Mr.

Manish Verma as a YOUTUBER &

International Motivational Speakers
MR. MANISH VERMA Professional Teacher || Problem Consultant ||
NIOS DU - SOL Students Coordinator || Founder
of Open schooling Awareness Program || CEO &
Founder of The Life Progress Academy, Social
worker.

I want to help you all in every way because we

can contribute in any way in the development of
the country which will be a true tribute to the
brave heroes and it will be my first priority to
take the country to a new height for which I
have tried to convert some of my ideas from
social media and from my educational academy
into basalis in which the safety of women, the
education of daughters, is the cause of terror
from the country. Protection of spirit and
environment should be our first priority! Hope
you all get full support in this.

©THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1957.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, including photocopying, recording,
or other electronic or mechanical methods, without
the prior written permission of the publisher, except
in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical
reviews and certain other noncommercial uses
permitted by copyright

For more updates visit our web.

www.manishvermalpa.com

1
 Manish Verma
Raise hands with Manish Verma, fear be fearless

Mr. Manish Verma as a YOUTUBER and Life progress academy Teacher || Problem Advisor
|| Founder of Open Schooling Awareness Program || CEO and founder of Life Progress
Academy, social worker. I want to help you all in every way because we can contribute in
any way to the development of the country which will be a
true tribute to the brave heroes and it will be my first
priority to take the country to a new height for which I, my
I am trying to spread some ideas through social media to all
of you! In which safety of women, education of daughters,
eradication of terror from the country and protection of
environment should be our first priority! Hope all of you
will get full support in this.

“Every person in India should be educated, not

book education but a viable education which is
necessary for both good life and development of
the country…...
This has been created so that everyone can understand the
fear of Channel Exam and Study, in an easy way, it is not a
book education but a practical education which is necessary for both good life and
development of the country.
If you also want to be famous in this world, then start working hard today because today is
the history of tomorrow ..! By - Manish Verma
All of you are with me, otherwise what is my status!
Manish Verma

2
 Gratitude
We are all familiar with this fact that unless education is simple, then there are many
difficulties in understanding even the simple things, no matter what the board is. If it is
the matter of NIOS Board, then new students have difficulty in understanding its pattern
and syllabus, and due to lack of correct information, we fail the exam. But after working
for many decades for NIOS students in Manish Verma, I came to know that the large
number of students failing in NIOS is due to lack of proper guidance, guidance and simple
book notes.
To solve this problem, our team has brought simple notes, important questions and
answers for the exam for NIOS students.
The result of our best efforts and tireless hard work is this Chemistry book which includes
notes, which includes the entire syllabus of NIOS. In preparation for which Vicky Verma
and team members of Life Progress Academy contributed and it was ready after months!
The specialist professor of chemistry subjects has helped a lot in this.

Hope you like it a lot and NIOS students will take full advantage of it and bring more
marks in chemistry.

Manish Verma
(NIOS Students Coordinator)

3
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that ………………………, a student of class
12th has successfully completed the research on the
below practical under the guidance of …………………………
(teacher name ) during the year 2019-2020 in partial
fulfilment of data entry operation practical exam
conducted by NIOS , new Delhi,

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I Would like to convey my heartfelt thanks

to……………..., who always gave valuable
suggestion and guidance for completion of my
practical. she/he helped me and to understand
and remember important details of the project.
She/he helped me and gave her/his guidance in
completing of my practical successfully.

5
 PHYSICS PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS
INDEX
TOPICS:
1. To determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container
(like tin can, calorimeter) using a Vernier callipers and find its capacity.
Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.
2. To determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.
3. To determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a
spherometer.
4. To find the time period of a simple pendulum for small amplitude and
draw the graph of length of the pendulum against square of the time
period. Use the graph to find the length of the second’s pendulum.
5. To find the weight of a given body using law of parallelogram of vectors.
6. To measure extensions in the length of a helical spring with increasing
load. Find the spring constant of the spring extension graph.
7. To study the Newton’s loaf of cooling by plotting a graph between cooling
time and temperature, difference between calorimeter and surroundings.
8. To determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures.
9. To compare the frequencies of two tuning forks by finding first and
second resonance positions in a resonance tube.
10.To establish graphically the relation between the tension and length of a
string of a sonometer vibrating in its fundamental model resonating with
a given tuning fork. Use the graph to determine the mass per unit length
of the string.
11.To determine the wavelength of sound produced (i) in air column, (ii) the
velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance column
and a tuning fork.
12. To verify the law of combination (series and parallel) of resistances using
ammeter- voltmeter method and coils of known resistances.
13.To compare the e.m. f’s of two given primary cells by using a
potentiometer.
14.To determine the specific resistance of the material of two given wires
using a metre bridge.

6
15.To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a
potentiometer.
16.To determine the inductance and resistance of a given coil (inductor) using
a suitable series resistance and an AC voltmeter.
17.To determine the internal resistance of a moving coil galvanometer by
half deflection method, and to convert it into a voltmeter of a given
range, say (0-3V), and verify it.
18.To find the value of v for different values of i in case of a concave mirror
and find its focal length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.
19.To find the focal length (f) of a convex lens by plotting graph between 1/u
and 1/v. To find the focal length (f) of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
20.Determine the focal length of a concave lens by combining it with a
suitable convex lens.
21.To draw a graph between the angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation
(D) for a glass prism and to determine the refractive index of the glass of
the prism using this graph.
22.To compare the refractive indices of two transparent liquids using a
concave mirror and a single pin.
23.To set up an astronomical telescope and find its magnifying power.
24.To draw the characteristic curve of a forward biased p-n junction diode
and to determine the static and dynamic resistance of the diode.
25.To draw the characteristics of an n-p-n transistor in common emitter
mode. From the characteristics find out (i) the current gain (â) of the
transistor and (ii) the voltage gain Av with a load resistance of 1 k Ω.

