MARKET SEGMENTATION AND UGAZINE ADVERTISING:

A SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS

Cameron L a n d e l l
B.A., Queen's University, 1980

THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLUENT OF

THE REQUIREHENTS FOR THE DEGREE O F

MASTER OF ARTS
i n t h e Department
of
Comuiunication

@ Cameron L a n d e l l 1 9 8 4
SIHON FRASER UNIVERSITY
narch, 1984

A 1 1 r i g h t s reserved. T h i s work may n o t b e

r e p r o d u c e d i n w h o l e or i n p a r t , by p h o t o c o p y
or o t h e r m e a n s , w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r .
 ABSTRACT
A marketin9 trend h 3 s e m e r g e d i n t h e last 25 y e a r s w h i c h

h a s i n t r o d u c e d a nzw s t r a t e g y f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of m e a n i n g
g i v e n t o 7 o o d s i n a d v e r t i s e m ~ n t s . T h e s t r a t e g y of m a r k e t

s e g m e n t a t i o n d i f f o r s f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l mass m a r k e t a p p e a l s i n

t h a t t h e a d messages it generate3 play on t h e s o c i o c u l t u r a l

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s of s e l e c t m a r k a t a u d i n n c e s i n s t e a d o f p r e s e n t i n g

'product-centeredq associations alone. Segmentation a d s are

consumer group-specific, b o t h i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f media v e h i c l e s

f o r product communication an3 t a r g e t zarkzts. In c o n t r a s t , mass

a d s a d 3 r @ s s o n e l a r g e h o m o g e n e o u s m a r k e t of c o n s u m e r s who c a n

vary i n s o c i o c u l t u r a l backgrounds. This t h e s i s d e v e l o p s a n

a n a l y t i c a l f r a m e w o r k w h i c h f o c u s e s on t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m s o f a d m e s s s g e s c o m m u n i c a t e d t o mass m a r k e t s

and t h o s e audience-sp2cifi.c s s g s e n t 3 t i o n ad;.

Two b a s i c t h e o r i e s i n f o r m t h ; ? a n a l y s i s i n t h i s t h e s i s :

c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l semiotics a n d s o c i o l o g y o f c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y .

C o m m u n i c a t i o n a l s e m i o t i c s e x p l a i n s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f how m e a n i n g

i s made f r o m s i g n i f y i n g e l e m e n t s i n a s t r u c t u r e d m e s s a g e . While

semiotics f o c u s z s a t t e n t i o n o n t h a ad m e s s a q e f o r m i t s e l f , t h e

s o c i o l o q p o f c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y l o o k s a t t h e way g o o d s r e l a t e t o

social nanbership and s a t i s f a c t i o n i n contemporary society.

? r e s ? n t semiotic a n a l y s e s o f a d s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e is o n e

e s t a b l i s h e d s e t o f r u l e s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n a n 3 c o a b i n a t i o n of

c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t s i n t h e a d message. This study reveals that

t h e r e 3re i n f a c t c o n t e x t - s p e c i f i c r u l e s of i n t e r p r e t l t i o n f o r

iii
a,? m a s s a j e s b a s e d o n a u d i e n c e s o c i o c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . The

a c t u a l p r s s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m s of a d s d i r e c t e d a t m a r k s t s e g n e n t s

a r s n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r d e g r e e of s o c i a l q r o u p

c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e t h a n t h o s e C o n m u n i c a t e d to u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

r e a d e r s (mass m a r k e t ) . The methodology is s u i t e d t o t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h o s ? a l v e r t i s i n g asssages t h a t a r e g r o u p

s p e c i f i c a n d e m p l o y c u l t u r a l r e f e r + n c ? s s e l d o m s e e n i n mass

sdvertising.

T h e s u g g e s t e d a e t h o d o l o g y i s r e f i n e d and a p p l i e d t o a

sample o f magazine a d v e r t i s a m s n t s f o r S u d w e i s s r b r a n d b e e r i n

A m e r i c a n p u b l i c a t i o n s f r o m 1981-1982. M3rketing information

a c q u i r e d from t h a~d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y t h a t g e n e r a t e s t h e s e a d s

i d e n t i f i s s both a subsample of 813;s a n d a s u b s a a p l e of

segmentation ads i n t h e all-inclusiv2 p r i n t sample f o r t h a t

period.
 ACKNOWLEDGHEBTS

1 w i s h t o t h a n k Mr. F r e d W o l t e r o f ~ ' ~ r cnya c n a n u s a n d

Kasius f o r h e l p i n g with t h e c o l l e c t i o n and marketing d 5 s c r i p t i o n

of t h e samole. Anne M u l l 2 n s a n i D i a n e C h a r b o n n e a u h a v e i n

d i f f e r e n t w a y s p r o v i d e d ~ u c hn e e d e d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e

w r i t i n g of t h i s p a p 2 r . 3 u t J h a l l y h a s t a u g h t me a b o u t

a d v e r t i s i n g and has been a n e n d l e s s s o u r c e o f encouragement and

i n f o r m a t i o n which h e has g i v e n g e n e r o u s l y , I acknowledge

e s p e c i a l l y t h e q u i d a n c e of Dr, M a r t i n Lsba who h a s g o n e a b o v e

a n d b e y o n d t h e c a l l o f d u t y i n c o r t e c t i n g t h i s paper. H i s caring

k n o w l e d q e 3114 i n s i q h t f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e s t u d y a r e greatly

appreci3tsd.
 T A B L E OF COITEITS

Approval ..................................................... ii

Abstract .................................................... iii

Acknowledqments ...............................................v
L i s t of ............................................
Figures viii

Introduction .................................................. x

I. ....................
A l v e r t i s i n g As S o c i a l C o I P m u n i c a t i o n 1

1.1 Socio-economic Culture ........

Theory and Consumer 6

1.2 R e l a t i v i t y of Socio-economic
The Needs:
..........................
Approachs t o Consumption 9

1.3 to
Earxist hpproachs ............
Consumer S o c i e t y 17

1.4
Mass Mass
Society Theory and ............. Culture 21

$1.5
...................................
Interpretation
a
T h e S y m b o l i c N a t u r e o f Goods: 3arxist
27

1.6 ....
T h e S y m b o l i c N a t u r e of G o o d s : Anthropoloqical 31

J1.7 ..
S e m i o t i c A n a l y s e s of t h e A d v e r t i s i n g D i s c o u r s e -40

If. ............77
A ' S e m i o t i c F r a m e w o r k F o r S e g m e n t a t i o n Ads

Refersnce ....................................
of
2.1'The U n i f y i n g C u l t u r a l E x p e r i e n c e t h e Code*
and 82

2.2
.............................
Ths Referential Function
Communication Theory
of t h e Message a n d
95

2.3 Encoding and Decoding........................... 100

. 2.4 en cod in,^

The ...........
Practices of Advertising 108

2.5 Market 32qmsntation............................. 116

2.6 ..............................
Commodity Totemism 125

2.7 Role
The the of ...............129
Decoding Audiznce

2.R ....
T h e E m p i r i c a l N a t u r e of t h e D e c o d i n g S u b j e c t 137

2.9 Hethod ....

B o r r o w e d D i s c o u r s e s And A C o m p a r a t i v e 150
 111 .o f
A Sample Define?:
Conmunication
M e d i a and p r o d u c t M a r k e t C o n t 2 x t s
.................................... 163

3.2 ......
T h e M a r k e t S 2 g m e n t s a n d Media S e g m e n t a t i o n 177

Budweiser's Frint Advertising Bedia A u d i e n c e

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .................................181
3.3 And

J . T h e S e m i o t i c A n a l y s i s ...............................1 9 3
I V

4.1 Mass M a r k e t A d v e r t i s i n g f o r t h e Heavy Male

D r i n k e r .........................................1 9 7
Beer

4:1>1 S p o r t s I l l u s t r a t e d ............................1 9 8

P l a y b o y .......................................224
p--

J4.1.2

4.2
"Young A d u l t ..............................240
Markst S e g m e n t a t i o n A d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r t h e
E ~ l e * ~

4.2.2 N a t i o n a l Lagpoon. .
R o l l i n g S t o n e a n d Ampersand 260

V. Conclusion ........................................... 328

vii
 L I S T OF FIGURES

PAGE

boxing .............................................. 2 0 0
f a r m i n g ............................................ 207

logging ............................................. 208

r a n c h i n g ............................................ 2 0 9

steelworkers ........................................ 210

Newman r a c i n g ....................................... 2 1 4
3ud's athletes ...................................... 219

the pitcher ......................................... 2 2 2

the riders .......................................... 226

hockey a r t ........................................ 228

action a r t .......................................... 231

basketball a r t ...................................... 232

Season's Greetings .................................. 2 3 8

S u d s p r o d u c t s ....................................... 2 3 9

a u t o m o t i v e a p p e a l ................................... 2 4 1

Quaker S t a t 2 and Bud ................................ 2 4 2

e d i t o r i a l pages ..................................... 244

B u d w e i s e r King ...................................... 246

3sefy-~ ............................................. 249

SPXY parts .......................................... 251

P ~ ~ SP SU ............................................ 2 5 3
~

t h i s is .........................................
B U ~ 258

Cheap T h r i l l s ....................................... 270

tastebuds ..............*............................ 271

...................................
album d i s t o r t i o n s 274

women d a n c e r s .......................................276

Hagritte ............................................ 280

................................ 2R1
albarn c o v p r M a g r i t t s

X a t i o n a l Lampoon....................................255

Rolling Stone .......................................286

raining Tu3 ......................................... 288

Golconde ......................................... 290

beach covers ........................................ 291

3-1 Bud ............................................. 295

3-d albums .......................................... 299

3-d parody .......................................... 300

the caapers ......................................... 303

3lbum calligraphy ...................................396

3ud lust ....*...................................... 308

reflections ......................................... 313

j o c k Pud......................................... 314

t h e hand ........................................ 316

.....................................
album q r a f f i t t i 319

sidecar 3ud ......................................... 321

 PREFACE
T h i s s t u d y of a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s , t h e i r structured design
by a d v e r t i s e r s a n d m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i s t s , a n d t h e i r
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by media a u d i e n c e s i s i n t e n d e d t o e s t a b l i s h a
basis, i n part, f o r a new s e m i o t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o
c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e i n t h e s y m b o l i z a t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s t h r o u g h
advertising. A r e v i e w of t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r e d i n t h e f i e l d s o f
socio-economic theory, s o c i o l o g y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y of c o n s u m e r
s o c i e t y , a n d c o n t e n t a n d s e m i o t i c a n a l y s e s of a d v e r t i s i n g ,
r e v e a l s t h a t v e r y l i t t l e e f f o r t h a s b e e n made t o e x p l a i n how
a d v e r t i s e r s and m a r k e t e r s c o n c e p t u a l i z e , select a n d d i r e c t
c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g t o o f t e n s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e s of a d v e r t i s e m e n t s .
A t best, d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s y m b o l i c v a l u e s i n a d v e r t i s e m e n t
messages and t h e " e f f e c t s w on consumer b e h a v i o u r t e n d t o p r e f e r
a " m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n t * a n d "mass m a n i p u l a t e d a u d i e n c e w m o d e l i n
t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f how g o o d s a r e made m e a n i n g f u l a n d r e g a r d e d a s
d e s i r a b l e by v a r i o u s g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s i n i n d u s t r i a l
societies. s u c h a n a l y s e s o f t e n n e g l e c t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e media
and t h e i r a u d i e n c e s are s i t u a t e d i n complex s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s
through which d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e g r o u p s respond i n d i f f e r e n t
ways t o a d v e r t i s i n g messages. The l i t e r a t u r e o n a d v e r t i s i n g a s
s o c i a l communication h a s o n l y r e c e n t l y noted t h e real social and
c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s among c o n s u m e r s a n d t h e t e n d e n c y a n d
c a p a c i t y of a d v e r t i s e r s t o i s o l a t e a n d a d d r e s s d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i f i c audiences r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a heterogenous marketplace.
 The h i s t o r i c a l and communicational account o f t r e n d s i n a d

m e s s a g e f o r m a n d C o n t e n t b y S t e p h e n Kline and William L e i s s , the

c o n s u m e r s t u d i e s a n a l y s i s of c h a n g i n g m a r k e t i n g a n d a d v e r t i s i n g

s o c i a l s t u d i e s on t h 2 r e l a t i o n s h i p s between American magazines,

a d v e r t i s s r s , and consumer c u l t u r e , and Daniel pope's h i s t o r i c a l

work on a d v e r t i s i n g a n d m a r k e t i n g a l l c o n f i r m t h e g r o w t h o f

m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n a s a s t r a t e g y by which a d v e r t i s e r s and

m a r k e t e r s c o n c e p t u a l i z e and communicate meaning t o c o n s u a e r

audiences. A s well, t h i s t r e n d is n o t e d i n m a r k e t i n g l i t e r a t u r e

snd advertising trade journals. In c o n t r a s t with t h e presently

d o m i n a n t mass m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a t e s a b r a n d

from its c o m p e t i t o r s f o r t h e e n t i r e market, the increasing

s t r a t e g y of market segmentation attempts t o reach a s p e c i f i c

m a r k e t l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e mass m a r k e t . T h i s new s t r a t e g y h a s

d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e l a s t 25 years. Pope d e s c r i b e s its i n f l u e n c e

on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a d v e r t i s i n g :

I n f a c t , t h e advent and ascendency o f market

s e g m e n t a t i o n a s a p r i n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l a d v e r t i s e r s n a y
well b e t h e m o s t f a r r e a c h i n g d e v e l o p m e n t i n n a t i o n a l
a d v e r t i s i n g i n r e c e n t decades. I n t h e l a s t generation it
h a s e f f e c t e d t h e s t r u c t u r e and conduct of t h e
a d v e r t i s i n g agency b u s i n e s s , t h e s t a n d a r d s and
p r i n c i p l e s of a d v e r t i s i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d t h e f o r m a n d
c o n t e n t of a d v e r t i s e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s . 1

It i s t h i s l a s t i n f l u e n c e o f m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n on t h e

f o r m a n d c o n t e n t o f a d a e s s a g q s , a n d t h e r o l e of m a r k e t

s e g m e n t a t i o n i n t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f media a u d i e n c e s and

e d i t ~ r i a lc o n t e n t s i n t o m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n f o r m s ,

t h a t i s of v i t a l c o n c e r n i n d e v e l o p i n g a new s e m i o t i c
communicational approach t o advertising production and

reception. T h e new s e m i o t i c s o f a d v e r t i s i n g s h o u l d b e g i n by

e x p l a i n i n g how c e r t a i n f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s s e l e c t e d by

a d v e r t i s e r s i n t h e appeals t o s p s c i f i c audiences/ markets a r a

more o r less a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s e l l i n g t o t h e s e audiences/r8arkets.

It is b e l i e v e d t h a t n o t o n l y c e r t a i n c o n t e n t s a r e s e l e c t e d f o r a

s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e by a d m e n , but also c e r t a i n forms as uell.

_# -
S e m i o t i c s i s v a l u a b l e i n t h e s t u d y of a d m e s s a g e s b e c a u s e

i t a t t a i n p t s t o e x p l a i n t h e s y s t e m a t i c a n d s o c i a l a s p e c t s of

s i g n i f y i n g p r a c t i c e ( r u l e s of meaning c o n s t r u c t i o n ) , a s well a s ,
t h e r e s u l t i n g i n d i v i j u a l s i g n i f y i n g p r a c t i c e ( c o n s t r u c t i o n of

meaning i n a p a r t i c u l a r material message) o f ad s e n d e r s and

receivsrs. S e m i o t i c s o f a d v e r t i s i n g d e s c r i b e s how a m e s s a g e is

composed o f i n t e r n a l l y o r g s n i z e d i n t o s i g n i f y i n g u n i t s o r

s i g n i f i e r s ( u s u a l l y a v i s u a l image or w r i t t e n word) t h a t h a v e

t h e p o t e n t i a l t o be understood a s meaningful c o n c e p t s o r

s i g n i f i e d s i n t h a t t h e s e s i g n i f i e r s refer t o s o m e t h i n g t h e

r e a d e r k n o w s o r c a n know. T h e r e a r e two f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s

through which t h e meaning of s i g n i f i e r s are c o n t e x t u a l i z e d a s

signifieds - concepts that t h e signifiers refer t o - i n t h e ad

message. The f i r s t s t r u c t u r e is t h a t o f t h e i n t e r n a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n and arrangement of s i g n i f i e r s i n t h e w a t e r i a l ad

message. A s i g n i f i e r and s i g n i f i e d , whose c o m b i n a t i o n form a

sign, t a k e on p a r t i c u a l a r context-specif ic o p e r a t i o n s and

m e a n i n g s when p r e s e n t e d i n r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r

s i g n i f i e r / s i g n i f i e d e l e n e n t s o f a message. The second s t r u c t u r e

xii
is t h e o n e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r how s i g n i f i e r s c a n mean o r r e f e r t o
something a n d is t i e d t o t h e e x t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h o s e

t h i n g s r e f e r r e d t o ' o u t s i d e g of t h e i m m e d i a t e a d c o n t e x t i n t h e
b r o a d e r s y s t e m s of c u l t u r a l knowledge and social s i g n i f y i n g
p r a c t i c e u n d e r s t o o d and p r o v i d e d by t h e a u d i e n c e .
Leymore, B a r t h e s , W i l l i a m s o n a n d Goffman h a v e a l l , i n

d i f f e r e n t terms, s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e m e a n i n g g i v e n t o g o o d s i n
m a t e r i a l a d m e s s a g e s is a m a t t e r of a d m e n p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e g o o d s
( s i g n s ) w i t h i n t h e same frarse ( m e s s a g e ) t h a t c o n t a i n s o t h e r
s i g n s w i t h s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , The meaning o f one
s i g n (a c u l t u r a l l y , r e f e r r i n g one) is t r a n s f e r r e d , by i t s

c o n t i g u o u s r e l a t i o n i n t h e ad, t o t h e p r o d u c t s i g n , The meaning

of e i t h e r a p e r s o n , a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , a r e f e r r e d s y s t e m of

s o c i a l knowledge, a n o b j e c t , o r an e m o t i o n a l f e e l i n g i s
t r a n s f e r r e d by t h e r e a d e r ' s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e l a y o u t

s t r u c t u r e or w r i t t e n t e x t o f t h e a d t o a p r o d u c t s i g n ( i m a g e a n d
concept), T h i s process of meaning-transfer is accomplished
t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e message t a k e n a s
a m e a n i n g f u l w h o l e i n t h e m i n d of t h e reader,
Those systems of signs, t h a t are e x t e r n a l to t h e message
and from which p r o d u c t s g a i n c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n
a s s o c i a t i o n with o t h e r ad signs, Williamson c a l l s " r e f e r e n t
systems.'* T h e s e s y s t e m s h a v e t h e i r o r d e r e d l o g i c o u t s i d e of t h e

a d v e r t i s i n g system and a r e learned i n s o c i a l coamunicational

p r a c t i c e i n o t h e r a r e a s of c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e . F o r t h e a u d i e n c e
t o c o r r e c t l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e a d message (meaning t r a n s f e r s ) ,

xiii
a d v e r t i s e r s must select c o n t e n t s ( t h i n g s r e f e r r e d t o ) a n d forms
( w a y s o f r e f e r r i n g t o t h i n g s ) w i t h i n d e f i n e d limits o f w h a t t h e
a u d i e n c e knows a n d i s p r o b a b l y f a m i l i a r w i t h .
In t h e case of segmentation advertising, t h e s e l e c t i o n of

r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s i s d i r e c t e d b y t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e market
d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t 3 r g e t a u d i e n c e s o u g h t a n d t h e i r r e p e t o i r e o f

s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l knowledge and i n t e r e s t s ( e s p e c i a l l y i n

lifestle behaviours). Unfortunately, s e n i o t i c i a n s of a d v e r t i s i n g
h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e u s e of r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s o n l y i n g e n e r a l ,
" n a s s s o c i e t y v * terms -- knowledge t h a t a l l s o c i a l members
supposedly possess. For i n s t a n c e , Leymore i n c l u d e s i n h e r list
o f r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s t h e a g e - o l d c o n c e r n s of p e a c e a n d w a r , o l d
a n d new, l i f e and d e a t h , and good and e v i l , Williamson includes
nature, m a g i c a n d time w h i l s h i n t i n g , perhaps unintentionally.

