in strength of materials the concept of a limit of endurance -1 is entered which is
 8

defined as max a at which destruction does not occur at N   (tends to infinity).

However in range N107-108 of such limit does not exist. Hence, it is possible to use
concept "fatigue limit" only specified up to what Nc tests are carried out and to what P
limit corresponds.

lg a P=1% P=10% P=50%

P=90%

P=99%

4 5 6 lg N

Fig. 10. Dependence of fatigue from probability.

Values W, appropriate N and P refer to as the limited limit of endurance on base N
of cycles with probability of destruction P %.
Correct representation about a curve a = f (N) for the given detail can be received
only on the basis of experiment. In case of absence of such data for typical plane structures
is used this approached ratio.
m
N 2   a1 
  (5)
N 1   a 2 
At N < 108 m≈ 4-6.
With the help of this dependence it is possible to count durability even at change a .
At least one point must be found experimentally on this curve.
The big exponent m means, what even at small downturn a the durability of an
element of a structure is considerably increased.
Usually thin-walled elements of aviation structures are tested at so-called a pulsing
or zero-to-tension loading cycle, shown on fig.4.
It is caused by that at compression thin-walled elements can lose stability.
For thin-walled elements this equation is accepted as:
 max
m
N C (6)
here  max is the maximal stresses of a cycle.
 9


max

Fig. 11. Pulsing loading cycle

Elements of a structure are tested at a symmetric cycle loading, if they can work in
the field of compression (shaft, axes).
With satisfactory accuracy for practical calculation the equation of fatigues curve
may be accepted (for shaft, axes and so on) as
σa m N  C , (7)
where m is a parameter of fatigues curve, N - number of cycles before destruction, 
- amplitude of stresses, C - an experimental constant.

 a

Fig. 12. The symmetrical cicle.

For aluminium alloys exponent is equal m =3.5 - 5.

At a designing stage it may to accept m=4. For steels it is possible to accept m=6.
These sizes should be improved by results of tests.