7
8
 EXPERIMENT

AIM: To measure the diameter of a spherical bob using Vernier caliper.

APPARATUS: Vernier calipers and spherical bob.

FORMULA USED: n VSD = (n – 1) MSD

VSD = n – 1/n MSD
Vernier constant = 1MSD – 1VSD
= (1- n-1/n) MSD
= 1/n MSD

9
OBSERVATION:
S.no Main scale No. of Fraction to Observed
reading a cm Vernier be added b = diameter = (a
division (X. VS) cm + b) cm
coinciding (x)
1 2.4 6 6 x 0.01 2.46
2 2.4 3 3 x 0.01 2.43
3 2.4 5 5 x 0.01 2.45
4 2.4 8 8 x 0.01 2.48
5 2.4 2 2 x 0.01 2.42
6 2.4 7 7 x 0.01 2.47

CALCULATION:
Mean = 2.46 +2.43 +2.45 +2.48 +2.42 +2.47 / 6
= 14.71 /6
= 2.45
Mean = 2.45cm

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. 2.46cm
2. 2.43cm
3. 2.45cm
4. 2.48cm
5. 2.42cm
6. 2.47cm

PRECAUTIONS:
The jaws should not be pressed too hard against the sphere.

RESULT:
The diameter of bob is 2.45cm

10
 Experiment

AIM: To find the diameter of a wire with the help of a screw gauge.

APPARATUS: Screw gauge, wire.

THEORY:
Least count: It is the minimum distance which can be accurately measured by
the screw gauge.
Zero error: When the jaws of the screw gauge touch each other the zero of the
circular scale should coincide with the reference line on the main scale.

FORMULA USED:
Least count = Pitch / No. of divisions on the circular scale
= 1 mm/100
= 0.01 mm
= 0.001cm
= 10-5m

11
OBSERVATION:
S.no Main scale Circular scale Observed
reading (a mm) reading diameter
coinciding with d = (a + b x Lc)
reference line cm
1 0 55 0.55
2 0 57 0.57
3 0 51 0.51
4 0 52 0.52
5 0 58 0.58

CALCULATION:
Mean = 0.55 + 0.57 + 0.51 + 0.52 + 0.58 / 5
= 2.72/5 mm
= 0.54 mm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The screw should move freely without friction.
2. The screw should be rotated only by the ratchet.
3. Zero error and zero correction should be carefully recorded even if it might
be nil.
4. The screw should always be moved in the same direction for a given set of
observations in order to avoid the error due to backlash.
5. At each position the diameter of the wire should be recorded in two
perpendicular directions.

RESULT:
Diameter of the wire is 0.54 mm.

12
 Experiment

AIM: To determine the radius of curvature of a spherical surface of concave

lens with the help of a spherometer.

APPARATUS: spherometer the given concave.

FORMULA USED: R = l2/6h + h/2

OBSERVATION:
S.no Reading on the
circular scale (a)
1 64
2 61
3 62
4 61
5 64
Reading on linear h = b + a x Lc
scale (b)
1 1 + 64 x 0.01 =
1.64mm
1 1.61mm
1 1.62mm
1 1.61mm
1 1.64mm

13
CALCULATION:
Mean = n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5 / 5
= 8.12/5
1.62mm
l = l1 + l2 + l3 / 3 = 35 + 42 + 41 / 3
= 39.3 mm
R = l2/6h + h/2
= 16cm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Rotates the screw only in one direction.
2. The surface of lens and slab should be clean.
3. Record the observations when the screw just touches the lens.
4. Record the additional circular scale reading accurately.

RESULT:
The radius of curvature of the given concave mirror = 16cm

14
 Experiment

AIM: To find the weight of a given body using parallelogram law of vectors.

APPARATUS: Grave sand’s, the body, thread, plane mirror

THEORY:
Scalers: The physical quantities which has only magnitude is called scalers.
Vectors: The physical quantities which require both magnitude as well as
direction is called vectors.

FORMULA USED: R = √𝐴2 + B2 + 2ABcos𝜃

tanβ = B sin𝜃/ A + Bcos𝜃

15
OBSERVATION:
Force (gm Resultant
force) force
S.no A B Length of the R = OP. x gm
diagonal weight
1 200 200 5cm 5 x 50gm =
250gm
2 300 300 5cm 250gm
3 250 250 5cm 250gm

CALCULATION:
Mean = D1 + D2 + D3 / 3
= 250 + 250 + 250 / 3
= 750/3gm
= 250gm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The pulleys should be frictionless.
2. The board should be practical.
3. The weight and the threads should not touch the board or the table.
4. The thread should be light and inextensible.

RESULT:
The value of the given unknown weight = 250gm

16
 Experiment

AIM: Using a simple pendulum, plot L-T and L-T2 graph. Hence find the
effective length of second’s pendulum using appropriate graph.

APPARATUS: A metallic bob with a hook, cotton thread, stopwatch or stop

clock, stand, a split cork, graph paper.

THEORY:
Periodic Motion: the motion which repeats itself after a fixed interval of time
is called periodic motion e.g., planets moving around sun.
Oscillatory Motion: to and fro motion of a body about a mean position is
called oscillatory motion e.g., motion string of sitar or simple pendulum.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Least count of Vernier calipers = … cm.
2. Zero error in Vernier calipers = ± … cm.
3. Zero correction = ∓ … cm.

17
TABLE FOR DIAMETER OF THE SPHERICAL BOB
S.no Main scale Vernier scale Fraction to Observed
reading a cm divisions be added b = diameter = (a
coinciding (x) (x. VC) cm + b) cm
1 1.8 4 0.04 1.84
2 1.8 5 0.05 1.85
3 1.8 5 0.05 1.85
4 1.8 4 0.04 1.84

Mean observed diameter of bob = d’ cm = 1.845 cm.