a t the potential specificity of referent systems i n her

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e more c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d r e f e r e n t s y s t e m o f
fashion. As well, B a r t h e s * e x a m p l e s of r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s b e c o m e s '

n o more s p e c i f i c t h a n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s y s t e m of t h e
s t e r e o t y p i c a l symbols of nations. It is a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e

s e m i o t i c s of a d v e r t i s i n g is p r e s e n t l y ill-equiped t o d i s c u s s how
a n d what a d s refer r e a d e r s to, g i v e n t h a t t h e s e r e a d e r s * v a l u e s ,
b e l i e f s y s t e m s a n d c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e known t h r o u g h

market r e s e a r c h and are employed i n a d messages,

T h e c o n t e n t i o n i s p u t f o r t h t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e t o b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t a n d a u d i e n c e r e a d i n g of m e a n i n g i n
a d s b a s e d o n a more r i g o r o u s s t u d y of r s f e r e n t s y s t e m s , T h e

xiv
m a r k e t i n g c o n c e p t of s e g m e n t a t i o n , t h e fragmentation and
d e f i n i t i o n o f a d a u d i e n c e s , and what s o c i o l o g i s t s and
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i d e n t i f y a s t h e growing d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s o f
l i f e s t y l e and c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s i n consumer c u l t u r e a l l s u g g e s t
t h a t d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d by r e f e r e n c e s t o

d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f c u l t u r a l knowledge p r o v i d e d i n ads, The

t h e s i s a t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p a m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h e x p l a i n s how a n d
why a d v e r t i s e r s u s e s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s f o r a u d i e n c e
s e g m e n t s i n a d v e r t i s i n g c o n t e n t a n d form u n l i k e t h a t d i s p l a y e d
i n mass m a r k e t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .
Chapter one reviews t h e neo-liberal, 'Harxistl, and
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e r o l e of
symbolic communication i n consumer s o c i e t y . Before e m b a r k i n g o n

a s t u d y of t h e s y s t e m a t i c a n d s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n a d s
d i r e c t e d a t mass a n d s e g m e n t e d m a r k e t s / a u d i e n c e s , it i s first

n e c e s s a r y to d i s c u s s c u r r e n t t h o u g h t o n t h e social and c u l t u r a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of a d v e r t i s i n g a s c o m m u n i c a t i o n . The p o i n t is
made i n t h i s s e c t i o n t h a t t h e m e d i a a n d a d v e r t i s i n g
i n s t i t u t i o n s , which are t h e immediate v e h i c l e s t r u c t u r e s o f
a d v e r t i s i n g , a r e n o t a u t o n o ~ o u s l yd e t e r m i n i n g o r s e p e r a t e f r o a
wider aaterial and social processes. As well, the neo-liberal
a n d r a d i c a l c r i t i q u e s of a d v e r t i s i n g , b a s e d o n t h e n o t i o n s t h a t
a d s g e n e r a t e u n n e c e s s a r y o r " f a l s e w human n e e d s , is r e j e c t e d ,

f o r t h e most p a r t , i n f a v o u r o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r y of
t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e of g o o d s a n d c o e m u n i c a t i o n a b o u t g o o d s
s t a t e d by S a h l i n s , and Douglas and Isherwood.
 T h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e claims a n e s s e n t i a l
c u l t u r a l a n d s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n t o human n e e d i n g a n d c l a i m s t h a t
products, once i n v e s t e d w i t h c u l t u r a l meaning ( i n consumer
d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e v a l u e of g o o d s , p e r h a p s s u g g e s t e d by a d s ) ,
b e c o m e ~ c o r n m ~ n i c a t o rof
s ~ t~h e u s e r s ' c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s and
group a f f i l i a t i o n s i n consumer communities. While o f t e n

c r i t i c i z e d for its c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m and u n t r i e d s o c i o l o g i c a l

assertions, t h i s perspective does not f a l l into the theoretical

dogma of stmass m a n i p u l a t i o n " c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of both neo-liberal a n d 8 H a r x i s t 1 a p p r o a c h e s . T h e semiotics o f

Barthes and Williamson s u f f e r an a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e r a d i c a l
n o t i o n of a m a n i p u l a t e d , mass c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n of m e a n i n g a r o u n d g o o d s i n a d v e r t i s i n g . T h e
anthropological approach, while perhaps remaining a t t h e general
l e v e l of a c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t a c c o u n t , d o e s seem more h e l p f u l
i n d e v e l o p i n g a n o v e r a l l semiotic framework t h a t allows f o r t h e
c o m p a r i s o n o f r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a s b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
d i f f e r e n t r e a l g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s / a u d i s n c e s i n c o n s u m e r

society. This theory, b a s e d o n a f u n d a m e n t a l m e t h o d o l o g y of

c u l t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d c o m p a r i s o n s , p r o v i d e s semiotics w i t h a
more o r d e r l y framework w i t h which t o u n d e r s t a n d p a r a d i g m a t i c
s t r u c t u r e s i n a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s ( w h i c h make u s e o f r e s o u r c e s
outside the text), rather than s t r i c t l y syntagmatic structures
( b a s e d o n a p u r e l y i n t e r n a l r e a d i n g of t h e t e x t ) . This
c o m p a r a t i v e m e t h o d o l o g y a l l o w s semiotics o f a d v e r t i s i n g t o l o o k
a c r o s s t o o t h e r i n f o r m i n g p o p u l a r c u l t u r e f o r m s ( s o u r c e of

xvi
t
r e f e r e n c e i n a d s ) , t o look upwards towards t h e s t r u c t u r e t h a t
o r d e r s products/messages through marketing (intentions behind

t h e symbolism c o n s c i o u s l y employed i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

a d v e r t i s i n g ) and downwards t o t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e s of a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n s ( d i v i s i o n s of s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s

g r o u p s o f c o n s u m e r s who r e s p o n d t o d i f f e r e n t m e s s a g e a p p e a l s o r

t o t h e same m e s s a g e a p p e a l s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s ) ,

C h a p t e r Two r e d e f i n e s t h e s e m i o t i c m e t h o d o l o g y f o r t h e

s t u d y of a d v e r t i s i n g and d e v e l o p s a n a n a l y t i c framework for t h e

s t u d y o f ads. The seiniotic concept o f t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n

o f t h e a3 m e s s a g e i s r e w o r k s d u s i n g t h e n o t i o n s o f e n c o d i n g a n d

d e c o d i n g p r o v i d e d b y S t u a r t H a l l a n d Umbeto Eco. The v i t a l

c o n c e p t o f c o d e is d e s c r i b e d a s t h e r e p e r t o i r e o f e x p e r i e n c e

( g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l a n d s o c i a l , a n d from h a b i t u a l m e d i a u s e ) t o

which b o t h t h e a d e n c o d e r (sender, producer) and decoding

audience (receiver, c o n s u m e r ) r e f e r i n t h e p r o c e s s of t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r o d u c t meaning. T h i s is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h ~ i l l i a n ~

Dyer's d e f i n i t i o n o f code as, Iaa s e t of r u l e s o r a n i n t e r p r e t i v e

d e v i c e known t o b o t h t r a n s m i t t e r a n d r e c e i v e r , which a s s i g n s a

c e r t a i n meaning o r c o n t e n t t o a c e r t a i n sign."z The encoding o f

s e g m e n t a t i o n a d s i s i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i o u s f a c t o r s of m a r k e t

r e s e a r c h o n t a r g e t g r o u p s and media segments, p r o f e s s i o n a l

ideologies, a n d c u r r e n t a d v e r t i s i n g modes o f a d d r e s s t o select

groups. I t i s a moment i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i s t i n c t f r o m a u d i e n c e

.decoding, which is t h e n s u b j e c t t o t h a t a u d i e n c e ' s preferred

r e a d i n g o f c u l t u r a l materials i n a d s . It i s t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s

xvii
o f t h i s s e c o n d moment o f a u d i e n c e d e c o d i n g t h a t m a k e s i t
n e c e s s a r y for a d v e r t i s e r s t o a c c u r a t e l y s e l e c t s u i t a b l e r e f e r e n t
systems i n cueing audience predispositions,
Advertising audiences are seen here, not only t o have
p r e d i l e c t i o n s i n t h e g o o d s t h e y consume, b u t also i n t h e s o c i a l
values and c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s they d e f i n e themselves with and
t h a t d e f i n e goods i n a d v e r t i s e m e n t messages. Williamsonts notion
t h a t t h e ad's i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e e f f e c t i v e l y renders r e a d e r s a s
t l s u b j e c t s v , s t r u c t u r a l l y and p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y p o s i t i o n e d i n
t h e message, is r e j e c t e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l and social
s u b j e c t d e f i n e d b y Dave R o r l e y 9 s a u d i e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e , Audiences
a r e r e a l s o c i a l s u b j e c t t h a t c o m e t o t h e r e a d i n g of t h e a d from
various s o c i a l backgrounds, E u t Morley a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t social
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f a u d i e n c e s , s u c h a s t h a t a t t e m p t e d by P a r k i n s

and Bernstein, are t o o r e d u c t i o n i s t i c . I n s t e a d , Morley

recommends a n a p p r o a c h t h a t c a n d e f i n e a u d i e n c e s t h r o u g h t h e
c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e s t h a t a r e h a b i t u a l l y p r a c t i c e d a n d commonly
u n d e r s t o o d by c e r t a i n a u d i e n c e s . T h i s is t h e a u d i e n c e a p p r o a c h
followed throughout t h e remainder of th9 thesis, A s well, i t is

b e l i e v e d t o p a r a l l e l t h e s t r a t s g y of marketers and a d v e r t i s e r s
i n s e l e c t i n g v a r i o u s r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s from t h e l i f e s t y l e a n d

media i n t e r e s t s o f a u d i e n c e s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l
consumption p a t t e r n s t h a t a c t i v e l y shape p r e f e r r e d reading
codes. T h e m a r k e t e r s * and a d v e r t i s e r s ' c o r r e c t p l a c e m e n t of t h e
t a r q e t a u d i e n c e w i t h i n a r e p e r t o i r e of c u l t u r a l a n d media
d i s c o u r s s s i s i m p o r t a n t , n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e a u d i e n c e is

xviii
drawn i n t o a "space" o f t r a n s f e r r i n g m e a n i n g from o n e u n i t s i g n

t o another (the product sign) i n engaging t h e ad's structure, a s

illi ism son c l a i m s , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e a u d i e n c e * s / r e a d e r ' s

c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s and s o c i a l i d e n t i t y are t h i s space, By
r e f e r r i n q t o more s e l e c t c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s , associated

with an a u d i e n c a 9 s r e p e r t o i r e o f ' c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e s (e,g.,

a p p e a l i n g t o y o u n g c o l l e g e a u d i e n c e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o "new

wavew l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t s r e p r e s s n t e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g a r t a n d

jingles), t h e a d v e r t i s e r p r e f e r s a more r e s t r i c t e d o r c l o s e d

c o d e t h a t r e d e f i n e s t h e a d m e s s a g e a s a n e m b l e m of a p a r t i c u l a r

way o f l i f e , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h a t g r o u p

s o c i a l l y d i s p l a y group a f f i l i a t i o n s and values. I t i s by s a y i n g

t o o l i t t l e o r by a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e c a n ' f i l l i n t t h e

suggested s i g n i f i c a n c e of s i g n s - r e f e r e n c e s t o group-specif ic,

'secretivei o r restricted codes - t h a t t h e ads meta-com~unicate

t h e s h a r i n g of meaning with a n a u d i e n c e i n segmentation

contexts. T h i s t y p s of s i g n i f i c a t i o n t o a u d i e n c e s i s w h a t Eco

terms " c l o s e d t e x t u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f ~ , a n d w h a t K l i n e a n d L e i s s

c a l l " c l o s e d o r more r e s t r i c t e d c o d e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " Such

a p p e a l s i n s e g m e n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s i n g r e q u i r e t h e reader t o d o

" t h e worku i n s u p p l y i n g i n f o r w a t i o n , w h i l e i n mass m a r k e t a d s a

more o p e n c o d e a n d l i t e r a l s u p p l y of a l l i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y
f o r m a k i n g m e a n i n g i s more r e a d i l y p r o v i d e d i n t h e m a t e r i a l

message.

T h e d i s c u s s i o n o n d e v e l o p i n g a n a n a l y t i c f r a m e w o r k sees a s

i t s major s t r a t e g y f o r a n a l y s i n g r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a c o m p a r i s o n

xix
among a u d i 2 n c e - c o n n e c t e d media. Especially i n segernentation

appeals, where c e r t a i n a u d i e n c e s have responded p o s i t i v e l y t o

c e r t a i n o t h e r f f n o n - c o m r n e r c i ~ l wm e d i a message a n d forms,

a d m e n appropriate? t h e s e t r i e d a n d t e s t e d f o r m a t s (used f i r s t i n

t h e media m a r k e t p l a c e ) i n a p p r o a c h i n g of t e n n e w l y d e f i n e d

commodity market a u d i e n c e s . I n a u a y somewhat similar t o J o h n

Bergerns m e d i a - c o m p a r i s o n semiotic analysis of advertising, the

s t u d y h e r e f o l l o w s t h e a n a l y t i c a l p r o j e c t of m a t c h i n g ad w e s s a g e

forms w i t h o t h e r m e d i a t h e i s o l a t e d a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t i s known t o
consume. I t is b e l i e v e d t h a t a d v e r t i s e r s b o r r o w e x t e r n a l media

forms and attempt t o reproduce s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l experiences

r e l a t e d t o t h e consumption o f t h e s e o t h e r media i n t h e ad.

Chapter Three introduces t h e sample of ads, t h e taedia

s e g m e n t s t h e y a p p e a r i n a n d t h e t a r g e t m a r k e t s o r mass m a r k e t

t h e a d v e r t i s e r w i s h e s t o a p p e a l to. T h e s a m p l e of a d s , on which

t h e a n a l y t i c framework is used, contains tuo subsaaples (defined

by t h e a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y t h a t g e n e r a t e d t h e a d s ) t h a t a r e

q u a l i f i e d b y t h e i r s e g m e n t a t i o n a n d asss % a r k a t s t r a t e g i e s . The

p r o d u c t a d v e r t i s e d is B u d w e i s e r S r a n d b e e r i n A m e r i c a n m a g a z i n e s

f o r t h e s a m p l e p e r i o d o f 1381-1982. The two m a r k e t s d e s i r e d a r e

t h e " H e a v y Male 8eer D r i n k e r , 18-49 y e a r s of a g e , # * a n d t h e

"Young A d u l t Plale, 18-24 y e a r s o f ageeW3The magazines and media

a u d i e n c e s of t h e magazines are demographically s k e t c h e d and t h e

s t a t e m e n t of m a r k e t i n g i n t e n t i o n a l i t y f o r a p p r o a c h i n g t h e s e

market audiences is discussed. The h i s t o r y of a p p e a l i n g t o t h e

youth market is o u t l i n e d i n d e t a i l a l o n g with market r e s e a r c h on

t h i s t a r q e t audience.

I n c h a p t e r Four t h e a n a l y t i c a l framework i s f i r s t a p p l i e d

_ ____ ________-_-
t o t h e mass market a d v e r t i s s r n e n t s f o u n d i n ~ ~ o r t~ s
llustratsd

a n d E&ay&y, then to ads i n Not Bod m a g a z i n e ( a s p e c i a l c a s e of

s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t media segmentation) and f i n a l l y to a d s i n

~ a t i o a a lLantmon, Amgerand and BolLjng StGng m a g a z i n e s (a m o r e

h o m o g e n e o u s m a r k e t s e g m e n t w i t h i n t h e mass m a r k e t ) . The a n a l y s i s
e x a m i n e s a d s f o r t h e i r c l o s e d n e s s a n d s p e c i f i c i t y of r e f e r e n t

s y s t e m s a n d t h e i r d e n s i t i e s o f p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s b a s e d on

a u d i e n c e r e p e r t o i r e s of r e f e r 3 n t s y s t e m s a n d l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t s

outlined i n Chapter Three.

xxi
3. These m a r k e t c a t e g o r i e s a r e t h e same a s t h o s e used i n
m a r k e t i n g a n d a d v e r t i s i n g a n d have b e e n outlined i n
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s from D ' A r c y MscManus & H a s i u s in s t . Louis,
t h e agency h a n d l i n g t h e S u d w e i s e r a c c o u n t i n the U n i t e d
States.

xxii
I. A d v e r t i s i n g As S o c i a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n

T h i s c h s p t e r is a r e v i e w o f s o c i o - e c o n O m i c a n d c u l t u r a l

t h e o r y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e of g o o d s i n consumer

s o c i ~ t y . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s y m b o l i z a t i o n s of t h e

c o m m o d i t y s y s t e m a n d t h e o r i g i n a t i o n o f human n e e d s t a k e s a

p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n i n v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of the

c o m m u n i c a t i o n of m e a n i n g s i n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e . In particular,

a d v e r t i s i n g messages, which reflect t h e p r o d u c e r ' s i n t e n t i o n a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d s u p p l y of m e a n i n g f o r c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e , h a v e

b e e n a n a l y z e d by d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d o l o g i e s , each subscribing t o

d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s o f how s s o c i e t y g e n e r a t e s , d i r e c t s a n d
1
p r a c t i c e s its b a s i c c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of

t h e s y m b o f i z a t i o n of g o o d s t o human n e e d s . U h i l l some of these

a n a l y s e s v i s w t h e s y m b o l s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n of m e a n i n g i n

a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a s a p p r o p r i a t e d by p r o d u c e r s from t h e complex o f

meanings and needs e x i s t i n g e s s e n t i a l l y i n consumer s o c i e t y ,

o t h e r a n a l y s e s a s s u m e a more n e g a t i v e perspective o n t h e r o l e of

a d v e r t i s i n g and s u g g e s t t h a t p r o d u c e r s o r c h e s t r a t e t h e c r e a t i o n

of n e e d s t h r o u g h t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s y m b o l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o m m o d i t y

beyond v a l u e s o f t h e p r o d u c t ' s s i m p l e use. The f o l l o w i n g

s e c t i o n s i s o l a t e and analyze t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s of t h i s debate

which a r e o f t s n i m p l i c i t l y a n 3 i n a d e q u a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

a c t u a l a n a l y s i s o f ad m e s s a g e s .
 T h i s r e v i e w of t h e v a r i o u s d e b a t e s on the nature of the

s o c i a l meaning g i v e n t o goods through t h e c o s a u n i c a t i o n system

o f s d v e r t i s i n q does n o t i n t e n d t o settle on t h e nore fundamental

s t u d y of t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of n s e 3 s . . R a t h e r , this s t u d y is

p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f

s o c i a l m e a n i n g t h r o u g h a d v e r t i s i n g 3 n d n o t i t s more f a r r e a c h i n g

c a u s e s a n d a f f e c t s , T h e r e v i e w c o n s i d e r s how v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s of

c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y h a v e come t o r e a l i z e t h a t g o o d s a r e n o t s i m p l y .

t o b e t h o u g h t of a s u s e f u l a n d , i n r e l a t e d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s ,

t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g is n o t t o b e r e g a r d e d a s m e r e l y i n f o r m a t i o n a l .

Conte32orary approaches t e n 3 to realize t h a t both a d v e r t i s i n g

a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s h a v e a s y m b o l i c a s p e c t w h o s e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r e d p a t t e r n s m u s t be a c c o u n t e d f o r .

These t h e o r i e s acknowledge t h a t goods do n o t merely perform

p a r t i c u l a r ' u s e g f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e consumer, b u t communicate

something about t h e s o c i e t y t h e y are produced i n and about t h e

user himself. 1 Advertising g i v e s goods t h e i r social symbolic

m e a n i n g s a n d d e f i n e s t h e way p e o p l e s h o u l d c o n c e i v e t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h g o o d s a n d o t h e r a r e a s of c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e

o u t s i d e of t h e a c t o f consumption a l o n e ( i n d i v i d u a l s g p u r c h a s e

a n d e x p e r i e n c e of t h e u t i l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e o f g o o d s ) .

A g u i d i n g f o c u s o f t h i s r e v i e w is o n t h e c o n c e p t of

c u l t u r a l reference i n t h e symbolic associations (shared

c o n v e n t i o n a l meaning d e f i n i t i o n s o f objects a n d ideas)

a t t r i b u t e d to goods throuqh advertising. Advertisers and

m a r k e t e r s do n o t work a u t o n o m o u s l y i n p r o v i d i n g p r o d u c t s w i t h
meaning. These p r o f e s s i o n a l s o c i a l a g e n t s borrow a p p r o p r i a t e

f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s f o r t h e i r m e s s a g e s from systems of m e a n i n g
t h a t a r e , a s well, a l r e a d y p r a c t i c e d b y c o n s u m e r s t h e y w i s h t o

c o ! u m u n i c a t 9 t o t h r o u g h p r o d b c t messages. The n o t i o n of

s p e c i f i c i t y of c u l t u r a l r e f s r e n c e h a s been g r o s s l y overlooked i n

t h e s n a l y s i s o f c o m m o d i t y s y m b o l i z a t i o n i n f a v o u r of a v a g u e

a s s u m p t i o n o f d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g i c a l s o c i a l p r o c e s s a n d mass

manipulation. T h i s is a d a n g e r o u s o r i e n t a t i o n f o r such c r i t i c a l

a n a l y s e s to t a k e given t h e growing t r e n d i n a d v e r t i s i n g and

marketing communication systems of market segmentation, T h i s

marketing c o n c e p t , d s v e l o p e d and employed t o i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t s

i n t h e f a s t 25 y e a r s , concentrates on t r y i n g to reach a s p e c i f i c

m a r k e t w i t h i n t h e mass m a r k e t , a s opposld to t r y i n g to

d i f f e r s n t i a t e a b r a n d f r o m i t s c o a p e t i t ~ r sf o r t h e e n t i r e

market. Y a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n i s t h e s t r a t e g y t h r o u g h which

producers are able t o isolate p a r t i c u l a r consumzr group social

p r o d u c t n e e d s a n d c o m w u n i c a t e p r o d u c t m e a n i n g i n terms o f t h a t

g r o u p ' s own s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l p r e d i s 2 o s i t i o n s . T h e market

segment, defined through e l a b o r a t e market research, r e c e i v e s

p r o d u c t messages t h a t are u s e r - c e n t e r e d i n s t e a d of u s e - c e n t e r e d .

T h i s d o f i n e d g r o u p of c o n s u i u e r s r e c e i v e more t h a n messages a b o u t

products -- t h e y r e c e i v e messages a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s . Advertising

a s a f o r m of s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s n o t a s "mass m a n i p u l a t i n g ' *

o r mass c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e - o r i e n t e d a s many o f t h e t h e o r i e s i n

t h i s r e v i e w would a r g u e . Bearing t h i s theoretical oversight i n

mind, t h e t h e o r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r are a s s e s s e d f o r

3
t h e i r consideration of jifferentiated g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s i n t h e

explanation of advertising as a s o c i a l and cultural activity,

Some s t u d i e s o f a d v s r t i s i n q f o c u s o n what c o n s u m e r s

a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e i n t h e m a t 3 r i a l o f . t h e ad m e s s a g e , while others

v i e w a d v e r t i s i n g f r o m a macro s o c i o - e c o n o m i c and/or c u l t u r a l

(anthropological) perspective. G i l l i s n Dyer p r o v i d e s a h e l p f u l

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e two r e l a t e d l e v e l s of a n a l y s i s o f

advertising:

W h a t a n a d m e a n s d e p e n d s o n how i t o p e r a t e s , how signs

and its i d e o l o g i c a l e f f e c t are o r g a n i z e d i n t e r n a l l y
( w i t h i n t h e t e x t ) a n d e x t e r n a l l y ( i n r e l a t i o n t o its
production, c i r c u l a t i o n and consumption and i n r e l a t i o n
to technological, &onoaic, l e g a l and social
r e l a t i o n s ) .2

Dyer s u g g e s t s h e r e a n a n a l y t i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between

t h e 5 x t e r n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of a d v e r t i s i n g a n d t h e i n t e r n a l

a n a l y s i s o f t h e a c t u a l message contsnt, T h e s t u d y of t h e

e x t e r n a l s o c i a l conselu2ncas o f a d v e r t i s i n g c r i t i q u e s and

a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n w h a t a d v e r t i s i n g d o e s (e.g,, c r e a t i o n of

demand by t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f f a l s ? n e e d s , t h e issue o f i d e o l o g y ,

leqitirnation and t h e p o l i t i c a l economic c o n t r o l s o f c u l t u r a l

production). T h i s macro-social a p p r o a c h e x a m i n e s a d v e r t i s i n g a n d

i t s c a u s e s a n d e f f e c t s i n s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l terms

w i t h o f t e n an h i s t o r i c a l f o c u s . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of a d v e r t i s i n g

is, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , also studied i n 3 c r i t i q u e of t h e

i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e a n d m a t e r i a l s of t h e a d m e s s a g e i t s e l f (e.g.,

c l o s e l y e x a m i n i n g t h e s y s t e m i c c r e a t i o n of f a l s e o r i r r a t i o n a l

m e a n i n g s f o r g o o d s a t t h e l e v e l of t h e B e s s a g e f o r m ) . It is

n e c e s s a r y to d i s c u s s f u l l y t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work o n t h e e x t e r n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n and consequences of a d v e r t i s i n g i n o r d e r t o

u n q e r s t a n d t h e n e t h o d o l o g i c a l t o o l s f o r i n t e r n a l a n a l y s i s of

a c t u a l messages t h a t have been c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h v a r i o u s

macro-theoretical p r o o f s i n mind. In the s t u d y of a d v e r t i s i n g ,

m o s t t h e o r i s t s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n o n e o r t h e o t h e r of t h e s e

two l s v e l s o f a n a l y s i s . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n s of t h e s t u d i e s b y
I
Kline and Leiss, P o l l a y a n d McCracken and o t h e r s , the existing

s t u d i e s o f a d v e r t i s i n g and consumer c u l t u r e have amounted to a

c o l l s c t i o n o f t h e o r i e s w i t h o u t any e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n s o r

m e t h o d s w i t h o u t a n y f o r a a l t h s o r z t i c a l base. T h e s t u d y of

advertising wst incorporate, t o some ? x t e n t , b o t h l e v e l s of

analysis.

The r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e is g u i d e d by t h e s e a r c h for a

c u l t u r e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e on a d v n r t i s i n g i n which

e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l l e v e l considerations a r e analyzed a s

mutually informing -- t h e a d m e s s a g e s t r u c t u r e a n d contents

b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d by p r o c e s s e s o f t h e s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e s r e l a t e d t o ad p r o d u c t i o n a n d a d v e r t i s i n g i n t e n t i o n

(e.g., m a r k e t s e g w e n t a t i o n ; t h e message f o r m a n d t h e i n t e n t i o n a l

marketing/advertisinq activity). A simple study o f t h e ad

m e s s a g e i t s e l f d o e s n o t n e c s s s a r i l y e x p l a i n i n what ways

a d v e r t i s i n g is a s o c i a l f o r m o f c o m m u n i c s t i o n . The i n t e n t i o n s

a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e o l o g i e s of a d v e r t i s e r , m a r k e t i n g a n d m e d i a

groups, p l u s t h e s o c i a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n of t h o s e r e c e i v i n g t h e a d

messlgz, a r e b o t h i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c o m ~ u n i c a t i o nof m e a n i n g a n d

t h e o r i e s t h a t d e s c r i b e its s y s t e m i c p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s and
structured reception.

1:
,1-s o c-
- i o --
e c-
o n o-
m i,
c ,
T-
h e o------ --- --------
ry-
a n,
d ,
C o-
n s-
umer ---
Culture

The f i r s t fundamental u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e x t e r n a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n and consequences of a d v e r t i s i n g o c c u r i n t h e

l i b e r a l v i e w p r e s e n t e d ~y e c o n o m i c t h e o r i s t s . T h e n a t u r e of t h e

p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o m m o d i t y i n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e has b e e n

d e f e n d e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l e c o n o m i c s i n a n a c c o u n t sutasarized b y

Stephen Kline:

T h e l i b e r a l v i e w i n v i t e s u s t o see t h e c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e
a s a more d e v e l o p e d s t a g e of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ; a
r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l and unending a p p e t i t e s
of i n d i v i d u a l consumers with t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d
m a r k e t p l a c e a s t h e b e s t Eeans of s a t i s f y i n g then, To
t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , c o n s u m p t i o n is t h e n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n
o f a human e s s e n c s . 3

From t h i s l i b e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e c o m e s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h 2
I
d e s i r e t o consume i s a p s y c h i c r e s p o n s e n a t u r a l l y e x p r e s s e d by

t h e consumer. C o n s u m e r d e a a n d c o n t r o l s t h e market, a n d

p r o d u c t i o n i s r e g a r d e d a s m e e t i n * ? t h e n s e d s of t h e m a r k e t ,

Kenneth G a l b r a i t h , in The Affiggnt s o c i e t y ( 1 9 5 8 ) a n d _T& $21

JgGgmltgig& gists (1967), d e s c r i b e s t h i s view a s t h e "accepted

sequencen* i n which p r o d u c t i o n i s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s d e a l i n g with

human n e e d s a n d t h e i r c u r r e n t l e v e l s of s a t i s f a c t i o n . U r g e n c y of

wants and, t h e r e f o r e deaand, d o n o t l e s s e n a s more a r e

satisfied.

T h i s l i b e r a l approach p o r t r a y s consumers a s private,

r a t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s a c t i n g i n c o n s u m p t i v e r o l e s d i c t a t e d by
t h e i r own references a n ? j u d q s z e n t s -- these p r e f e r e n c e s

o r i g i n a t e from t h e marketplace. Advertising and marketing

c o m m u n i c s t e messngns o f p r o d u c t a t t r i b u t e s a n d s e r v i c e s i n

consumsr i n f o r m a t i o n q u i ? e r 0 r n a t t o Consumers. The t h e o r y

claims t h e p u r e l y i n f o r m a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a d v e r t i s e m e n t s d i s p l a y

i n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w a y a d s make c l e a r m a r k e t p l a c e c h o i c e s t o

s a t i s f y consumer-determined needs. T h i s a c c e p t a n c e of t h e n o t i o n

of c o n s u m e r d e m o c r a t i c s e l e c t i o n o f g o o d s t h r o u g h d e m a n d i s

c r i t i q u e d by t h e n e o - l i b e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e of G a l b r a i t h a s n r e v i s e d

sequence," i n w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g ,

and t h e consumer motivation to purchase are reformulated i n a

new a c c o u n t , G a l b r a i t h comments:

T h e e v e n more d i f f i c u l t l i n k b e t w e e n p r o d u c t i o n a n d
w a n t s i s p r o v i d e d by t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m o d e r n
a d v e r t i s i n g a n d w s a l e s m a n s h i p w . These c a n n o t b e
reconciled with t h e independantly determined d e s i r e s -
to bring i n t o being wants t h a t previously d i d not
exist. 5

Arguing a q a i n s t t h z t h e o r y o f consumer s o v e r e i g n t y (#*the

accepted sequence"), G a lb r a i t h develops h i s '*revised sequencen

i n w h i c h p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l s demand. The p r o d u c t i o n and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods generated s y "salesmanship" (marketing)

and a d v e r t i s i n g r a p r e s e n t a c o l l u s i o n a g a i n s t consumer

sovereignty if, as G a l b r a i t h contends, " i t i s t h e p r o c e s s of

s a t i s f y i n g w a n t s t h a t creates wantsn.* According to Galbraith,

a d v e r t i s i n g r e a c h s human e m o t i o n s ("weaker humant* e m o t i o n a l

n e e d s ) a n 3 creates w a n t s t h a t h a v e n o p l a c e i n m a r k e t p l a c e

c o n m u n i c a t i o n s , T h e e c o n o m i s t a r g u e s t h a t t h e more a b u n d a n t

c o m m o d i t i e s are, and t o t h o e x t e n t t h a t t h e y d o n o t s e r v e o u r
physical and s o c i a l needs, t h e more vulnerable we, the

consumsrs, a r e t o a p p e a l s t h a t are p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y grounded.

B o t h t h e n o t i o n t h s t t h e u r g e n c y o f w a n t s d o not l e s s e n a s more

are satisfied/addressed (economic t h e o r y of m a r g i n a l u t i l i t y and

t h e non-diminishing l e v e l s c o n s u m u r n e e d s ) , and t h a t w a n t s i n

t h e m a r k e t p l a c e a r e a u t o n o z o u s l y a r r i v e d a t by c o n s u m e r s

( c o n s u m e r s o v e r e i g n t y ) , g o u n d e r a t t a c k by G a l b r a i t h .

A d v e r t i s i n g does n o t i n f o r m c o n s u m e r s o f s i m p l y w h a t i s

a v a i l a b l e i n t h e marketplace, it p e r s u a d e s them t o need t h e

goods producers supply to t h e public. The s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l

power o f a d v e r t i s i n g r e s i d e s i n i t s f u n c t i o n a s *la r e l e n t l e s s

p r o p a g a n d a o n b e h a l c o f g o o d s i n g e n e r a l t s . 7 As a n i n s t i t u t i o n of

production and marketing, a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s h a v e become

n e c e s s a r y f o r advanced c a p i t a l i s t production to o v e r s e e economic

d e ~ a n da n d i n s u r e i n d u s t r i a l q r o w t h . Only by c o n t r o l l i n g

c o n s u m e r demand a n d c o n s u m p t i v e t r e n d s i n t h i s f a s h i o n , h a v e

p r o d u c e r s been a b l e t o s e c u r e c a p i t a l g a i n s snd p r o t e c t

i n v e s t m e n t s i n t o new p r o ? u c t i o n , t h u s avoiding t h e t h r e a t of

radical, unforeseen s h i f t s i n consumer a c t i v i t y .