Mean corrected diameter = d cm = Observed diameter ± zero correction
Radius of the bob = r cm = 0.9225cm

TABLE FOR THE TIME PERIOD OF A SAMPLE PENDULUM

S.no Length Effective Time t’’ sec Mean Time T2
of the length of for 20 time period (s2)
thread the osc. for 20 T=
plus pendulum t' sec osc. t/20
hook = l L = (l + r) t = t’ + (sec)
cm cm t’’/2
sec
1 Typical
example:
2
3 80 36 37 36.5 1.8 3.2
4 90 39 38 38.5 1.9 3.6
5 100 40 40 40.0 2.0 4.0
6 110 42 42 42.0 2.1 4.4

18
CALCULATIONS:
Choosing suitable scale, plot graph between L and T2
Slope from the graph = T2/L [sec2/cm]
Therefore, L/T2 = 1/slope = … cm/sec2
Length of second’s pendulum: Mark a point on Y-axis such that T2 = 4sec2.
Record the corresponding length of second’s pendulum from the graph.

RESULT:
1. It is observed from the L v/s T2 graph that within the experimental limits,
square of time period of the simple pendulum is directly proportional to its
length as the graph is a straight line.
Length of second’s pendulum = … cm.
2. It is observed that L-T graph is a parabola.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Record at least count and zero-error of the instruments carefully.
2. Thread used for suspension of the pendulum should be thin, light,
inextensible but strong.
3. Pendulum should be suspended from a rigid support.
4. The experiment should be performed near an open window.

19
 Experiment

AIM: To find the force constant of a helical spring from the load-extension
graph.

APPARATUS: Helical spring, a pan, hanger with slotted weights, a fine pointer,
a vertical scale, and a rigid support.

THEORY:
Suppose, a load F suspended from the lower free end of a spring hanging from
a rigid support increases its length by ∆I.
F α ∆I
F = k∆l
Where k = constant of proportionality called the force constant or the spring
constant.
If m is the mass of the load, then
mg = k. ∆I or ∆I = mg/k

20
from the above equation, when ∆I = 1
k = mg = F
thus, spring constant can be defined as the force required to produce a unit
extension in the spring.

OBSERVATION:
S.no Weight Reading Extension
suspended on the ∆I (cm)
(w) from scale (cm)
the spring
(g. wt.)
Loading x Unloading Mean (cm)
(cm) y (cm) X + y/2
1 0 7.5 7.5 7.5
2 0.05 9.9 9.9 9.9 20.41
3 0.1 12.4 12.4 12.4 20
4 0.15 14.9 14.9 14.9 19.86
5 0.2 17.6 17.6 17.6 19.41
6 0.25 20.1 20.1 20.1 19.44

CALCULATIONS:
Plot a graph between w and ∆I by taking w along x-axis and ∆I along y-axis. The
graph should be a straight line as shown.
Take two points A and B on the graph and find the slope.
In ∆ABC
tan𝜃 = AC/BC = extension/load = 1/k
= 1/spring constant (k)
k = BC/AC = 19.824 gf/cm

21
RESULT:
The spring constant of given helical spring
= 19.60g-wt./cm.
= 19 x 10-3 kg x 9.8 ms-2/10-2 m

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Loading and unloading of the spring must be done gently.
2. The pointer should not touch the scale.
3. Reading should be taken only when the pointer is at rest.
4. Loading should not be done beyond elastic limit of the spring.

22
 Experiment
AIM: To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS: Three capillary tubes of different diameter, a beaker, a pointed

needle, a metal strip, a clamp stand, a travelling microscope, a table of
adjustable height for the beaker, a thermometer.

THEORY:
Surface tension: It is due to which the free surface of a liquid behaves as a
stretched membrane and tries to contract so as to attain the minimum
possible surface area.
The liquid drops tend to assume spherical shape due to surface tension.
S = force/ length = F/l
It is scaler. Its SI unit in Nm-1

Angle of contact:
It is the angle between the tangent to the liquid surface and the solid surface
at the point of contact measured inside the liquid. If the angle of contact is
acute, the liquid rises in a capillary. For liquids with obtuse angle of contact,
the liquid shows a depression.

23
When a glass capillary is dipped in water, thye water rises in glass. The surface
of water is concave. The force of surface tension T gets an equal and opposite
reaction R (=T).
The components T sin𝜃 cancel out being equal and opposite whereas T cos𝜃
pulls the water up the capillary till the weight of water in the capillary is just
sufficient to balance the force.
T cos𝜃. 2𝜋r = (𝜋r2h) p g
h = 2T cos𝜃 / r p g
T ≃ h r pg / 2

OBSERVATIONS:
Vernier constant of the microscope scale = … cm
Temperature of water = t = …0C
Density of water at t0C = p = kg m-3

24
S.n Microscop Microscop
o e scale e scale
reading at reading at
water the needle
meniscus = tip = y cm
x cm
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total h = (x
reading a readin readin reading a readin readin – y)
cm gb gx=a cm gb gy=a cm
+ (b x + (b x
LC) cm LC) cm
1 8.30 0.016 8.316 6.90 0.002 6.902 1.41
4
2 8.25 0.044 8.294 6.85 0.040 6.890 1.40
4
3 8.30 0.031 8.331 6.90 0.013 6.913 1.41
8

TABLE FOR RADIUS

S.n Microscop Diamete Mean Mean
o e reading r Diamete radiu
at r s
d = d’ + r=
d’’/2 d/2
cm
A1 A2 B1 B2 d' = A1 d’’ =
A2 B1 B2
1 12.30 0.04 12.34 12. 0.018 12.11 0.228 0.218
6 6 1 8
2 11.00 0.02 11.02 10. 0.015 10.81 0.208
3 3 8 5

CALCULATIONS:
Height h = 1.412 cm
Radius r = 0.109cm

25
Also, g ≈ 9.8 ms-2
RESULT:
Surface tension of water = … N/m
Actual surface tension of water at t0C = … N/m
% age error = … %

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The tubes should be tightly fixed with the metallic strip and adjusted
carefully to be vertical.
2. The tip of the needle should just touch the water surface.
3. The capillaries should be of uniform bore.
4. The beaker and the capillaries should be cleaned of dirt and grease before
use.