A t t h e c o r e of G a l b r a i t h ' s c r i t i q u e o f a d v e r t i s i n g i s a

c r u c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n m a d e b e t w e e n two p o s s i b l e k i n d s of human

d e s i r e s ; t h o s e f o r s a t i s f y i n g w a b s o l u t e m n e e d s (more p h y s i c a l ,

s o c i a l u t i l i t y t h a t can b e s a t i s f i e d ) a n d " r e l a t i v e w n e e d s

(psychic, weaker, hard to s a t i s f y with goods). G a l b r a i t h has

l i t t l e p r o b l e ~a c c e p t i n g t h e n o t i o n of c o n s u m e r g r a t i f i c a t i o n s

t h r o u g h t h 2 r e a l i z a t i o n o r s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a b s o l u t e n e e d s (e.g.,
f o o d , warmth, and s h z l t e r ) . I t is t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of relative

n e e d s c o n j u r e d u p i n t h e p r o d u c t m e s s a g e promises o f a d v e r t i s i n g
-- t h a t is, g o o d s p r o m i s e d f o r t h e i r p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l v a l u e s

based on consumer s o c i a l comparison and emulation8 t h a t

Galbraith f i n d s problematic.

Economist James Duesenberry h a s provided G a l b r a i t h with t h e

n o t i o n t h a t r e l a t v e needs i n consumpton are based on t h e social

goal of a higher standard living. T h i s s o c i a l need is t h e

e l e m e n t a l i m p e t u s b e h i n d many c o n s u m e r n e e d s i n c o n s u a e r

society. 9 G a l b r a i t h h a s employed t h i s s o c i a l o b s e r v a t i o n t o

o p p o s e t r a d i t i o n a l , l i b e r a l e c o n o m i s t s i n t h e i r claim of

consumer s o v e r e i g n t y . As well, t h i s view i n t r o d u c e s t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l d r i v e and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n '

of r e l a t i v e needing, an3 t h a c a p s b i l i t i e s of t h e s o c i e t y ' s

productive forces. He n o t e s :

B e c a u s e t h e s o c i e t y sets g r e a t s t o r e by a b i l i t y t o
p r o d u c e a h i g h l i v i n g s t a n d a r d , i t e v a l u a t e s p e o p l e by
t h e p r o d u c t s t h e y possess. The u r g e to consume is
f a t h e f e d by t h e v a l u e s y s t e m which e m p h a s i z e s t h e
a b i l i t y o f t h e s o c i e t y t o p r o d u c e . T h e more t h a t is
p r o d u c e d , t h e more t h a t m u s t b e owned i n o r d e r t o
m a i n t a i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r e s t i g e . The l a t t e r is a n
important point, for, without going a s f a r a s Dusenbsrry
i n r e d u c i n g g o o d s t o t h e r o l e of s y m b o l s of p r e s t i g e i n
t h e a f f l u e n t s o c i e t y , it is p l a i n t h a t h i s a r g u m e n t
f u l l y i m p l i e s t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n of g o o d s c r e a t e s t h e
w a n t s t h a t t h e g o o d s are presumed t o s a t i s f y . 1 0
 Many o f C a l b r a i t h ' s i d e a s , presented above, were a d d r e s s e d

f i r s t b y V e b l e n i n h i s 3 n a l y s i s o f t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y
c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n a n d s o c i a l p a t t e r n s of t h e u p p e r c l a s s

o f t h a t time. v e b l e n s a t i r i z e d t h e r e l a t i o n s of e m u l a t i o n

( c o m p a r i s o n s among a g r o u p ) a n d s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e systsm o f p r e s t i j e o u s goods, Similarly,

G a l b r a i t h c r i t i q u e s b r o a d e r s o c i a l p a t t e r n s o f more c o n t e m p o r a r y

a f f l u e n t societies. In Galbraith9s analysis, t h e r i s e of

c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y i n t h e f o r m d e s c i b e d a b o v e i s c a u s e d by

c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s n e c e s s i t y t o c o n t r o l e c o n o m i c demand for

growth. T h i s r e q u i r e s n o t o n l y o r c h e s t r a t i o n of t h e h a b i t s a n d

p a t t e r n s o f consumption, but, more i m p o r t a n t l y a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f

t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l consumer needs themselves.

Advertising, through its p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o c i a l and personal

meaning around goods, becomes a v i t a l c o n c e r n i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

p r o c e s s e s o f economic and social i n f l u e n c e -- the redefinition

of t h e c o n s u m i n g i n d i v i d u a l ' s a s p i r a t i o n s a n d w a n t s t o a s s u r e
demand g r o w t h ( i n d u s t r i a l a n d c a p i t a l e x p a n s i o n s ) . Thus,

G a l b r a i t h s u g g e s t s a connection between producer i n t e r e s t s and

t h e n a t u r e o f needing i n consumer s o c i e t y . Values of p r e s t i g e

and a h i g h e r s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g a r e motivated i n d i r e c t l y by a

v a l u e s y s t e m of consumers' r i g h t s t o goods -- a result of

c a p i t a l i s t production o f a wide v a r i e t y o f goods e n a b l i n g

consumer choices. Advertising an3 marketing perform t h e c s n t r a l

f u n c t i o n of c r e a t i n q n e e d s a n d c o m p l e t e t h e c o n c e p t u a l t r i a n g l e

i n which c o n s u m e r v a l u e s of e m u l a t i o n (what i s a v a i l a b l e o n t h e
m a r k e t a n d w h a t o t h e r s possess) a n d t h e m a r k e t i n g m o t i v e s t o

p r o d u c e more a n d more are j o i n e d .

Producers c r e a t e t h e wants they seek to s a t i s f y through

a d v e r t i s i n g and t h i s suggc?sts t o G a l b r a i t h t h a t e m u l a t i v e
b e h a v i o u r s of c o n s u m e r s a n d t h e i r h u n g e r f o r a b e t t e r s t a n d a r d

of l i v i n g a r e n o t e n o u g h t o e n c o u r a g e c o n s u m p t i o n f o r p r o d u c e r s .

He a r g u e s f u r t h e r t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g w o u l d n o t b e r e q u i r e d if

c o n s u m e r s d e t e r m i n e d t h e i r own d e s i r e s , T h e y w o u l d p u r c h a s e o n l y
what t h e y t r u l y need. T h e r e f o r e , a d v e r t i s i n g i s a c o m p o n e n t of

t h e r e l a t i o n s of production that, a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n , creates

messages t h a t d e t e r m i n e a t t i t u d e s s n d s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r s a r o u n d

consumption, G a l b r a i t h m a i n t a i n s t h i s c r i t i q u e of ' a d v e r t i s i n g

as manipulation' w i t h o u t a n y a n a l y s i s o f g o o d s a n d " t h e r o l e of
symbols of prestigew, H i s r e l u c t a n c e t o d e a l with t h e symbolic
and, t h e r e f o r e , c u l t u r a l material o f a d v e r t i s i n g c u r t a i l s a n y

f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o n how r e l a t i v e n e e d s a n d e m u l a t i v e v a l u e s

a r e communicated to consumers,
M i c h a e l S c h u d s o n p r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t e v i e w o f t h e role o f

advertising with a very d i f f e r e n t understanding of Duesenberry's

work on p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f n e e d s i n c o n s u m e r
s o c i a t y , He s u g g e s t s t h a t D u e s e n b e r r y ' s p o i n t is "not t h a t

c o n s u m e r s a r e m a n i p u l a t e d by a d v s r t i s i n g ; i n s t e a d h e e a p h a s i z e s

t h a t consumer t a s t e s are r e l a t i v e to t h e tastes o f o t h e r

c o n s u m e r s , a n d t h a t a l l t a s t e s a r e f o r m e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a

particular culture".ll This cultural perspective identifies the

f u n c t i o n o f a d v e r t i s i n g t o be p r i m a r i l y i n f o r m a t i o n a l , Symbols
v a l u e s of emulation, p r e s t i q e ) reproduce s i g n i f i c a n t meanings

and a s s o c i a t i o n s p r a c t i c e d i n t h e broader r e a l m s of c u l t u r a l

activity. T h e v a l u g s y s t e m i n w h i c h " s y m b o l s of p r e s t i g e * ' g a i n

t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e h a s b e e n i n p l a c e well b e f o r e t h e c o m i n g o f

modern a 3 v e r t i s i n g . While a d v e r t i s i n g might s u s t a i n emulativa

s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s , i t h a s n o t c r e a t e d t h e s y s t e m i n which t h e y

f u n c t i o n a s meanings,

For Schudson, G a l b r a i t h ' s Keynsian d i s t i n c t i o n betueen

"absolutew and n r e l a t i v e m needs, and t h e i d e a t h a t r e l - a t i v e

needs are i n s a t i a b l e , i s r e p l a c e d by t h e n o t i o n t h a t " n e e d s a r e

always relative, b u t r e l a t i v e needs a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

i n s a t i a b l e 9 * . 1 2 Bn a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l v i e w s t a t e s t h a t g o o d s h a v e a

symbolic and m a t s r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n r e a l i z e d through c u l t u r a l

activity. Uses, v a l u e s a n d t a s t e s i m p a r t e d t o g o o d s bg

a d v e r t i s i n g n u s t bo consonant with c u l t u r a l experience. Products

p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e promise of membership t o a p a r t i c u l a r group

u p o n p o s s e s s i o n may n o t b e t h e immesiate s o l u t i o n t o t h i s n e e d

f o r membership. This, however, d o e s n o t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e need

f o r s o c i a l m e m b e r s h i p i s a r t i f i c i a l l y c o n j u r e d by a d v e r t i s e r s

n o r t h a t t h i s n e e d may n o t b e s a t i s f i e d , This c u l t u r a l approach

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n d e p t h s h o r t l y .

William L e i s s restates t h e major c o n s i d e r a t i o n s around t h e

issue of r e l a t i v e needs and need s a t i s f a c t i o n based on t h e

socio-economic p e r s p s c t i v e s o f Fred Rirsch and T i b o r

Scitovsky,l3 These two contempory economists f o c u s on t h r e e

e s s e n t i a l p r o c e s s e s of cosumer c u l t u r e which shed l i g h t on t h e

s y s t e m o f e m u l a t i v e b e h a v i o u r s common i n i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s t

societies:

( 1 ) t h e importance of i n t e r p e r s o n a l comparisons or s o c i a l
r a n k i n q ; (2) t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h i s e m u l a t i v e
behaviour an3 goods consumption; (3)the symbolic
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f r a n k an? p r e s t i g e i n e c o n o m i c
activity.14

Leiss i n h i s suamative statement observes these t h r e e

p r o c e s s e s t o b e p r o ~ i n e n ti n t h e v a l u e s y s t e m s o f c o n s u m e r

culture. Unlike G a l b r a i t h ' s p u r e l y economic t h e o r e t i c a l account,

t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f g o o d s a n d i t s

u n d e n i a b l e role i n e c o n o e i c a c t i v i t y is acknowledged. Leisss

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e economic a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e h a s

l e a d h i m t o s t a t e , a s well, t h a t " a l l t h r e e f e a t u r e s were a l s o

p r o m i n e n t i n many ( b u t n o t 3 1 1 ) p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s * * . l s T h i s

a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n from anthropology r e f l e c t s an empirical

c o n t e x t w h i c h p u t s i n t o q u e s t i o n Gal b r a i t h 9 s t r i a n g u l a r

f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f r e l a t i v e needs. In societies

w h i c h possess n e i t h e r c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s n o r

m o d e r n a d v e r t i s i n g i t w o u l d seem p l a u s i b l e t o a s s u m e , e a p l o y i n g

Galbraith's a n a l y s i s , t h a t c o n s u m p t i o n of g o o d s w o u l d n o t

r e f l e c t t h e s y m b o l i c d e t e r m i n 3 t i o n s of r a n k a n d p r e s t i g e .

S a t i s f a c t i o n o f r e l a t i v e n e e d s would n o t be e x p r e s s e d i n

c o n s u m p t i v e o r e c o n o x i i c e x c h a n g e c u l t u r e b u t w o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d

t o o t h e r a r e a s o f s o c i a l l i f e , E c o n o a i c e x c h a n g e would b e b a s e d

p r i m a r i l y i n t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of a b s o l u t e needs. Instead it

a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of r e l a t i v e n e e d s has a p r o m i n e n t
 p l a c e i n t h e economic a c t i v i t i e s of p r i a i t i v e s o c i e t i e s . 1 6 The

d e t e r m i n a t i o n and i n f u s i o n of r e l a t i v e needing i n t o consuming

a n d t r a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s may n o t r e l y s o h e a v i l y u p o n c 3 p i t a l i s t

p r o d u c t i o n a n d a "propaganda o f g o o d s i n g e n e r a l f * , ~t way i n

f a c t be a p r o d u c t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and man's desire to

communicate t h r o u q h t h e o b j e c t s h i s c u l t u r e h a s g i v e n meaning

to. I t w o u l d b e more c o r r e c t t o s u g g e s t , a s L e i s s , Hirsch and

S c i t o v s k y do, t h a t r e l a t i v e n e e d i n g i s n o t s e p a r a b l e from

a b s o l u t e needs. The symbolic dimension o f goods are p a r t and

p a r c e l of t h e p r o c e s s e s o f human n e e d i n g . The s y m b o l i c v a l u e s

t h r o u g h w h i c h q o o d s t a k e o n m e a n i n q i n c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y are

organized within a system of h i e r a r c h i c a l ranks and s t a t u s e s

r e f l e c t e d i n broader s t r u c t u r e s of social o r g a n i z a t i o n , In

contemporary c a p i t a l i s t societies, e a c h p r o d u c t and s e r v i c e is

d e s i g n a t e d t h r o u g h marketing and product imaqe c r e a t i o n t o f i t

i n a c e r t a i n s t a t u s level and t h e r e f o r e s u i t t h e r e l a t i v e needs

of a p a r t i c u l a r consumer g r o u p (consumer s u b c u l t u r e ) p o s s e s s i n g

a c e r t a i n income l e v e l , t a s t e s , and social position. The symbols

o f s u c c e s s which emerge i n consumer c u l t u r e are i n v o l v e d i n a

c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f r e d e f i n i t i o n so t h a t consumers i n a l l social

p o s i t i o n s a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h new m e a n s ( i m a g e c o n c e p t s a n d

product i n n o v a t i o n s ) by which t o b e t t e r t h e i r r e l a t i v e

positions,

S o c i o l o g i s t L e e R a i n w a t e r makes t h e p o i n t t h a t n o t a l l
h
i v a l u e s p l a c e d o n g o o d s a r e i n t h e p u r s u i t of s o c i a l e a u l a t i v e
!
expressions, D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e consumer and t h e
a n s w e r i n g o f p o s i t i o n a l wants a r e n o t an e n d l e s s p r o c 2 s s .

consumsr e x p e c t a t i o n i s n o t s i m p l y d e f i n a b l e along o n e c o n t i n u i m
of i n c r e a s i n g e x p e n d i t u r e s m o t i v s t e d b y m a r k e t e r s s a n d

societies* a b i l i t y t o produce 3 c o n t i n u i n g a r r a y of p r o d u c t s .

Rather, b y u t i l i z i n q a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n m o d e l of c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y ,

Rainwater believes t h a t social p o s i t i o n f i x e s d e f i n i t i o n a l

limits o n t h e n e e d f o r p o s i t i o n a l g o o d s . Emulative processes are

c u r v e d i n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e b y t h o more f u n d a m e n t a l n e e d f o r

social membership t o o n e ' s subgroup or peers. T h e way i n u h i c h

c o n s u m e r s c o a p a r e e a c h o t h e r t h r o u g h w h a t they b u y is d e l i v e r e d

more p r e c i s e l y i n t h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h b y i t s d e s c r i p t i o n
of t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y , a n d t h e r e f o r e ,

s u b g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s d i s p l a y i n g s h a r e d v a l u e s a n d b e h a v i o u r s

i n t h e i r consumptive habits. C o n s u m e r s p a r t i c i p a t e more i n

" v a l i d a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s 1 * t h a t are s o c i a l l y c o n f i r m i n g r a t h e r t h a n
I
socially competitive. Rainwater states t h a t consumers d e s i r e I
I
* : t h o s e a t t r i b u t e s a n d rezources t h a t g o i n t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

a v i r t u a l s o c i a l i d e n t i t y f o r p e r s o n s i n t h e i r s o c i e t y w . 1 7 The
i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t consumer s o c i e t y is n o t composed o f

a h o m o g e n e o u s mass o f c o n s u m e r s who v a r y m e r e l y i n terms o f

income, a n d i n terms o f 9 r e l s t i v e b n o w l e d ~ eo f w h a t t h o s e a b o v e

and below them consume. The " s t a n d a r d p a c k a g e " of c o n s u m p t i o n

f o r a p a r t i c u l a r group of consumers, w h i l e l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d by

income, is, a s well, a n outcome o f t h e i r p r e f e r r e d membership t o

a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l group u i t h p a r t i c u l a r social values. As we

w i l l s e e l a t e r o n i n C h a p t e r Two, t h i s i s an a s s u m p t i o n

15
m a r k e t e r s a n d advertisers a s s u m e f r o m m a r k e t r e s e a r c h i n t h e i r

d e f i n i t i o n s of market segments w i t h i n consumer c u l t u r e -- that

of a heterogeneous marketplace with c u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t groups

of consumers.

T h i s p o s i t i o n a r g u e s a g a i n s t t h e n o t i o n of t h e

i n s a t i a b i l i t y o f r e l a t i v e n e e d s i n t h a t it i s o l a t e s t h e most

basic o f human n e e d s , t h a t of s o c i a l i n c l u s i o n t o a p a r t i c u l a r

group. T o s a y t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g a n d t h e m o d e r n s o c i a l c o n t e x t s of

c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n may r e v e a l a n d b e s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of n e e d s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a l l c o n s u e e r s i n

t h e same f a s h i o n ( G a l b r a i t h ' s modern want c r e a t i o n ) is t o i g n o r e

t h e h i s t o r y of g r o u p s of d i f f e r e n t i a t e d consunters (each r e p l y i n g

t o t h e need for s o c i a l group i d e n t i t y ) and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t

demands i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e based on t h e g r o u p ' s s o c i a l , economic

and c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s , T h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g a s p e c t of t h e

g r o u p i n g s o f r e l a t i v e n e e d s i n c o n s u B e r c u l t u r e is e v i d e n t i n

t h e s y m b o l i c a p p e a l s e m p l o y e d by a d v e r t i s e r s t o p r e s e n t g o o d s

with meanings s i g n i f i c a n t f o r d i f f e r e n t markets/groups. The i d e a

of a h e t e r o g e n e o u s c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e , a s r e f l e c t e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g
s y m b o l i z a t i o n s of c o m m o d i t i e s , m o s t a c c u r a t e l y t y p i f y

a d v e r t i s i n g a s a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m a n d t h e most r e c e n t

marketing trend to support i n c r e a s e s i n production explained

later a s market segmentation. Its e m p i r i c a l v e r i f i c a t i o n c a n b e

d r a w n o u t i n t h e i n t e r n a l a n a l y s i s o f ad m e s s a g e s a n d how t h e s e

messages c o n c e p t u a l i z e and d i r e c t meaning t o d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s i n

t h e marketplace.
 O t h e r l i n e s o f c r i t i q u e o f t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t s of
c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e e x t e r n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of

a d v e r t i s i n g come from f l a r x i s t s o c i a l t h e o r y . These t h e o r i e s

share with t h e neo-liberal economic account t h e n o t i o n t h a t

a d v e r t i s i n g is n e c e s s a r y i n c r e a t i n g demand f o r u n n e c e s s a r y
goods, and t h a t production c o n t r o l s consumption through t h e
mediating i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a d v e r t i s i n g and marketing. Further,
t h e f l H a r x i s t v v i e w e m p h a s i z e s t h e s y s t e m a t i c i n t e g r a t i o n of
a d v e r t i s i n g i n t o t h e e x p l o i t i v e s y s t e m o f monopoly c a p i t a l i s a ,
Consuiner c u l t u r e is s x p l a i n e d a s t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f a n
organization l a t e n t i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t system of production. What
r e s u l t s from t h e s e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e m a n i p u l a t e d f o r m s o f
s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n a n d d i s t o r t e d r e f l e c t i o n s of e c o n o m i c s o c i a l
life. The t r a d i t i o n a l Marxist c r i t i q u e d o e s n o t s h a r e
G a l b r a i t h g s c b n c e r n f o r t h e s p h e r e of c o n s u m p t i o n a n d t h e
r e s u l t i n g p r o h l e a s connected with consumer s a t i s f s c t i o n . This
"r3dical" c r i t i q u e of t h e c a p i t a l i s t system o f p r o d u c t i o n and
d i s t r i b u t i o n assumes, instead, t h a t human n e e d s a r e o b j e c t i v e l y
definable.lB Problems of consumption a r e subordinate to t h e
primary problems i n t h e system of production. Both n e o - l i b e r a l
a n d * * r a d i c a l q tc r i t i q u e s m a i n t a i n t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g n u s t e f f e c t
false s o c i a l needs i n people i n order t o monitor and c o n t r o l

demanZ a n d t o s e c u r e g r o w t h i n p r o d u c t i o n .
 I n less s o p h i s t i c a t e d Y a r x i s t a c c o u n t s t r u e n e e d s a r e t h o s e
of food, clothing, s h e l t e r and other o b j e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d
e l e m e n t s f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c s o f human l i f e , T h e s e d o n o t d i f f e r
much f r o m G a l b r a i t h 8 s c o n c e p t o f a b s o l u t e needs w h i c h n a y b e
satisfied. However, t h e H a r x i s t c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n of
t r u e / f a l s e needs produces d e f i n i t i o n a l problems far g r e a t e r than

G a l b r a i t h ' s a b s o l u t e / r e l a t i v e need d i s t i n c t i o n , F a l s e n e e d s are?

s a i d t o a r i s e o u t o f a m a n i p u l a t i o n of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a s o c i a l
p r o c e s s w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y is more l a t e n t a n d g e n e r a l i z e d t h a n
t h a t of t h e e m u l a t i v e b e h a v i o u r s of c o n s u m e r s . The manipulation

o f f a l q e n > z d s c r e d t e s an a l i e n a t e d s t a t e r e a l i z e d i n , a s
G i l l i a n D y e r p u t s i t , "mental and p h y s i c a l s e p s r a t i o n o f p e o p l e
from e a c h o t h e r a n d f r o m r e a l i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e i r work a n d
socieryn.19 T h e s e f a l s e needs c o n f u s e our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how

we a r e s o c i a l l y r e l a t e d t o oacb o t h e r a n d t o o u r l i v e l i h o o d o r

work. w h i l e o u r own e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d b r i n g s t h i s
a l i e n a t i o n about, mass a e d i s , i n c l u d i n g a d v e r t i s i n g , is s a i d t o
c o v e r u p a n d d i s t o r t these r e a l s o c i a l a n d p z r s o n a l
inadequacies. These i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n c e a l and distort o u r social

e x p e r i e n c e by p r o v i d i n g a n o t h e r , f a l s e one. ~ d v e r t i s i n ga n d t h e
mass m e d i a a r e said t o p s y c h i c a l l y m a n i p u l a t 2 u s i n t o d e s i r i n g

more a n 3 m o r e p r o d u c t s a n d t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e t h e d e m a n d w h i c h
f u e l s c a p i t a l i s t production.20 I n t h e Marxist formulation of
Herbert W a r c u s e , t h o s e wneed-messagesw aimed a t psycho-social
repression *'perpetuate t o i l , aggressiveness, m i s e r y an3
i njustice":
 Most o f t h s p r e v a i l i n g n e e d s t o r e l a x , t o h a v e f u n , t o
behave a n d consumd i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , t o l o v e and h a t e what o t h e r s l o v e and
h a t e , b e l o n g t o t h i s c a t e g o r y o f f a l s e needs.... Such
n e e d s have a s o c i e t a l c o n t e n t and f u n c t i o n which are
d e t e r m i n e d by e x t e r n a l powers o v e r which t h e i n d i v i d u a l
has no control,... No m a t t e r how much s u c h n e e d s may
h a v e b e c o m e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s own, r e p r o d u c e d a n d
f o r t i f i e d b y t h e c o n d i t i o n s of h i s e x i s t e n c e : n o m a t t e r
how much ' h e i d e n t i f i e s h i n t s e l f w i t h t h e m a n d f i n d s
h i m s s l f i n t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n , t h e y c o n t i n u e t o be w h a t
t h e y were f r o g t h e b e g i n n i n g - p r o d u c t s o f a society
w h o s e d o m i n a n t i n t e r e s t s demand r ? p r e s s i o n . z l

The f f e x t e r n a l powersM and "dominant i n t e r e s t s w which must

b e g u a r d e d o n b e h a l f of t h e s e " p o w e r s w r e p r e s e n t t h e c a p i t a l i s t

r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e i n t e r e s t s o f

producers. A d v e r t i s i n g a n d inass media a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t

g u a r d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s of m o n o p o l y c a p i t a l a n d i t s o b j e c t i v e o f

p r o f i t s i n s u r p l u s value. How t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s d o t h i s i s by

providinq i n d i v i d u a l s with f a l s e needs t h a t o b s t r u c t any

r e c o g n i t i o n of s o c i a l c o n t r o l . M a r c u s e a r g u e s t h a t consumer

c u l t u r e , through its o f f e r i n g s o f a b e t t e r l i f e s t y l e and systsw

of g r a t i f i c a t i o n s , p r o m o t e s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a p a t h y . 2 2 He

continues:

F r e e c h o i c e among a w i d e v a r i o t y o f t h e s e g o o d s s u s t a i n
s o c i a l c o n t r o l s o v e r a l i f e o f t o i l a n d f e a r - t h a t is
they sustain alienation. z3

Consumer c u l t u r e , and t h e m e s s a g e s which reflect i t i n I I

advertising, d e f i n e t h e terms i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s t h i n k w i t h i n

o n e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g i c a l movement. Rembers o f consumer s o c i e t y

r e m a i n non-autonornous an3 are denied e f f e c t i v e c o g n i t i v e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e i r t r u e n e e d s a s s o c i a l b e i n g , True needs

c a n n o t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from f a l s e needs a s l o n g a s consumers

are " k s p t i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g a u t o n o m o u s , a s l o n g a s t h e y are

I
i n d o c t r i n a t e d and manipulatedfq. 2 4

The problem w i t h PIarcuse's true/false needs d i s t i n c t i o n

l i e s i n its vague d e f i n i t i o n a n d t h e Marxist t h e o r e t i c a l f a i t h

i n t h e n s c e s s a r y m a n i p u l a t o r y n a t u r e o f monopoly c a p i t a l i s m and

t h e e f f e c t s of i t s r e l a t e d m e d i a a g e n c i e s . flarcuse s u g g e s t s t h a t

our obsession with commodities is a r e s u l t o f t h e manipulation

of consciousness an3 the resultant false consciousness

( i n c l u d i n g false n e e d s ) . A clear definition of what c o n s t i t u t e s

f a l s e n e e d s a n d who d e l i i n i t s f a l s e n e e d s c a n n o t be a d e q u a t e l y

explained. Rather, narcuse is f o r c e d t o r e t r e a t t o o n e f i n a l

generalization: i n a p u r e l y s o c i a l i s t s o c i e t y t r u e n e e d s would

b e r e a l i z e d and d e f i n e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t h e m s e l v e s and u n t i l

s u c h a f r e e d o m a n d s o c i e t y is a v a i l a b l e false needs w i l l

dominate. The g e n e r a l l a c k o f e m p i r i c a l v a l i d a t i o n a n d c l e a r

d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t r u e / f a l s e d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l

t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h i s M a r x i s t approach has f o r c e d zt

q u e s t i o n i n g of w h e t h e r c o n s u m p t i o n i s i n f a c t s u b o r d i n a t e t o

production, Is t h e r e a n y p r o o f of t h i s o n e - w a y d e t e r m i n i s m of

h u a a n n e e d s b y t h e p r o d u c t i v e b a s e of c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y i s a

q u e s t i o n t h a t m u s t g a i n i t s a n s w e r from a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d

a n a l y s i s of t h e m e d i a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s o f m a r k e t i n g , advertising

a n d t h e m e d i a a n d a n a n a l y s i s of s y m b o l i z a t i o n f o u n d i n a d

messages ( t h e c o n s u m e r s most d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h p r o d u c e r s

through marketing, b e s i d e s t h e a c t of p u r c h a s i n g i t s e l f ) . Yet,

t h e r o l e o f human a g e n c y i n the i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f false n e e d s

is n e g l e c t e d a n d o v e r s i m p l i f i e d by t h e l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d
Harxist position. As D e b r a C l a r k e p o i n t s o u t :

...there is g o o d d e a l more t o t h e process t h a n some

3
sim7la o n e - u a y ( a n d t h e r e f o r e i n e v i t a b l e ) d o m i n a t i o n
from a b o v e ; y e t t h i s o n e - s i d e d a n d ( o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l v
a c c o u n t u n d e r l i e s a n d p e r v a d e s t h e works of b o t h t h e
F r a n k f u r t t h e o r i s t s ( n o t a b l y A d o r n o and N a r c u s e ) a n d
l a t e r U. S. mass s o c i e t y t h e o r i s t s . 2 5
he mass s o c i e t y t h e o r i s t s t h a t C l a r k e refers t o a r e b e s t

r e p r e s e n t e d by C. W r i g h t Mills a n d t h e i r s t u d y of n o n o p o l y

c a p i t a l i s m e x h i b i t s a keen i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c a l economic

s t r u c t u r e i n t h e U n i t e d States. Yet t h e i r t h e o r y , l i k e t h a t of

n a r c u s e is weak, e s p e c i a l l y i n p r e f e r r i n g t o f o c u s o n t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e p o w e r e l i t e s of t h e s e

i n s t i t u t i o n s and m e d i a p r o d u c e r s . Their perspective does not

c o n s i d e r a s o c i o l o g y of c o n s u m p t i o n a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of

communicetions between producers and consumers.

T h e n o t i o n o f h u m a n a g e n c y is e x c l u d e d i n t h e o n e - w a y

d e t e r m i n i s m f o r m u l a t i o n i n f a v o r of a c u l t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of

t h e p a s s i v e qtmasses" o f a w e a k c i v i l s o c i e t y (a g e n e r a l i z e d

p u b l i c o u t s i d e o f t h e r u l i n g class, t h e i r s y s t e m of values,

n e e d s and social r s l a t i o n s ) . C. Wright B i l l s uses t h e crude

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n model of o n e l a r g e mass ( c o n s u a e r s of g o o d s a n d

B a s s media) a n d o n e small e l i t e o r e l i t e s (of p r o d u c e r s a n d

media p r o f e s s i o n a l s ) . 2 6 C l a r k e o f f e r s a c r i t i q u e o f t h i s model

when s h e s t a t e s :

H i l l s p r o c e e d e d t o a r g u e t h a t t h e mass aedia * c r e a t e d 1
 new f o r m s o f d e p e n d e n c e a n d made t h e ( c l a s s l e s s ) m a s s e s
newly v u l n e r a b l e t o g r e a t e r c o n t r o l under power w i e l d i n g
ulites.z7

Mills p u t s a s i d e t h e i s s u e o f a c t u a l a u d i e n c e r e c e p t i o n o f

msss c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c a r r i e s . o u t h i s a n a l y s i s o n t h e
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t msss a u d i e n c e s ( 2 . 9 . , a d v e r t i s i n g audiences) are

m a n i p u l a t e d i n s i m i l a r ways o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e one-way

d e t e r m i n i s m o f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p r o d u t i v e f o r c e s of s o c i e t y ,

unchecked and unopposed. Raymond W i l l i a m s , a n e x p o n e n t of a m o r e

s o p h i s t i c a t e d n a r x i s t approach, s i n g l e s o u t t w o major

d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h i s n o t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e i n d u s t r y a s "&ass

,,,the c o n c e p t of t h e 'mass* r e p l a c e s and n e u t r a l i z e s

s p e c i f i c c l a s s structures; t h e concept of *manipulation8
( a n o p e r a t i v e s r s t e g y i n c a p i t a l i s t a d v e r t i s i n g and
p o l i t i c s ) r e p l a c e s and n e u t r a l i z e s t h e complex
i n t e r a c t i o n s of c o n t r o l , s e l e c t i o n , i n c o r p o r a t i o n , a n d
t h e p h a s e s of s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o
real s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and r e l a t i o n s . 2 8
As W i l l i a m s s u g g e s t s h e r e , a n o r g a n i z e d s o c i o l o g y of a c t u a l

a u d i e n c e s and o f t h e r e a l c o n d i t i o n s / c o n t e x t s o f message

r e c e p t i o n a n d e f f e c t a r e n e c e s s a r y i n t h e s t u d y o f mass c u l t u r a l

p r o d u c t i o n (i.e., newspaper, television, p o l i t i c s , and

advertising). The component o f a n a c t i v e , r e c e p t i v e human a g e n t

m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e p r o d u c e r / c u l t u r e relationship. false

n e e d s c r e a t e d b y t h e mass c u l t u r e i n d u s t r i e s c a n n o t b e c a p a b l e

o f f u l l y e r a s i n g o r overcoming t h e problem of r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s

a m o n g s o c i a l m e m b e r s of a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , Nor c a n

t h e s e 3 i f f e r e n c e s b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o f a l s e n e e d s a n d mass

c u l t u r a l production alone. Mass s o c i e t y t h e o r i e s h a v e c h o s e n t o

neglect t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e c u l t u r e i n d u s t r i e s h a v e i n
c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o a p l u r a l i t y of s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t

social cosciousnssses defined, f o r instance, by class d i v i s i o n s .

As well, A l a n S w i n g e w o o d , i n Tl'g e y t h of Hass c u l t u r e

--, ,
,,,,,--f
extends

t h i s c r i t i q u e o f mass s o c i e t y a p p r o a c h e s :

such s view i g n o r e s t h e f a c t t h a t , with r i s i n g

e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s a n d i n c r e a s i n g l e i s u r e time a n d
a f f l u e n c e , c o n t e a p o r a r y i n j u s t r i a l s o c i e t y creates
c o n d i t i o n s of h i g h mass c o n s u m p t i o n . . . . Consumer
c a p i t a l i s m , r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i n g a vast h o m o g e n e o u s a n d
c u l t u r a l l y b r u t a l i z e d mass, g e n e r a t e s d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s
of t a s t e , d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s a n d c o n s u m e r s . C u l t u r e i s
s t r a t i f i e d , its consumption d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . 2 9

Galbraith's c l a i m of t h e dependent? o f c o n s u m e r s o n t h e

productive f o r c e s o f s o c i a t y i n s t i l l e d through t h e "propoganda

of r e l a t i v e n e e d s H , a n d t h e M a r x i s t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e n e c e s s a r y

p r o c e s s e s o f mass m a n i p u l a t i o n b o t h a s s u m e t h a t i f a d v e r t i s i n g

did not exist, t h e n c o n s u m e r s w o u l d n o t be i n d o c t r i n a t e d w i t h

false needs and t h e r e f o r e would n o t a t t e m p t t o s a t i s f y them i n

suggested consumptive behaviours. Both views concern themselves

w i t h t h e o v e r t a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c s i g n i f i c a n c e of a d v e r t i s i n g i n

which propoganda and unconscious manipulation are n e c e s s a r y

aspects, Harever, i t may b e a r g u 9 3 t h a t t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f

t h e u n i v e r s a l 2 f f e c t of a d v e r t i s i n g o n c o n s u m e r s r e f e r n o t t o

t h e creation of unnecessary, socially-false nseds, but to

psychologically universal, a n d c u l t u r a l ~ e e d s . As P a t r i c i a

S p r i n g b o r g h a s a r g u e d i n h e r c r i t i q u e of M a r c u s e S s t r u e / f a l s s

distinction, a d v e r t i s i n g m a n i p u l a t e s u s o n t h e b a s i s of b a s i c

n e e d s f o r e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , self-esteem, ego-gratification,

c r e a t i v i t y , a n d a s e n s e o f power e t c . - 3 0 These needs are n o t a

p r o 4 u z t of a J v e r t i s i n g and would n o t d i s a p p e a r i f a d v e r t i s i n g
did. T h e y e x i s t i n a l l i n d i v i d u a l s and a d v e r t i s i n g r e f e r s t o

them t o g a i n a n e f f e c t off c o n s u m e r s ' e m o t i o n a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y .