26
 Experiment

AIM: To study the relationship between the temperature of a body and time
by the plotting a cooling curve.

APPARATUS: Newton’s law of cooling apparatus, a stirrer, two thermometers,

a stop clock, a clamp stand, Bunsen burner.

THEORY:
A/c to Newton, if the temp. difference between a body and the surrounding is
small, the rate of loss of heat is proportional to the excess temperature over
the surroundings.
This law is stated mathematically as below:
d𝜃/dt = - k (𝜃 – 𝜃0)
The temperature 𝜃 refers to the temperature of the body placed in cooler
surroundings of temperature 𝜃0. The minus sign indicates that if (𝜃 > 𝜃0), d𝜃/dt
is negative i.e., the temperatures decreases with time.

27
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of the stop watch = … sec
Least count of the thermometer = … 0C
Initial temperature of water in enclosure = 𝜃1 = … 0C
Final temperature of water in enclosure = 𝜃2 = … 0C
Mean temperature of surroundings = 𝜃0 = (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 / 2) = … 0C

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.no Time in minutes Temp. of hot Temp. difference
water (𝜽0C) (𝜽1 - 𝜽2)0C
1 1 68 68 – 27 = 41
2 2 66 39
3 3 64 37
4 4 63 36
5 5 62 35
6 6 61 34
7 7 60 33

RESULT:
The shape of the graph verifies Newton’s Law of cooling.

28
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Readings should be quickly and carefully recorded in the beginning as the
fall of temperature in the beginning is rapid. Double walled encloser
ensures constant temperature of surroundings.
2. Water in the calorimeter should be gently stirred so as to maintain the
same temperature of the entire mass.
3. Hot water should be carefully handled to prevent any mishap.

29
 Experiment

AIM: To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire
under constant tension for constant frequency using sonometer.

APPARATUS: Sonometer, hanger, standard ½ kg slotted weights, set of tuning

forks of different frequencies, 256Hz, 288Hz, 320Hz, 480Hz rubber pad, paper,
blade.

THEORY:
The frequency of the fundamental note produced by a stretched string is given
by

v = 1/2L √ T/m
where T = Tension in the string
m = mass per unit length
L = length of the wire

30
OBSERVATIONS:
Constant tension = T = …. Kg wt.
S.no Frequency Resonating Mean vL
of the length L = l1 +
tuning with l2/2 cm
fork v Hz distance
between
wedges
Increasing Decreasing
l1 l2
1 480 13.3 13.3 13.3 6384
2 512 12.3 12.4 12.35 6323.2

Plot a graph between v and 1/L. the graph is a straight line.

RESULT:
Frequency of a vibrating string is inversely proportional to length of the string.

31
 Experiment

AIM: To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance
tube by two resonance position method and to calculate its value at 00C.

APPARATUS: Resonance tube apparatus, two tuning forks of known

frequencies, say 480 Hz and 512 Hz, a rubber pad, plumb line, set square,
beaker, water, thermometer.

THEORY:
When an air column is set into vibrations, the wave travelling downwards from
the tuning fork and those reflected from water surface produce standing
waves.
l1 = λ/4 … (1)
l2 = 3. λ/4 … (2)
subtracting 1 from 2 gives = l2 – l1 = λ/2
or λ = 2(l2 – l1)
wave velocity = v λ = 2v (l2 – l1)

32
OBSERVATIONS:
Temperature in the beginning = t1 = … 0C
Temperature at the end = t2 = 0C
Mean temperature = t = t1 + t2 /2 = … 0C

Frequency of Resonating Position of Mean length

the tuning position water level (cm)
fork v (Hz) at resonance
with
Water level Water level
rising (cm) falling (cm)
512 Hz First 16.2 16.2 16.2

480 Hz First 17.5 17.5 17.5

CALCULATIONS:
With tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz
v1 = 2v1 (l2 – l1) = 33203 ms-1
for 480 Hz
v2 = 2v2 (l’2 – l’1) = 333824 ms-1
mean speed at room temperature = v = v1 + v2/2 = … ms-1
speed at 00C,
v0 = (v – 0.61 t) ms-1

RESULT:
Speed of sound in air at 00C = 31251m/s

33
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Resonance tube should be made vertical before starting the experiment.
2. Pinch cock should be tight to prevent leakage of water when it is closed.
3. The tuning fork should be struck gently against the rubber pad.

34
 Experiment

AIM: To determine the specific heat capacity of a i) solid, ii) liquid by the
method of mixtures.

APPARATUS: Calorimeter and stirrer, steam bath, thermometer, given solid

wooden block, gas burner.

THEORY:
Heat is a form of energy that flows from a body at higher temperature to
another at lower temperature till both bodies acquire a constant temperature.
Whenever heat is supplied to a body, generally its temperature rises. Nature of
the solid is taken into consideration by a term known as specific heat capacity
or simply the specific heat.
Specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of substance through 10C. it is denoted by c or s.
it is measured as J kg-1 K-1 (SI unit) or cal. gm-1 0C-1.

35
OBSERVATIONS:
(i) Specific heat capacity of solid
Mass of the calorimeter and stirrer (m1) = … gm = … kg
Mass of the calorimeter and stirrer + water (m2) = … gm = … kg
Initial temperature of calorimeter and water = t10C = … 0C = … K
Temperature of hot solid = t20C = … 0C = … K
Final temperature of the mixture = t30C = … 0C = … K

RESULT:
The specific heat of the given solid, as determined by this experiment is = … J
kg-1 K-1.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. To minimize loss of heat due to radiation, outer surface of the
calorimeter should be brightly polished.
2. To minimize loss heat due to conduction, calorimeter should be kept
inside a non-conducting wooden box.
3. Readings of thermometer should be recorded carefully.
4. Thermometer should not touch water in the steam bath.