G a l b r a i t h even a h i t s t h a t consumer manipulation through

a d v e r t i s i n g is n o t f o u n d e d on b a s i c , "absolute" n e e d s , b u t o n

referral t o consumersq weaker, p s y c h o l o g i c a f needs. Similarly,

John Berger, i n Ways gf geeing, a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g

p l a y s o f f of t h e e m o t i o n s of e n v y a n d p l e a s u r e i n a r o u s i n g

consumer needs for products. To s u g g e s t t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g c r e a t e s

s u c h n e e d s b y s t i m u l a t i n g o r m a n i p u l a t i n g t h r o u g h envy a n d

p l e a s u r e may r e f l e c t t h e t a u t o l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e M a r x i s t

psycho-social approach. H a s s m e d i a a n d a d v e r t i s i n g c a n n o t be

h e l d c o m p l e t e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r what a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n e a c h

i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r o f c o n s u a e r s o c i e t y ; a b a s i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l set

o f human n e e d s a n d t h e s o c i a l n e e d o f m e m b e r s h i p t h r o u g h

cultural participation i n one's specific relations i n cultural

and social f o r m a t i o n s . Mass s o c i e t y t h e o r i e s h a v e g r o s s l y

over-generalized the f i r s t s e t o f n e e d s a n d h a v e a v o i d e d

c o m p l e t e l y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h s second.

Mass s o c i e t y a p p r o a c h e s c a n n e v e r f u l l y e x p l a i n w h a t i t is

t h a t is i n h e r e n t l y u n i f y i n g a b o u t " @ a s s c u l t u r e w . T h e i r f o c u s on

a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y grounded m a n i p u l a t i o n , on t h e o n e hand, o r
d i s s e m i n a t i o n from t h e power s t r u c t u r e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f f a l s e

needs r e n d e r s them i n e p t i n t h e i r a b i l i t y to d e a l w i t h q u e s t i o n s

of s o c i a l formations and c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s i n consumer c u l t u r e .

I n fact, t h e a r g u m e n t c a n b e made t h a t c u l t u r e i s n o t a s i n g l e

u n i f i e d s o c i a l form:
 ... i f c u l t u r e i s ' a w h o l e way of l i f e * [ u i l l i a m s
c u l t u r a l approach], t h e n t h e r e is c l e a r l y n o s u c h t h i n g
a s a s i n g u l a r , a l l e m b r a c i n g ' c u l t u r e of c a p i t a l i ~ m ' .
T h e r e a r e m a n y c u l t u r e s , a n d m a n y c u l t u r a l forms, some
of w h i c h a r e a p p r o p r i a t e d b y c l a s s b o u n d g r o u p s a n d some
w h i c h a r e n o t -- h o w e v e r , i n t h e l o n g r u n , o n e a s ' w h o l e
way of l i f e ' i s , n e c e s s a r i l y , h e a v i l y c o n d i t i o n e d b y a n d
u l t i m a t e l y bound u p w i t h o n e ' s place w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n ; c o n s u m p t i o n m e r e l y
symptomizes t h i s fundamental relation.31
D e b r a C l a r k e n o t e s h e r e t h e d a n g e r s of c h o o s i n g a c o n c e p t

of c u l t u r e a s e i t h e r a " c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y o f mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n

system^'^, o r w m i c r o s o c i a l f o r c e s i n a d e f i n i t i o n of t h e s o c i a l

worla f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l " , without having both present within a

t h e o r e t i c a l framework t h a t w a y d e a l w i t h c o n s u m p t i o n and
f u n d a m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n , T h i s s e c o n d , c u l t u r a l
a s p e c t i s a b s e n t i n M a r x i s t mass a a n i p u l a t i o n theories of

advertising.
However, a p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e work of H a r x i s t

s c h o l a r s s u c h a s Ew2n c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e i r s h i f t of
e m p h a s i s F r o m t h e r e a l m of p r o d u c t i o n a l o n e , to include the
p r o c e s s e s of c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d i f f e r e n t c o n s u m i n g g r o u p s . Ewen's
s o c i a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l f o c u s o n t h e e f f e c t s of m o n o p o l y
c a p i t a l i s m p r e f e r s t o r e m a i n w i t h i n a d e s c r i p t i o n of a
h o m o g e n e o u s c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y i n a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e
i d e o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n of a d v e r t i s i n g -- the conversion of the
v a r i o u s s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n t o a mass c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y . Ewen
i d e n t i f i e s t h e p e r s u a s i v e s o c i a l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e of a d v e r t i s i n g
I/
a s t h e major c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r b e h i n d t h e s o c i a l d o m i n a t i o n of 1,

c a p i t a l i s t production, A n s w e r i n g t h e p r o b l e m s of o v e r p r o d u c t i o n
a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y for larger m a r k e t s both i n a v e r t i c a l
d i r e c t i o n ( t o i n c l u d e t h e l a b o r f o r c e ) a n d horizontally

(nationally) - a d v e r t i s i n g became a means f o r producers t o

c r e a t e c o n s u m e r s a n d c o n t r o l demand. Ewen i d e n t i f i e s t h e

b e g i n n i n g s of c o n s u m e r i s m i n t h e l o g i c o f c a p i t a l i s t growth

economies:

I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n t h e n was more t h a n a q u e s t i o n o f
p r o d u c i n g m o r e g o o d s i n a new way. I t a l s o e n t a i l e d a
p r o c e s s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n which aimed a t s t a b i l i z i n g a n d
i n c u l c a t i n g f i d e l i t y among t h o s e whose l a b o r was b e i n g
c o n s c r i p t e d , 3z

T h i s marks a critical r e v i s i o n o f t h e Marxist d e t e r m i n i s t i c

a p p r o a c h from t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s o c i a l c o n t e x t s of p r o d u c t i o n t o

t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s o c i a l c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n o f c o n s u m e r

culture. T h i s t h e m e is s u m m a r i z e d i n two p o i n t s b y R o b e r t

DSAmico a r o u n d t h e s o c i a l m e d i a t i o n o f c o n s u m p t i o n i n t h e p o w e r

of t h e p r o d u c t i v e b a s e :

F i r s t power r e s i d e s more i n c o n t r o l o v e r a n d f o r m a t i o n
of s u b j e c t i v e n e e d s , d e s i r e s a n d v e r y i d e n t i t y . . , t h a n
s o l e l y o v e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f labor, Second,
s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h o s e s o c i e t i e s i n w h i c h t h e mode o f
p r o d u c t i o n i s h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d , t h e s t a b i l i t y and
l e g i t i m a c y of s o c i e t y r e s i d e s n o t i n j u s t i f y i n g or
concealing t h e cntinuinq degradation of labor, but i n
t h o s e s o c i e t i e s ' a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e 3nd s a t i s f y e v e r
i n c r e a s i n g a n d diverse n e e d s . 3 3

I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t new p r o d u c t i v e

c a p a b i l i t i e s and a "mass consumer s o c i e t y w e a g e r t o b e t t e r

consumers' s t a n d a r d s of l i f e t h r o u g h p o s s e s s i o n o f material

g o o d s , T h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s i n t o a c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y

d e p e n d s o n t h e c r e a t i o n of e x p e c t a t i o n s b a s e 3 o n t h e s y m b o f i c

p r o p e r t i e s of goods ( t h e s e goods a r e presented as s o c i a l l y and

personally s i g n i f i c a n t ) and on t h e a b i l i t y of goods t o produce

f e e l i n g s of c o n t z n t m e n t a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n , While t h e Marxist

p o s i t i o n o n t h e c r e a t i o n o f f a l s e n e e d s h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d by

many c o n t e m p o r a r y a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e e f f e c t s of a d v e r t i s i n g i n

consumer c u l t u r e , mass-media b a s e d a d v e r t i s i n g can a n d m u s t b e

a c k n o w l e d g e d a s the c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h m a r k e t - b a s e d

e x p e c t s t i o n s are presented, As K l i n e a n d L e i s s s u g g e s t :

.., m a r k e t - b a s e d e x p c ? c t a t l o n s a r e 3 f u n c t i o n of t h e
s y m b o l i c p r o p e r t i e s of g o o d s , a n d t h a t t h e s e s y a b o l i c
properties,,, a r e more r e a d i l y o b s e r v a b l e i n m e d i a
a d v e r t i s i n g t h a n i n o t h e r areas,"

T h e a n a l y t i c f o c u s o n t h e e x t e r n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s of

a d v e r t i s i n g i n advanced c a p i t a l i s t societies s h o u l d b e g i n f i r s t

w i t h a n e m p i r i c a l d a t a b a s e i n t h e s y m b o l i c o f f e r i n g s of

p r o d u c t s i n consumer s o c i e t y , a n d e x p l a i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of

meaning i n a d v e r t i s i n g niessages -- t h e most d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n

between producers and consumers, o t h e r t h a n money o n t h e

counter, t h a t is.

T h e c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f R a y m o n d Willisms a t t e m p t s t o

v e r i f y t h e M a r x i s t c l a i m s of t h e e x t e r n a l c o n s 2 q u e n c e s o f

advertising i n 3 h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f i t s e f f e c t s a n d a more

i n t e r n a l a n a l y s i s of how a d v e r t i s s m e n t s q i v e g o o d s s y m b o l i c

values a n d n e a n i n g s t h a t a r e t h e n p r a c t i c s d i n r e a l c u l t u r a l

activity. W i l l i a m s offers a p e r s p e c t i v e / m e t h o ~ o l o g y w i t h w h i c h

h e e s t a b l i s h e s c o n c e p t u a l d e f i n i t i o n s of r a t i o n a l i t y a n d

u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e i n a d v e r t i s i n g messag3s. He m a i n t a i n s t h a t
g o o d s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y i n the f o r m s o f

i r r a t i o n 3 1 symbols, It is p o s s i b l s t o set a p a r t t h i s " f a l s e

symbolismw from t h e u t i l i t a r i a n v a l u e s o f g o o d s i n a d v e r t i s i n g

and i n t h e broader s p h s r e s of consumEr c u l t u r a l v a l u e s i n

general:

I f we were s e n s i b l y m a t e r i a l i s t , i n t h a t p a r t o f o u r
l i v i n g i n w h i c h we u s e t h i n g s , we s h o u l d f i n d most
a d v e r t i s i n g t o b e o f i n a n e i r r e l e v a n c e . Beer w o u l d b e
enough f o r us, w i t h o u t t h s a d d i t i o n a l p r o m i s e t h a t i n
d r i n k i n g i t we s h o w o u r s e l v e s t o b e m a n l y , y o u n g a
h e a r t , o r n e i g h b o u r l y . A washing machine would be a
u s e f u l m a c h i n e t o wash c l o t h e s , r a t h e r t h a n a n
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t we a r e f o r w a r d l o o k i n g o r a n o b j e c t of
envy t o our neighbours.35

Rather than b e i n g communicated t o consumers i n r a t i o n a l

references of product u t i l i t y characteristics, t h e messages

a b o u t g o o d s %reo r g a n i z e d i n " a c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n i n which

o b j e c t s a r e n o t snough but must be v a l i d a t e d , i f only in

fantasy, by a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g s which

i n a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n m i g h t b e more d i r e c t l y

availablet*. 36 Williams moves away f r o m a n e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s t o

d e s c r i b e i n s t e a d a c u l t u r a l symbolism of fsmagical inducements

and s a t i s f a c t i o n s n which resemble i n f u n c t i o n t h e magical

s y s t e m s o f s i m p l i e r societies. As w e l l , from a 5 i f f e r e n t s o c i a l

theoretical perspective, K l i n e and L e i s s have observed t h a t

backgrounds, s e t t i n g s and u s e r - p r e s e n t a t i o n s used i n t h e

symbolization of goods r e f l e c t l i f e s t y l e behavioural modsls and

v a l u e s t h a t p r e v i o u s l y had b e e n s h a p e d by t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f

r e l i g i o n and k i n s h i p r e l s t i o n s , R a t h e r t h a n s i ~ p l yp r o v i d e

i n f o r m a t i o n o f p r o d u c t use, a d v e r t i s i n q ' s market-based lifestyle

m o d e l s h a v e b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t C o m p o n e n t of t h e d o m i n a n t

s o c i a l i z a t i o n p a t t e r n s of c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y . 37 The consumer

purchases, i n essenc?, images/values (i-e., social respect,

discrimination, health, beauty, success, stc. ,) that signify

o b j e c t s i n w h a t o f t e n seems a n a m b i g u o u s o r a r b i t r a r y s y m b o l i c

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o d u c t s * r e a l u s e s and s a t i s f a c t i o n s .

corrects t h e n a r x i s t one-way d e t e r n i n i s t i c account of ideology

a s s u m e d i n t h e mass s o c i e t y / c u l t u r e a n a l y s i s o f a d v e r t i s i n g , fn
h i s c r i t i q u e o f t h e sense o f i d e o l o g y e n p l o y e d i n p e r s p e c t i v e s ,

such as t h a t of narcuse, Hilliams states:

General i d e o l o g i e s i n t h e i r f u l l depth and e l a b o r a t i o n

h a v e i n d e e d t o be s e e n a s among t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e
f o r m s of c o l l e c t i v e c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . B u t t h e n i t i s
p r e c i s e l y because a l l s i g n i f i c a n t i d e o l o g i e s are indeed
t h i s deep and e l a b o r a t e d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t c a n n o t be
a b s t r a c t e d a s some k i n d o f ' i n f o r m i n g s p i r i t * , a t t h e
r o o t s of a l l c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . To s a y t h a t a 1 1
c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e i s ' i d e o l o g i c a l * n e e d mean n o m o r e
t h a n t h a t (as i n o t h e r c u r r e n t uses) a l l p r a c t i c e is
signifying.... B u t i t i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t from d e s c r i b i n g
a l l c u l t u r 3 l production a s 'ideology* , or a s ' d i r e c t e d
by i d e o l o g y w , b e c a u s e what i s t h e n o m i t t e d , a s i n
i d e a l i s t u s e s o f * c u l t u r e 8 , i s t h e s e t of c o m p l e x r e a l
p r o c e s s e s b y which a g c u l t u r e * o r an * i d e o l o g y p i s
i t s e l f produced. 38
I

T h e i d e o l o g i c a l effect o f c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , as explained
I
I
b y mass m a n i p u l a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e s , must be reworked i n o r d e r t o

e m p i r i c a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e mediation of c u l t u r a l forms through 1 1I

I I

w h i c h t h i s e f f e c t is c o m m u n i c a t e d . T o s i ~ p l yi n f e r t h a t a l l II ,i
c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r e i s a mirror imaqe o f t h e

s y s t e m i c l o g i c m a n u f a c t u r e d by t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m o f

p r o d u c t i o n and a l i e n a t i o n , iqnores t h e actual signifying

p r o c e s s e s znd f o r m s t h r o u g h w h i c h a n i d e o l o g y or i d e o l o g i e s a r e

e f f e c t e d and realized.

Williams, S t u a r t H a l l , a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e B i r m i n g h a m

School of C u l t u r a l S t u d i e s Sroup have c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e

problems i d e o l o g i e s i n p r a c t i c e and r e l a t i o n s of social and

c u l t u r s l f o r m a t i o n s b y r e g a r d i n g t h e l e v e l of i d e o l o g i c a l

p r a c t i c e w i t h more d e s c r i p t i v 2 , somewhat e t h n o g r a p h i c ,

considerations -- c u l t u r e i s a w h o l e way o f l i f e a n ? n o t s i m p l y

a way o f " c o p i n g w i t h c a p i t a l i s m q t . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l H a r x i s t m o d e l

w h i c h t h i s g r o u p h a s a d a p t e d f o r c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s of t h e m e d i a ,

t h e wlanguagen of c u l t u r s s , and urban l i f e , does not suggest

t h a t c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e ( p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u n p t i o n ) i s merely a

r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t system of production. T h i s group

b e l i e v e s t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n s of c u l t u r a l production and c u l t u r a l

p r a c t i c e itself have s o z e degree o f e f f e c t i v i t y on s o c i a l

consciousness. # i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c h a n g i n g r e l a t i o n s of

a d v e r t i s i n g roles and m e a n i n g s i n consumer c u l t u r e , s o c i a l

c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s become e f f e c t e d by c o i a m u n i c a t i o n -based

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e d e f i n i n g t h e s e r e l a t i o n a l c a u s a s i n w h a t Hall

terms t h e " e f f e c t i v i t y of the superstructuresM, Their approach

s u q g e s t s t h e i d e a s c i r c u l a t e d i n c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e and through

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of c u l t u r a l producers a r e capable of having

s i g n i f i c a n c e s of t h e i r own c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .

T h e f a c t t h a t t h a t m e a n i n g is a p r o d u c t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n

a c u l t u r e t e n d s t o d e n y t h e ~ a r x i s ts o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
consciousness position, For t h e study of advertising, this
p o s i t i o n o f f e r s a uniquely communication -based

c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f who i s s e n d i n g w h i c h messages a n d how t h e y

a r e g a d e sense of by t h e r e c e i v i n g a u d i e n c e , T h i s p o s i t i o n s h a l l
b e r e t u r n e d t o b r i e f l y i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e Marxist

a p p r o a c h t o s e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s of a d v e r t i s i n g .

The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e views t h e symbolic n a t u r e

of g o o d s t o b e less a p r o d u c t o f t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m a l o n e , b u t

r a t h e r more c l o s o l y t i e d t o t h e e s s e n c e of c u l t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n

a n d c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e i t s e l f . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s l e s s c r i t i c a l of

t h e p r o c e s s of c o m m o d i t y s y s a o l i z a t i o n t h a n t h a t of t h e U a r x i s t s

a n d its d e s c r i p t i v e n a t u r e is b e s t s u i t e d t o w a r d s d i s c u s s i n g

c u r r e n t consumer t r e n d s w i t h i n a c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t framework,

S y m b o l s e n t e r i n t o a l l a r e a s o f s o c i a l l i f e : e c o n o ~ i clife w h i c h

c o n c e r n s material n e e d or a d v a n t a g e ( m a r k e t p l a c e social

d e f i n i t i o n s of commodities), a s well a s , t h o s e a r e a s more

c o m m o n l y viewed a s p u r e l y s y m b o l i c s u c h a s r i t u a l s , emulative

social beh3viours, a n ? v a l u e s y s t 2 m s p r a c t i c e d by c o n s u m e r s ,

D r a w i n g from t h e c u l t u r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p r i m i t i v e a n d

modern societies, economic a n t h r o p o l o g y i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l

u t i l i t i e s are s y m b o l i c a n 3 s t r u c t u r e d i n p a t t e r n s r e l e v a n t and

f u n c t i o n a l i n social organization, More i m p o r t a n t l y ,

anthropology i n t h e s t u d y of consumer hehaviour can s t u d y

i n t e r p e r s o n a l comparisons and non-market s o u r c e s of s a t i s f a c t i o n

i n c u l t u r e s w i t h i n b r o a d e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d s t r u c t u r a l i s t models

of observed c u l t u r a l behaviours. I t i s o u t of s u c h a b r o a d

d e s c r i p t i v e m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t t h e E a r x i s t c o n c e p t of u t i l i t y ( s e e

s e c t i o n o n klilliams a n d fa132 s y m b o l i s m ) o r u s e is c a s t i n t o a

new l i g h t . E m p l o y i n g t h e a n t h r o p o l o q i c a l c o n c e p t of c u l t u r e (a

p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m of v a l u e s a n d s y m b o l s i n p r a c t i c e ) , narshall

S a h l i n s writes:

From s u c h ( c u l t u r a l ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t w o u l d follow t h a t
a l l u t i l i t i e s are symbolic. I n s o f a r a s " u t i l i t y n is t h e
c o n c e p t o f "needw a p p r o p r i a t e to a c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l
o r d e r , i t m u s t i n c l u d e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , b y way of
concrete properties of t h e object, of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l
r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n p e r s o n s - a s c o n t r a s t s o f color, l i n e
or f a b r i c b e t w e e n women's c l o t h e s and men's s i g n i f y t h e
c u l t u r a l v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e x e s . T h a " s y s t e m of needsm
must a l w a y s b e r e l a t i v a , n o t a c c o u n t a b l e a s s u c h bg
p h y s i c a l n e c e s s i t y , hence s y m b o l i c by Ciefinition.39

S a h l i n s n m p h a s i z e s t h e " s y m b o l i c c o n s t i t u t i o n of u t i l i t y n a n d

t h e n e c e s s a r y s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u s e v a l u e of g o o d s w i t h i n t h e

b r o a d e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s a n d human n e e d i n g .

T h e " r a t i o n a l w a p p r o a c h o f W i l l i a ~ ; a n d h i s v i e w of t h e

" i r r a t i o n a l i s m w o f s y m b o l i c v a l u e s p l a c e d on g o o d s is

i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i z t s know t o b e t h e s y m b o l i c

p r o c e s s of t r a d i n g c u l t u r e s , which a s s t r u c t u r e d systems o p e r a t e

w i t h i n t h e i r own r a t i o n a l l o g i c s ( b o t h c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d

primitive) .*o

The c u l t u r a l s e n s e o f "use", from t h e c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y

a n a l y s i s o f n a r y D o u g l a s a n d S a r o n I s h e r ~ o o d 4 ~a ,n d S s h l i n s , is

summarized by s o c i o l o g i s t H i c h a e l Schudson:

F o r Douglas, g o o d s are m e a n i n g f u l b e f o r e t h e y are

u s e f u l , I n d e e d o n e may a r g u e t h a t * u s e a is s i m p l y a
culturally-imposed meaning t h a t goods t a k e on i n
 b o u r g e o i s s o c i e t i e s . 'Use' i t s e l f i s a c u l t u r a l c a t e g o r y
t h a t h o l d s a p r o m i n e n c e i n modern i n d u s t r i a l socisties
i t h a s nowhsre e l s e ( S a h l i n s : 1976).42

I n m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s d i f f e r e n t a r e a s of s o c i a l

l i f e a r e m o r e f o r m a l l y r a n k e d an,d c l o s e d o f f (i.e.:

production/consuaption; economic/ r e l i g i o u s ) . T h e f u n c t i o n s of

g o o d s i n consumer societies a ? p e a r more s h a r p l y v i s i b l e a n d

s e p a r a t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e n e g o t i a t i o n of o t h e r s o c i a l

relations. There e x i s t s a d u a l s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n t o c o n s u m p t i o n

a n d t h e u s e o f g o o d s w h i c h e x t e n d s b e y o n d t h e s e n s e of t h e

m a t e r i a l u s e v a l u e s u g g e s t e d by t h e M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e . This

dual sense e x i s t s i n t h e c u l t u r a l and symbolic function and

p r a c t i c e o f consumption and communicating a b o u t goods i n

society .
T h e need t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e o u r s e l v e s a s m e m b e r s o f

p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s i n o u r cultural/leisure/consumptive l i v e s h a s

b e e n e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r a s f 3 l ~ e l ya n s w e r e d b y t h e i m a g i n a r y

s i g n i f i c a t i o n s of peopl2's s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e i r goods

i n a d v e r t i s i n g (both t h e p o s i t i o n of Williams and t h e Marxist

a n a l y s t of a d v e r t i s i n g i c o n o g r a p h y , Judith Williamson). The

c r i t i q u e of t h e symbolization of goods with people, and people

with goods, based o n t h s E a r x i s t p r o d u c t i o n s o c i e t y model,

s e l e c t i v e l y i s o l a t e s and a b s t r a c t s t h e e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s o f t h e

r e a l s o c i a l n a t u r e of g o o d s (e.y., r e l a t i o n s of production

[ c o n s c r i p t e d labor] and p r o f i t motives g u i d i n g t h e marketing and

communication of g o o d s t o t h e consumer mass s o c i e t y ) from real

c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s o f consuming and c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g o f g o o d s i n

leisure activiti2s. I n t h i s way, the 3arxist theoretical

a p p r o a c h f o r c e s a d e f i n i t i o n of t r u e r e l a t i o n s t o b e t h o s e o f

t h e e c o n o m i c base a n d s y m b o l i c r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

of q o o d s i n c o n s u m e r c u l t u r t a n d t h e i r r e s u l t i n g s o c i a l v a l u e s
t o be F a l s e .

I n o p p o s i t i o n to t h i s limited perspective anthropology

c l a i m s a n e s s e n t i a l c u l t u r a l a n d s y m b o l i c d i ~ e n s i o nt o h u m a n

needing. P r o d u c t s of t h e i x a r k e t p l a c e c o % m u n i c a t e t o o t h e r s t h e

p a r t i c u l a r social i d e n t i t y t h e p a r t i c u l a r consumer h a s decided

to maintsin. C l i f f o r d G e e r t z h a s m a d e it c l e a r t h a t , tehomo

sapiens, as a species, gas a c u l t u r a l a n i m a l b e f o r e b e i n g

p h y s i c a l l y f u l l y formed". *3. Even t h o u g h s o c i a l i n c l u s i o n is n o t

s o much a l i f e a n d d e a t h m a t t e r t o d a y , it is still a s t r o n g

human n e e d , p e r h a p s s t r o n g e r t h a n some a b s o l u t e n e e d s . The

c o a m o d i t y s y s t e m a n d c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o u r s i n t h i s s y s t e w provide

a c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a m e w o r k i n w h i c h t h e p u r c h a s e a n d d i s p l a y of

g o o d s make v i s i b l e t h e c o n s u m e r ' s social and c u l t u r a l

p r e f e r e n c e s i n belonging t o p a r t i c u l a r consuming communities

d e f i n e d around p r o d u c t images. The commodity s y s t s m t a k e s on a

quasi-autonomous and i n t e r n a l l y i n t e g r a t e d c h a r a c t e r a s a system I

I

of m e a n i n g . Douglas and Isherwood g o a s far a s to state t h e

primary function o f g o o j s a s ilcommunicators~:

I

I n s t e a d of s u p p o s i n g t h a t g o o d s a r e p r i m a r i l y n e e d e d f o r
s u b s i s t e n c e a n d c o m p e t i t i v e d i s p l a y , let u s assume t h a t
t h e y are needed f o r making v i s i b l e and s t a b l e t h e
c a t e g o r i g s of c u l t u r e . I t i s s t a n d a r d e t h n o g r a p h i c
p r a c t i c e t o assume t h a t a l l material p o s s e s s i o n s c a r r y
s o c i a l m e a n i n g a n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e a m a i n p z r t of
c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s upon t h e i r u s e a s communicators.**

Goods t h z n , are symbolic i n t h a t t h e y d i s p l a y o u r assumed p l a c e

34 'i
I

1:
I
and c u l t u r s l p r e f e r e n c e s i n s o c i 3 t y . Consumption z n t a i l s n o t

o n l y t h e p o s s e s i o n of commodity-objects, but a l s o the possession

o f meaning and m a t e r i a l c o m a u n i c a t o r s (totems i n e f f e c t ) .

C o m m o d i t i e s a r e m e s s a g e s d i r e c t e d a t o t h e r s o c i a l members t o

s i g n i f y d i f f e r e n c e s o r l i k e n e s s e s t o t h e s e o t h e r consumers'

d i s p l a y e d commodity/ cultural positioning. Through consumption

objects a r e symbolically imprinted with social a t t r i b u t e s i n

w h o s e c o m b i n a t i o n a c o n s i s t < ~ n it d e n t i t y of t h e c o n s u m e r n a y

e m e r g e ( d e f i n e d by a d v e r t i s i n g i m a g e r y a n d m e d i a t e d by c o n s u m e r

group behaviours i n c u l t u r a l enjoyment o f goods).

A t a more g e n e r a l l e v e l , goods e x p r e a s and confirm t h e

c a t e g o r i e s o f c u l t u r e i n t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d e x c h a n g e by

performing a r i t u a l function. Ritual functions i n outlining and

m a i n t a i n i n g t h r o u g h r s g u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s o c i 3 1 meanings. Shared

m e a n i n g a n d t h e memory o f e x p e r i e n c e common t o a p a r t i c u l a r

c u l t u r a l group are c z l e b r a t e d and guarded through consumptive

and, therefore, symbolic p r o c e s s e s (i.e., a w i d e v a r i e t y of

c l o t h e s r e f l e c t well 3 e f i n e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t r e n d a n 4 s t y l e ) .

Douglas and Isherwood ?laborate:

... r i t u a l s serve to contain the d r i f t

Goods, i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , a r e r i t u a
o f meaning...,
l adjuncts:
c o n s u m p t i o n i s a r i t u a l p r o c e s s whose primary function
is t o nake s e n s e o f t h e i n c h o a t e f l u x of ev2nts,*5

T h e s t a t u s o f g o o d s a s s y m b o l s w i t h i n a p r o c e s s of

communication and r i t u a l p r s s e n t s a sumaation o f social

relations implicit i n a given culture. Through goods are

negotiated a sharing of c u l t u r a l values, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of

s o c i a l c a t e g o r i s s and a set of s o c i a l relations. T h e a c c o u n t s of

Duesenberry and aainwater, discussed i n t h e e a r l i e r s e c t i o n on

socio-economic t h e o r i e s , and Douglas and Isherwood here, examine

g e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e and social s t r u c t u r e as a

d e t e r m i n i n g s o u r c e of t h e v i s i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of c o n s u m e r

society. Michael Schudson s u g g e s t s that:

Since t h e y i n t e l l i g e n t l y d i s c u s s consumerism without

r e f e r e n c e t o a d v e r t i s i n g , t h 2 y m a k e i t u n l i k e l y t h a t we
c a n d i s c o v e r i n a d v ~ r t i s i n ga d e v i l , f i r s t c a u s e , o r
p r i m e mover o f t h e consumer s o c i e t y .

Thess t h e o r i s t s argue, against the neo-liberal and Harxist

approaches, t h a t c o n s u m e r demand a n d p a t t e r n s o f t h i s demand are

g e n e r a t e d by t h e c o n s u m e r ' s c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t i c a n d s o c i a l

n e e d s of g r o u p i n c l u s i o n . S c h u d s o n a d m i t s t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g makes

p o p u l a r b u s i n e s s i d e o l o g i e s a n d " i s p a r t of a ' c u l t u r a l

apparatus', a s E v e n says, just like filas, books, television

t a l k shows, hotel lobby furnishings, and a l l t h e o t h e r c u l t u r a l

e l e m e n t s t h a t s e t s t a n d a r d s and c r e a t e comnon a s s u m p t i o n s about

hou people l i v e and should livev1.*7 Schudson's s o c i o l o g i c a l and

c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n on a d v e r t i s i n g maintains t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g ' s

aim i s n o t t o m a n i p u l a t e b u t t o m a r k e t t o c o n s u m e r s . The

s y m b o l i c p r o c e s s i n a d c r e a t i o n is o n l y o n e s t a g e i n t h e

c u l t u r a l s y s t e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n of g o o d s . Marketing p l a y s a

v i t a l r o l e i n t h e c r a a t i o n o f m e a n i n g a n d c o n s u ~ p t i v ep r a c t i c e s

i n t h e marketplace:

It is a l s o t r u e t h a t n a r k e t t r s view a d v e r t i s i n g , a t
l e a s t f o r some c a t e g o r i e s of g o o d s , a s p a r t of t h e
product r a t h e r t h a n a n announcement f o r t h e product.
3 i t h 'inage' products, consumers want n o t o n l y t h e
p h y s i c a l t h i n g b u t its 'image*, t h e ' s t a t e m e n t g t h e
p r o d u c t makes a b o u t t h e u s e r . A d v e r t i s i n g h e l p s
c o n s t r u c t t h e p r o d u c t me3ning. * B
 T h e m a r k e t i n g c o n c e p t , t h e n , a s a set of
i n s t i t u t i o n s , a s a b u s i n e s s s t r a t e g y , and a s a s o c i a l
i d e o l o g y d e s e r v e s t h e a t t l n t i o n of social critics and
social scientists,*9

Before a d v e r t i s i n g communicates c e r t a i n social and personal

m e a n i n g s t h a t c o n s u m e r s corns t o r e g a r d c e r t a i n p r o d u c t s i n ,

m a r k e t e r s d e c i d e what products t o produce, what c o n s u m e r s w i l l

purchase them and what meanings t o g i v e t h e s e p r o d u c t s through

advertising. T h i s more expanded e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e social r o l e

of a d v e r t i s i n g a n d m a r k e t i n g s h a l l b e r e t u r n e d t o i n C h a p t e r
Two. W i t h i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d more s y m b o l i c l e v e l of

analysis, a n t h r o p o l o g i s t G r a n t McCracken a n d R i c h a r d P o l l a p

extend t h e anthropology o f Douglas and Isherwood t o i n c l u d e

a d v e r t i s i n g a s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f meaning i n

consumer c u l t u r e :

w h a t i s t r u e o f g o o d s m u s t a l s o be t r u e o f a d v e r t i s i n g .
f o r i f g o o d s h a v z a s y m b o l i c a s p e c t it is l a r g e l y
b e c a u s e a d v e r t i s i n g g i v e s them one.50
from a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, a d v e r t i s i n g
is, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a n a t t e m p t t o i n v e s t p r o d u c t s
w i t h m e a n i n g . I t s e e k s t o g i v e these p r o d u c t s n e w
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . By t h i s p r o c e s s of m e t a m o r p h o s i s a b a r
o f soap ( o r i g i n a l l y a m i x t u r e o f g o a t t a l l o w a n d a s h ,
a n d h a r d l y m o r e e x a l t e d i n c o ~ p o s i t i o nt o d a y ) b e c o ~ e sa
c o m m u n i c a t o r . I t i s made a s i g n of % l e q a n c e , m o t h e r s '
s o l i c i t u d e , o r a n I r i s h s p r i n g , A d v e r t i s i n g makes g o o d s
t h e l o c i of o u r ideas, b e l i e f s and values.51

Advertising, it is suggested here, generates symbolic

meaning -- i t is w h e r e g o o d s r e c e i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g , f o r t h e most

part, i n consumer s o c i e t y . G o o d s "do n o t s p r i n g f r o m t h e f a c t o r y

f u l l y p o s s e s s e d of t h e i r a b i l i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e w , 5 * b u t a r e

endowed w i t h m e s n i n g f u l p r o p e r t i e s t h r o u g h d e p i c t i o n i n

advertising.
 Xccracken and P o l l a y f u t h e r s u g g e s t that not

only informs, it a l s o constitute^^.^^ T h i s concept e x p l i c i t l y I

c a l l s u p a d e t e r m i n i n g e f f e c t o r c o n s e q u e n c e from t h e s y m b o l i c

l i f e o f a d s a n d o u t l i n e s t h e p r o c e s s w h i c h c o u l d be a n i n t e g r a l

p a r t o f S a h l i n a s c l a i m t h a t t h e s y m b o l i c c o d e *#worksa s a n o p e n

s e t , r e s p o n s i v e t o e v e n t s w h i c h i t b o t h o r c h e s t r a t e s and
a s s i m i l a t e s t o p r o d u c e e x p a n d e d v e r s i o n s o f i t s e l f w , s + K l i n e and

L e i s s l e n d a more t e c h n i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n w h i c h i n many w a y s

i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e p o s i t i o n s o f S c h u d s o n a n d Hc C r a c k e n a n d P o l l a y

in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e :
Through c a r e f u l d e s i g n , t h e b r a n d ' s image c o u l d be based
upon t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e " d e c o d i n g " o r " i n t e r p r e t i v e w
p r e d i l e c t i o n s o f t h e c o n s u m e r , I t i s t h e d i m e n s i o n s of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e a d v e r t i s e r
t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s o f market r e s e a r c h , i n which he
a t t e m p t s t o r e f i n e t h e symbolic dimensions of h i s
p r o d u c t s t o s u i t v a r i o u s segments of t h e market.55

A d v e r t i s e r s a r e c a p a b l e o f u o r k i n g t h e s y m b o l i c f a b r i c of

consumer c u l t u r e i n a 'one s i z e f i t s a l l ' s t r a t e g y of r e a l i z i n g

t h e b r o a d e r s y s t e m of c u l t u r s l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d d e v e l o p i n g b r a n d '

images f o r lass markets, As well, t h e a d v e r t i s e r s and m a r k e t e r s

c a n c o n c e p t u a l i z e and d i r e c t meaning t o c s r t a i n g r o u p s o f

consumers, T h i s d i r e c t i n g a n d c o n s t i t u t i n g t e n d e n c y of

a d v e r t i s i n g d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e u s to view a A v e r t i s i n g

symbols as f a l s e r e f l e c t i o n s o f c u l t u r e and r e l a t i o n s i n

society. K f i n e makes clear t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h i s

anthropological approach t o advertising:

I f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o n s u m p t i o n has i t s r o o t s i n a
c u l t u r a l unity, then advertising as a second l e v e l
d i s c o u r s e on c o n s u m p t i o n e x p r a s s a s and g i v e s form t o t h e
s o c i a l n e x u s o f g o o d s , n o t m e r e l y by r e f e c t i n g a p r o c e s s
 of s o c i a l domination throuqh persuasion, but r a t h e r as a
c o d e o r d i s c o u r s e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e c o m m o d i t y system i s
e m b e l d e d i n t h e b r o a 4 e r s y s t e m of c u l t u r a l
significance.56

K l i n e i n t r o d u c e s here t h e c o n c e p t o f a d v e r t i s i n q f r o m a

d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e of its s o c i a l r o l e i n communication.