36
 Experiment
AIM: To find resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence
determine the resistivity of its material.

APPARATUS: A meter bridge, a Lechlanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance

box, a jockey, a one-way key a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a meter scale, a
set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY: The unknown resistance X is given by

X = (100 – l)/ l. R
Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is given by
p = X 𝜋D2/ 4L
where L is length, D is diameter of the given wire.

OBSERVATION:
Length of given wire L = cm
S.no Resistance Length length (cm) Unknown
from the (cm) resistance
resistance X = R (100 –
box R (ohm) l)/l (ohm)
1 1 53.5 46.5 0.86
2 2 67 33 0.98
3 4 79 21 1.06

Least count of screw gauge = 0.01mm

Diameter of the wire = 0.44mm = 0.044cm
Radius of the wire = 0.22mm = 0.022cm

37
 Circuit diagram of meter bridge: -

CALCULATION:
Mean resistance (X) = X1 + X2 + X3 ÷ 3
= (0.86 + 0.98 + 1.06) Ώ ÷ 3
= 0.94 Ώ
p = X 𝜋D2/ 4L
= 𝜋 x 0.044 x 0.044 x 0.94
= 72𝜋10-8 Ώ m

RESULT:
The value of unknown resistance X = 0.94 Ώ
Resistivity of unknown resistor = 72 x 10-8 Ώ m

38
PRECAUTION:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge and don’t rub it.
4. The wire should not make a loop.
5. Set squares should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error or wrong pitch.

CALCULATION:
i) Calculation of r1 and r2
r1 = X 1 + X 2 + X 3 / 3
= 0.96 + 1.25 + 1.03 / 3
1.08 ohm
r2 = 0.57 ohm

ii) Calculation of series combination

theoretical value of Rs = r1 + r2
= 1.08 + 0.57
= 1.65 ohm
Experimental value = X1 + X2 + X3 / 3
= 1.6 + 1.8 + 1.6 / 3 = 0.34
Difference = 0.37 – 0.34
= 1.60 ohm

39
 Resistance S.no Resistance L 100 – L r Mean (r)
wire rs box (cm) (cm) (ohm)
(ohm)
1 2 55 45 1.6
2 3 61.5 38.5 1.8 1.5ohm
3 4 70.3 20.7 1.6

RESULT:
Within the limits of experimental error, experimental value and theoretical
values of Rs are same, hence law of resistances in series is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge and don’t rub it.
4. The wire should not make a loop.
5. The plug-in key should be interested only when the observation is taken.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults.

40
 Experiment

AIM: To verify the law of combination resistance using meter bridge.

APPRATUS: A meter bridge, a Lechlanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance

box, a jockey, a one-way key a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a meter scale, a
set square etc.

THEORY:
1. The resistance (r) of the resistance wire is given by r = (100 – L). R/ L
Where R is the resistance from resistance box in left gap, l is the length of the
meter bridge wire from zero to balance point.

2. When r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance is

– Rp = r1r2 / r1 + r2

41
OBSERVATION:
Resistance S. no (R) (L) (100 – L) r (ohm) Mean (r)
wire (ohm)
r1 1 2 67.5cm 32.5cm 0.96 1.08ohm
2 3 70.5cm 29.5cm 1.25
3 4 79.5cm 20.5cm 1.03
r2 1 2 78cm 22cm 0.56 0.57ohm
2 3 82.5cm 11.5cm 0.63
3 4 88.0cm 12cm 0.54

CALCULATION:
i) Calculation of r1 and r2
r1 = X 1 + X 2 + X 3 / 3
= 0.96 + 1.25 + 1.03 / 3
1.08 ohm

r2 = 0.57 ohm

ii) Calculation for combination of resistance in parallel theoretical value =

r1. r2 / r1 + r2
= 1.08 x 0.57/ 1.08 + 0.57
= 0.6157 / 1.65 = 0.37ohm

Experimental value = X1 + X2 + X3 / 3
= 0.31 + 0.37 + 0.34 / 3 = 0.34
Difference = 0.37 – 0.34
= 0.03ohm

42
 Resistance S.no (R) (L) (100 – L) (r) Mean (r)
wire r3 (ohm)
(1/r3 =
1/r1 + 1/r)
1 2 86.4 13.6 0.31
2 3 88.9 11.1 0.37 0.34
3 4 92 8 0.34

RESULT:
Within the limits of experimental error, experimental value Rp is same as the
theoretical values of Rp are same, hence law of resistances in series is verified.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge and don’t rub it.
4. The wire should not make a loop.
5. The plug-in key should be interested only when the observation is taken.

43
 Experiment

AIM: To compare the emf’s of two given primary cells using potentiometer.

APPARATUS: Potentiometer, a Lechlanche cell, a galvanometer, a Daniel cell, a

rheostat, one-way key two-way key, connecting wires, an ammeter.

THEORY: E1/E2 = L1/L2

where E1 and E2 are the Emf’s of two given cells and L1 and L2 are the
corresponding balancing lengths on potentiometer.

OBSERVATION:
E.M.F of Lechlanche cell = E1 = 1.42V
E.M.F of Daniel cell = E2 = 1.01V
S. no Balance point Balance point E1/E2 = L1/L2
when E1 is in the when E2 is in the
circuit circuit
1 466.6cm 332.7cm 1.402
2 544.8cm 389.9cm 1.397
3 672.4cm 480.2cm 1.400

44
RESULT:
The ratio of E.M. F’s E1/E2 = 1.39

CALCULATIONS:
Mean E1/E2 = 1.402 + 1.397 + 1.400/ 3 = 1.39

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The plug should be introduced in the circuit only when the observations are
to be taken.
3. The positive poles of battery E1 and E2 should, all be connected to the
terminal at the zero of the wires.
4. The jockey should not be rubbed. It should touch the wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading should be constant for particular set of observations.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. End resistances may not be zero.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length.
3. The auxiliary battery should be charged.

45
 Experiment

AIM: To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using

potentiometer.

APPARATUS: Potentiometer, a battery eliminator two- and one-way key,

rheostat, a galvanometer, a cell, connecting wires.

THEORY: The internal resistance of the cell is given by

r = (L1 – L2/ L2). R
where L1 and L2 are the balancing lengths without shunt and with shunt
respectively and R is the shunt resistance in parallel to the given box.

OBSERVATION:
S. no E (without R E (with Internal
shunt) shunt) resistance
1 422.5cm 10ohm 409cm 0.31ohm
2 447.5cm 5ohm 424cm 0.27ohm
3 456cm 2ohm 414cm 0.20ohm

46
RESULT: The internal resistance of the given cell is 0.26 Ώ

CALCULATION:
i) Internal resistance in each case
r1 = (422.5 – 409/ 409) x 10 = 0.31ohm
r2 = 0.27ohm
r3 = 0.20ohm

ii) Mean:
r = r 1 + r2 + r 3 / 3
= 0.31 + 0.27 + 0.20/3
= 0.26ohm

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The emf of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.
2. Current should be passed for short time only.
3. Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.
4. Jockey should not be rubbed on the wire.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. End resistances may not be zero.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be uniform cross-section and material
density throughout its length.
3. The auxiliary battery should be charged.

47
 Experiment

AIM: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of

potential differences versus current.

APPRATUS: A resistance wire, a voltmeter, an ammeter, a battery, a meter

scale, sand paper etc.

THEORY: According to Ohm’s law

IαV
V – IR
R – V/I
R depends on the dimensions, nature of material and temperature.

RESULT:
1. The resistance per cm of the wire is 0.14254 Ώ cm-1.
2. The graph between V and I is a straight line.

48
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A law resistance rheostat should be used.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.

CALCULATION:
 Graph between potential difference and current

From graph, the resistance of the wire can be calculated

In ∆ABC
cot𝜃 = B/P = ∆𝑉/∆𝐼 = R
R = cot𝜃
R = (0.8 – 0.4)/ (1 – 0.5) = 0.8ohm

49
OBSERVATION:
Length of the resistance wire L = 5.6cm
Mean resistance = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 / 4
= 0.8 + 0.8 + 0.8 + 0.8 / 4
S. No Ammeter Voltmeter V/I = R
reading reading (ohm)
1 0.26A 0.2V 0.8
2 0.50A 0.4V 0.8
3 0.76A 0.6V 0.8
4 1.00A 0.8V 0.8

Mean value resistance, R = 0.8ohm’s

50
 Experiment

AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method

and to find its figure of merit.

APPARATUS: A galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery two resistance box, key, a

screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires etc.

THEORY: Resistance of the given galvanometer is found by half deflection

method.
G = R. S/ R – S
Where R is resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S is shunt
resistance.
The figure of merit, k = F/ (R + G) 𝜃
Where E is the emf of the cell and 𝜃 is the deflection produced with resistance
R.
Maximum current that can passes through the galvanometer, Ig = nk
Where k is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either
side of zero.

51
RESULT:
Resistance of given galvanometer = 76.855 ohm
Figure of merit given galvanometer = 1.68 x 10-5

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The emf of battery should be constant.
SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. The screw of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The emf of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

 Table for the resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method:
S. no Resistance Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer
R (ohm) galvanometer resistance deflection Resistance
(S) 𝜽/𝟐 G = R.S/ R - S
1 5500 20 75Ώ 10 76.03
2 7700 15 82Ώ 7.5 82.88
3 20.900 6 72Ώ 3 72.24
4 4500 25 75Ώ 12.5 76.27

G (mean) = G1 + G2 + G3 + G4 / 4
= 76.03 + 82.88 + 72.24 + 76.27 / 4
= 76.855 Ώ

52
 Table of figure of merit
S. no e.m.f of the Resistance Deflection Figure of
cell from R. B (𝜽) merit k = E/
(R+G)𝜽
1 2V 12.000 10 1.6 x 10-5
2 2V 7700 15 1.7 x 10-5
3 2V 5600 20 1.76 x 10-5

Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale,

n = 30
figure of merit k = E/ (R+G)𝜃
k (mean) = k1 + k2 + k3 / 3
= (1.6 + 1.7 + 1.76/ 3) x 10-5
= 1.68 x 10-5 unit.

53
 Experiment

AIM: To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of desired range and
to verify the same.

APPARATUS: A voltmeter, a battery eliminator two- and one-way key,

rheostat, a galvanometer, a cell, connecting wires, piece of sand paper and
battery eliminator.

THEORY: The series resistance required for conversion

R = V/ Ig – G
Where V is the range of conversion.

CALCULATIONS:
Resistance of the given galvanometer = 102.07 Ώ
Figure of merit = 1.665 x 10-5
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale = 30
Current of full-scale deflection = 5.04 x 10-4 A
Range of conversion = 0 – 1V
Resistance to be placed in series with the galvanometer, R = V/I – G = 997.5 Ώ

54
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be neat and clean.
2. The emf of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The diameter of the wire to be used for shunt resistance, should be
measured accurately.
4. The resistance box should be high resistance only.
5. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

RESULT:
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very
small, the conversion is perfect.

CALCULATION:
G = 102.07 Ώ
k = 1.665 x 10-5
v = 0.5V
n = 30
Ig = 30 x 1.665 x 10-5A
Therefore, R = V/Ig – G
[0.5/ 30 x 1.66 x 10-5] – 102.07 = 997.5 Ώ

55
 Experiment

AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror
and to find the focal length.

APPRATUS: An optical bench with three uprights, concave mirror, a mirror

holder, two optical needles etc.

THEORY:
From mirror formula, 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
f = u v/ u + v
where f – focal length of concave mirror
u – distance of object needle from pole of the mirror
v – distance of image needle from pole of the mirror

RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from
1. Focal length calculated from f = u v / u + v = 10.2cm
2. (u – v) graph = -11.25cm
3. (1/u – 1/v) graph = 10.00cm

56
CALCULATION:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Principle axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the
central lines of the optical bench.
2. The upright should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of
the needle O.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm
away from the needle.
5. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

57
OBSERVATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given concave mirror
S. No Concave Object Image u v 1/u 1/v Focal
mirror needle needle length

1 0 15 34 15 34 0.06 0.02 9.25

2 0 16 32 16 32 0.062 0.031 10.66
3 0 17 29 17 29 0.05 0.032 10.71
4 0 29 17 29 17 0.034 0.05 10.71
5 0 32 16 32 16 0.031 0.062 10.66
6 0 34 15 34 15 0.04 0.06 9.23

58
 Experiment

AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a convex mirror
and to find the focal length.

APPRATUS: An optical bench with three uprights, convex mirror, a mirror

holder, two optical needles etc.

THEORY:
A convex lens produces a used image of the object ‘O’ at C. A convex mirror is
placed is the path of the rays between the lens end the image such that the
rays after reflection through the lens fall normally on the surface of the mirror.
The rays are reflected back along the direction of incidence to produce an
inverted image on the object as shown.

59
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the focal length of the given convex lens by focusing the image of a
distance object on a screen.
2. Mount the object needle, the lens and the mirror on the optical centre of
the lens and the rule of the mirror lie on the shunt horizontal lens.
3. Note the position of the object (o), the lens (l), and the mirror (p).
4. Repeat the step 3 to 5 and record at least six different observation.
5. Find the index correction between mirror end image needle as explained.

OBSERVATION:
Length of the knitting needle x = … cm observed distance mirror end image
needle y = … cm
Index correction between P and C = (x – y) = ±10 … cm
Position of Observed
S.no O (cm) L (cm) P (cm) C (cm) R = PC
(cm)
1 2 50 71.8 0 15.2
2 4 50 72.3 15.6
3 6 50 72.8 15.9

Mean R = 15 … cm
Therefore, mean corrected focal length
f = R/2 = 7.5 … cm

RESULT:
Focal length of the convex mirror = 7.5cm

60
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of
the needle O.
2. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm
away from the needle.
3. The distance between the lens and the mirror should be small.
4. While adjusting the image needle, the lens and the object needle should
not be disturbed.
5. The index correction should be carefully recorded and applied.
6. The focal length of the lens should be more than the focal length of the
convex mirror.

61
 Experiment

AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between v and
u or between 1/u and 1/v.

APPRATUS: An optical bench with three uprights, concave mirror, a mirror

holder, two optical needles etc.

THEORY:
From mirror formula, 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
f = u v/ u + v
where f – focal length of concave mirror
u – distance of object needle from pole of the mirror
v – distance of image needle from pole of the mirror

62
RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from
Focal length calculated from f = u v / u + v = 10.2cm
(u – v) graph = -11.25cm
(1/u – 1/v) graph = 10.00cm

CALCULATION:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at
least 30cm away from needles.
2. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real,
inverted image of it is formed.

3. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

4. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the
center of the lens.

63
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

OBSERVATIONS:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens

 TABLE for u, v, 1/u and 1/v:

S.no. Object Lens Image u v 1/u 1/v

needle needle (cm) (cm)
(cm)
1 35 50 85 15 35 0.06 0.029
2 35 50 35 35 15 0.009 0.06
3 30 50 72 22 20 0.045 0.05
4 72 50 30 20 22 0.05 0.045
5 25 50 67 25 17 0.04 0.069
6 67 50 25 17 25 0.069 0.04

64
 Experiment

AIM: To find the focal length of a concave lens with the help of convex lens.

APPARATUS:
Optical bench with four uprights
Convex lens
Concave lens
Knitting needle
Meter scale
Spirit level

FORMULA USED:
From mirror formula, 1/f = 1/v - 1/u
f = u v/ u - v
where f – focal length of concave mirror
65
u – distance of object needle from pole of the mirror
v – distance of image needle from pole of the mirror

S.no Object Convex Concave Image Focal

lens lens formed length
by
1 57 40 70 81 100 11 30 17.36
2 55 40 70 83 100 13 30 22.44
3 47 35.5 70 80 100 10 30 15
4 55 40.5 72 84 100 12 30 21

OBSERVATION:
1. Rough focal length of the convex lens =
2. Length of the index needle as measured by the scale,
3. Thickness of the thin concave lens (given) at its optical center, t = … cm
4. Actual length between the optical center O of the lens and tip of the
5. Convex length of the index needle
6. Index correction
RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave lens is

66
 Experiment

AIM: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

APPARATUS:
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism drawing pins, pencils, half meter
scale and graph paper.

THEORY:
The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
n = sin (A+ Dm/2) / sin[A/2]
where,
Dm is the angle of minimum deviation and A is the angle of the prism.

67
RESULT:
1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
deviation first decreases attains a minimum value and then start
increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism (n).

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Angle of incidence should lie between 350 – 600
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should be less than 10mm.
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent
rays.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

68
 Experiment

AIM: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane
mirror.

APPARATUS: A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a

beaker, an optical needle, an iron stand with base and clamp arrangement,
plumb line, half meter scale etc.

THEORY:
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the
focal length of their combination then,
1/F = 1/f1 + 1/f2
From lens maker formula
1/f2 = (n – 1) [1/R1 – 1/R2]
n = 1 + R/f2

69
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The liquid taken should be transparent.
2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

OBSERVATION:
Focal length without water = 28.2cm
Focal length with water = 14.6cm
Radius of lens = 10.3cm

CALCULATION:
1/f2 = 1/F – 1/f1
= 1/14.6 – 1/28.2 = 0.033
n = 1 + R/f2
n = 1 + 10.3 x 0.033
= 1.339

70
 Experiment
To draw I – V characteristics curve of a P – N junction in forward
bias and reverse bias

AIM: To find the characteristic curve of a forward biased P - N junction diode

and to determine the static and dynamic resistance of the diode.

MATERIAL REQUIRED: Diode Characteristics kit, Power supply, ammeter,

voltmeter, connecting lends.

THEORY: A P-N junction is known as semiconductor diode or crystal diode. It is

the combination of P-type & N-type semiconductor. Which offers Nearly zero
resistance to current on forward biasing & nearly infinite Resistance to the
flow of current when in reverse biased.

FORWARD BIASING: When P-type semiconductor is connected to the positive

terminal and N-type to negative terminal of voltage source. Nearly zero
resistance is offered to the flow of current.

OBSERVATION:
S.no Forward bias voltage VF Forward current
(v) IF (mA)
1 0 0
2 0.2 0
3 0.4 0.5
4 0.8 2
5 1.2 5
6 1.6 10
7 1.8 15
8 2 20
9 2.2 25
10 2.4 30

71
 Reverse - Bias
S.no Forward bias voltage VR Reverse current
(v) IR (mA)
1 0 0
2 5 1
3 7 2
4 9 3
5 11 4
6 15 7
7 17 9
8 19 11
9 21 13
10 23 15
11 25 25

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the ckt. As shown in fig.
2. Switch on the power supply
3. Vary the value of input dc supply in steps.
4. Note down the ammeter & voltmeter readings for each step.
5. Plot the graph of Voltage Vs Current.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Range of ammeter = 0 … mA to … mA
2. Least count of ammeter = … mA
3. Range of voltmeter = 0 … V to …V
4. Least count of voltmeter = … V

RESULT:
The graph has been plotted between voltage and current.

72
 Experiment
To study characteristics of a common emitter N-P-N or p-n-p
transistor and to find out the value of current and voltage
gain.

AIM: Construct a suitable circuit with the given NPN transistor in CE mode.
Draw the output characteristic and transfer characteristic curves. Find the
output impedance and current again.

FORMULA:
1. Output impedance ro = (∆VCE / ∆IC)
2. Current gain β = (∆IC / ∆IB)
where ∆IC is the change in collector current.
∆IB is the change in base current, ∆VCE is the change in collector emitter
voltage.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

73
PROCEDURE:
a) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. IB is set at 20𝜇𝐴 and VBE is noted and the readings are tabulated.
3. For various values of VCE. IC is noted and IB is set at 40𝜇𝐴.
4. For various values VCE. IC is noted and the readings are tabulated.
5. A graph is plotted by taking VCE along X – axis and IC along y – axis.
6. The output impedance is calculated from the reciprocal of the slope of the
curve using formula ro = (∆VCE / ∆IC).

b) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
1. VCE is kept constant at 5V, IB is set at 50𝜇𝐴 and IC is noted.
2. IB is increased in steps of 50𝜇𝐴 and IC is noted, the reading is tabulated.
3. A graph is plotted by taking IB along X-axis and IC along y-axis.
4. The current gain is calculated from the reciprocal of the slope of the curve
using the formula β = (∆IC / ∆IB).

74
OBSERVATION:
Output characteristics:
S.no Vo (V) IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA)
1 0.1 0.9 0.9 1 1.3
2 0.3 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.6
3 0.5 4 4.2 4.6 4.8
4 0.7 5.5 6.1 6.4 6.5
5 0.9 6.7 7.8 8.1 8.4
6 1 7 9.2 9.9 10.2
7 2 7.3 12.6 18 19.4
8 3 7.6 13.3 19.2 25.4
9 4 7.7 14 20.6 27
10 5 7.7 15 20.7 28

Transfer characteristic:
S. no IB (𝝁A) IC (mA)
1 20 7.4
2 40 15.1
3 60 21.7
4 80 28.5
5 100 35.3
6 120 41.5

CALCULATIONS:
ro = (∆VCE / ∆IC) = 1/slope = BC/AB
= 2.2 x 10-3 / 1 = 2.2 x 10-3ohm
β = (∆IC / ∆IB) = AB/BC
13 x 10-3/ 40 x 10-6 = 13000/40 = 325

75
RESULT:
1. The output and transfer characteristic curves of the transistor in CE
configuration are drawn.
2. The output impedance = 2.2 x 10-3ohm
3. The current gain = 325

OBSERVATION:
S.no VBE (V) IB (mA)
1 0.1 0
2 0.2 0
3 0.3 0
4 0.4 0
5 0.5 0
6 0.6 3
7 0.7 37
8 0.8 107
9 0.9 170
10 1.0 245

Output characteristics:
S. No Vo (V) IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA)
1 0.1 0.9 0.9 1 1.3
2 0.3 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.6
3 0.5 4 4.2 4.6 4.8
4 0.7 5.5 6.1 6.4 6.5
5 0.9 6.7 7.8 8.1 8.4
6 1 7 9.2 9.9 10.2
7 2 7.3 12.6 18 19.4
8 3 7.6 13.3 19.2 25.4
9 4 7.7 14 20.6 27
10 5 7.7 15 20.7 28

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CALCULATION:
r1= (∆VCE / ∆IB) = 1/slope = BC/AB
= 0.14volt/ 85 x 10-6
= 140000/85
= 1647ohm

ro = (∆VCE / ∆IC) = 1/slope = BC/AB

= 2.2 x 10-2 / 1
= 2.2 x 10-2ohm

RESULT:
1. The output and transfer characteristic curves of the transistor in CE
configuration are drawn.
2. The output impedance = 1647ohm
3. The current gain = 2.2 x 10-3ohm

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