Rather t h a n l o o k a t it a s a complex a r r a y o f s o c i a l c a u s e s and

effects, t h e notion of advertising contents operating throuqh

t h e forms of c o d e s o r d i s c o u r s e s communicated i n consumer

c u l t u r e s u g g e s t s a d i s c o v e r y o f t h e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of

a d v e r t i s i n g b y l o o k i n g f r o m i n s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e d w o r k i n g s o f ad

messages outwards t o s o c i a l v a l u e s and e x p r e s s i o n systems

(codes) from which t h e y t a k e t h e i r meaning. This internal

i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n m a t e r i a l a d message f o r m s

r e q u i r e s a methodology c a p a b l e of e x p l i c a t i n g t h e r u l e s which

govern t h e connection of "meaningfulti e l e n e n t s i n a d s and t h e

s o c i a l a s p e c t ( s h a r i n g o f a m e a n i n g b e t w e e n m e m b e r s of s o c i a l

g r o u p ) o f how t h e s e e l e m e n t s c s n mean ( c a n r e f e r t h r o u g h

c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s t o real o b j e c t s or i d e a s i n t h e r e a l s o c i a l

world of t h e group). S e m i o t i c s p r o v i d e s s u c h a 2ethodology and

is u s e d i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h e i t h e r t h e H a r x i s t o r

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l (sometimes both) p x t e r n a l a n a l y s i s o f

a d v e r t i s i n g a s s o c i a l communication.
 S t u a r t H a l l i n t r o d u c e s t h e a n a l o g y of l a n g u a g e i n a n

e x p l a n a t i o n o f how t h i n g s mean f o r p e o p l e i n c u l t u r a l l y

c o n s t r u c t e d / s t r u c t u r e d c o n t e x t s of a s o c i a l s h a r i n g of

communication conventions:

The p r o d u c t i o n o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f s o c i a l knowledge
t a k e s p l a c e through t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of t h i n k i n g ,
c o n c e p t u a l i z s t i o n and s y m b o l i z a t i o n . It o p e r a t e s
p r i m a r i l y a n d p r i n c i p a l l y t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e - t h a t s e t of
o b j e c t i v e s i g n s a n d d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h m a t e r i a l l y embody
t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t h o u g h t a n d n l e d i a t e t h e communication
of t h o u g h t i n s o c i e t y . L a n g u a g e i s , a s S a u s s u r e
i n s i s t e d , fundamentally social. The individual can only
t h i n k a n d s p e a k by f i r s t s i t u a t i n g h i a s e l f w i t h i n th;
l a n g u a q e system. T h a t s y s t e m i s s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d
s u s t a i n e d : i t c a n n o t be e l a b o r a t e d from t h s i n d i v i d u a l
speaker alone.57

~ e m i o t i c s 5 eo r t h e s c i e n c e of s i g n s p r o v i d e s a m e t h o d o l o g y

t h r o u g h u h i c h c u l t u r a l s y m b o l s may b e r e l a t e d b a c k t o t h e

s o c i a l l y s h a r e d r u l e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s of o n e w l i n g u i s t i c w and

c u l t u r a l cowwunity o u t o f u h i c h t h e s e s y m b o l s a r e g e n e r a t e d . A l l

s o c i a l l i f e a n d a l l a s p e c t s of s o c i a l p r a c t i c e a r e a n a l y z e d b y
t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y a s a s y s t e m of s i g n s a r r a n g e d b y c o d e s s g a n d

a r t i c u l a t e d through various discourses producing objective

texts/objects (including non-linguistic semiotic p r o c e s s e s : a

ritual, a film, a comic strip, a m e s s a g e a b o u t 3 product).

L a n g u a g e r e f l e c t s t h e n a t u r e of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n which i t

operates, t h e way t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who u s e i t a r s o r g a n i z e d

together, and t h s s o c i a l a n 3 m a t e r i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which i t

is used. From t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e d e f i n i t i o n o f c o q n i t i v e

processes o p e r a t i n g i n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d t r a n s m i t t a n c e of
w o r d s a n d s e n t e n c e s , Saussure S u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s t u d y o f
l a n g u a g e ( s y s t e m s o f s i g n s ) s h o u l d i n v o l v e a n a p p r e c i a t i o n of
t h e p r a c t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n v e n t i o n s governing its s t r u c t u r e and
shared practice, T h e major u n i t i n t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of l a n g u a g e
i s t h e s i g n , S i g n s a r e c o m p o s e d of t h e s i n g u l a r m a t e r i a l o b j e c t

which s i g n i f i e s something ( t h e s i g n i f i e s ) , and t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

m e a n i n g a s a m e n t a l c o n c e p t of t h e o b j e c t p e r c e i v e d {the
signified). Yet, t h e r e i s m o r e t o t h e s i g n t h a n t h e f a c t t h a t i t
is a s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o n an3 t h a t i t i s a p e r c e i v e d m a t e r i a l f o r m ,

As H a l l t e l l s u s :

T h e r e is no s u c h t r a n s p s r e n t , one-to-one r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s i g n , t h e t h i n g t o which i t refers, and what
t h a t t h i n g *meansq. S i g n s c o m m u n i c a t e m e a n i n g b e c a u s e
t h e way t h e y are i n t e r n a l l y o r g a n i z e d t o g e t h e r w i t h i n a
s p e c i f i c l a n q u a g e s y s t e m o r sst of c o d e s , a r t i c u l a t s s
t h e way t h i n g s a r e r e l a t e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e o b j e c t i v e
s o c i a l world, 60
Haterial o b j e c t s , e v e n t s and r e l a t i o n s ( s i g n i f i e r s ) do n o t
have a n e c e s s a r y o r n a t u r a l m e a n i n g w h i c h simply become

transposed, a s signs, i n t o a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m o r s e t o f codes.

Haterial t h i n g s a r e d i f f e r e n t l y o r d e r e d t o t a k e on meaning

w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t l a n q u a g e a n d c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s ~ s . ~ Al t t h e
s i m p l e a n a l y t i c l e v e l of l i t e r a l o r d e n o t a t i v e ~ e a n i n gi n t h e
l a n g u a g e s y s t e m of E n g l i s h , the w o r d " s n o v W may a p p e a r a s a n
a r b i t r a r y designation i n language of a cold white substance,
Eskimo s o c i e t y however, have s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t e r m s / s i g n s i n
c o n t r a s t t o our o n e t e r m / s i g n because o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d u s e
of t h i s s u b s t a n c e i n t h e i r p h y s i c a l i n v o l o v e m e n t w i t h t h e i r

environment. T h e m a t e r i a l o b j e c t snow h a s a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e
I
i

a n d c u l t u r a l i ~ p o r t a n c ei n E s k i m o s o c i e t y . In t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n a

of complex s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , such as i n the spheres of

c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i v s and consumptive a c t i v i t y , s i g n s p e r f o r m an

ideological function. Language d o e s n o t n a t u r a l l y 'have a

meaning' f o r s u c h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r allows t h e s e

t h i n g s t o 'mean*, It is t h r o u g h t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e of

s i g n i f i c a t i o n t h a t c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e ' r e a l w o r l d '

t a k e on, through t h i s s h a r e d s i g n i f i c a t i o n and r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n

by t h e m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y , c u l t u r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l

representations, I n explaining the ideological 'effect' of

l a n g u a g e s y s t e m s i n t h e m o d e r n a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s t c o n t e x t of

social organization, H a l l n o t e s t h a t t h e u s e of l a n g u a g e

w i l l therefore r e f l e c t t h e c l a s s structuring of
c a p i t a l i s t social r 2 l a t i o n s . It w i l l be dependent on t h e
n a t u r e of t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n which i t is embedded,
t h e manner i n which its u s e r s are s o c i a l l y o r g a n i z e d
t o g e t h e r , t h e s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l c o n t e x t s i n which it
is employed, 6 2

From t h i s M a r x i s t e x p l a n a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a s s 2 m i o t i c , H a l l ,

suggests t h a t people realize t h e i r social positions through

l a n g u a g e w h i c h s i g n i f i e s a n d i d e o l o g i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a s e t of

imaginary l i v e d r e l a t i o n s a s p e o p l e ' s real l i v e d r e l a t i o n s . In

t h i s c u l t u r a l model f o r l a n g u a g e use, a l l signs, internally

o r g a n i z e d by a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m (i,e,, English, photography,

advertising), a r e subject to t h e ideological 'effect' of the

dominant i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m which h 3 s produced t h e s e

signs. The 'work8 o f c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n t o g a i n t h e

i d e o l o g i c a l * e f f e c t 8 i s s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e i n t h e n a t u r e of t h e

s i g n and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s i g n s i n connotation. Connotation

.- ____ - - _ _ _ - _ I - - -__------." - -111- --
 i s a l e v e l o f s e m i o t i c p r o v a c cf s
i- c o---
m e s a b o u t when
\ --

- -
t -h e s u b j e c t r e f e r s t o h i s own s t o r e d c u l t u r a l k n o w l e d g e i n

p r o v i d i n g c o n c e p t u a l v a--l u e s ( s o c l a l a -
,
n d. p s y c h o l o g i c a l ) f o r t h e

s i g n - o b jects (things)
____l_l___--__--l_--
p e r c e i v e d i n messaqe --c-o m m-
unication.

C o n n o t a t i v-
L-
e c o- d- e-_s a l l o- w-- a----_-s i g n t o- r e f e r t- o g e- n eral areas o f
-----

-
s o c i a l meaning, or , and a s Hall explains,
--
connotative codes
-_.
_.
- .---a=- --
" a r e t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h - t- h e w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d f o r of
~ ~s o c i a l
--- - -- -- -- -

knowledge, social practices, t h e taken-for-granted knowledge

- --- - --
- 7-

w h i c h s o c i e t y ' s m e--__
mbers p o s s e s s o f i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s , beliefs

d legitimations a r
- ._-

l a n g u a g e a n d ~ u l t u r e ~ ~ . T6h3e y a - t h e m s p s o f m e a n i n q of a
r e-

The s i g n i f i e r s of connotation., .
a r e made u p o f s i g n s
( s i g n i f i e r s and s i g n i f i e d u n i t e d o f t h e denoted
system)..,, As f o r t h e s i g n i f i e d o f c o n n o t a t i o n , i t s
c h a r a c t e r i s a t o n c e g l o b a l a n d d i f f u s e ; i t is, i f y o u
l i k e , a fragment o f ideology.... These s i g n i f i e d s have a
very c l o s e communication w i t h c u l t u r e , knowledge,
h i s t o r y , a n d i t is t h r o u g h them.,. that the
environmental world i n v a d e s t h e system.64

C o n n o t a t i v e r e a d i n g s are engaged i n by t h e s u b j e c t / a u d i s n c e

b e y o n d t h e l e v e l o f d e n o t a t i v e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e s i g n i f i e r a n d

a r e m o t i v a t e d i n t o a c t i o n by t h e c u l t u r a l g e n e r a t i o n a n d
r e c o g n i t i o n of aeaning conventions and codes. T h e s u b j e c t takes

meaning from t h i s i n t e r p l a y o f d e n o t a t i v e and c o n n o t a t i v e l e v e l s

b y p o s s e s s i n g k n o w l e d g e of t h e c u l t u r a l c o d e s w i t h o u t w h i c h

c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i c s t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e , The s i j n i f i e r s o f

c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n s a r e composed o f d e n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f i e d s i g n s

( s i g n i f i e r s and s i g n i f i e d s t o coinplate t h e s i g n ) . I n a n example,

a r o s e s i g n i f i e s d e n o t a t i v e l y t h e s i g n or a k i n d o f f l o w e r . Yet
that signified r o s e ( a d e n o t a t i v e s i g n ) may b e c o m e t h e s i g n i f i e r

(vehicle) of t h e s i g n i f i e d l o v e o r passion a t t h e l e v e l of

c o n n o t a t i v e c u l t u r a l s y m b o l i c c o d e s ( s i g n o p e r a t e s i n a system

of l e a r n e d c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d o b j e c t - c o n c e p t r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e

d i s c o u r s e o f s i g n i f i e r s of r o m a n c e ) . This appropriation of the

s i g n i f i e d r o s e t o b r i n g o u t a s e c o n d c o n n o t e d w e a n i n g d r a w s on

t h e s u b j e c t ' s c u l t u r a l knowledge. T h i s knowledqe is b a s e d on t h e

p r a c t i c e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f the c u l t u r a l c o d e t h r o u g h w h i c h

passion/love is symbolically represented.

M a r x i s t a n d semiotic a p p r o a c h e s h a v e u s e d t h i s d i s c u s s i o n

o f second l e v e l connotational codes t o explain t h e 'ideological

e f f e c t o f a d v e r t i s i n g s 3 e s s a g e s i n w h i c h "we a r e p l a c e d i n

r e c o n s t r u c t e d and f a l s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s to real phenowenaw,6s

Stephen K l i n e d e s c r i b e s t h i s methodology for t h s s t u d y o f

advertising:

Here t h e c u l t u r a l u n i t y f o u n d i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f
a d v e r t i s i n g r e f l e c t s t h e f u s i o n of t h e c o m m o d i t y c o d e
with i d e o l o g i c a l forms of c a p i t a l i s m . Discourse and
language processes r a t h e r th3n persuasive manipulation
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h e s f o r m t h e b a s i s o f t h e
d o m i n a t i o n e f f e c t . L a n g u a g e fixes t h e s u b j e c t s w i t h i n
t h e c o n s c i o u s and unconscious s t r u c t u r e of t h e
d i s c o u r s e , a n d c a n t r a i n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o n the
c r e a t i o n o f meaning w i t h i n t h a t code.66

Roland B a r t h e s and J u d i t h Williamson have b o t h employed t h e

semiotic/ s e m i o l o q i c a l a e t h o d o l o g y i n s t u d i e s s u g g e s t i n g a
d o m i n a t i o n * e f f e c t e d a by t h e m y t h i c a l l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s e s o f

a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s i n t h e manner K f i n e o u t l i n e s above. Both

semioticians argue t h a t advertising provides a meta-structure in

which t h e a 3 v e r t i s e m e n t 8 s c o m p o n e n t d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s ' p o i n t t o '

c o n n o t a t i o n a l s i g n i f i e d m e a n i n g i n r e f e r e n t @ m y t h *s y s t e m s ,

o p e r a n t a s language s y s t e m s and c u l t u r a l c o d e s o u t s i d e o f t h e ad

structure. Referent systzms represent external *realitym

r e f e r r e d t o by t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d c o n t e n t s o f s i g n s i n

advertisements. These mythical o r r e f e r e n t systems o p e r a t e i n

f u n d a m e n t a l l y t h e saze ways a s l a n g u a g e . 6 '

Barthes develops h i s dsnotation/connotation distinction i n

e x p l a i n i n g how t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r u s e s c u l t u r a l l y coded

knowledge i n b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t h e s i g n i f i e r s and s i g n i f i e d s o f

meaningful elements i n ads. Denotative s i g n i f i c a t i o n can b e

i c o n i c ( v i s u a l i a a g e resembles i n f o r m a t h i n g i n t h e r e a l w o r l d

[ a d o g / a p h o t o of a d o g ] , i t is n o t a n a r b i t r a r y coded

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y ) and carries no d e e p c u l t u r a l meaning

( e x c e p t i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s e n s e t h a t a l l man-made o b j e c t s

are c u l t u r a l l y s i q n i f i c a n t ) . C o n f i n e d for a n a l y s i s s a k e a t t h e
l e v e l of d e n o t a t i o n , s i g n s are n o t o p e r a t i n g i n drawing i n more

s u b t l e c u l t u r a l meaning t h r o u g h t h e r e a d e r ' s knowledge for t h e

c o l l e c t i v e i d e o l o q i c a l e f f e c t of t h e ad messages c o l l e c t i v e s i g n

meaning. However, a t t h e l e v e l of analysis of connotation,

denotative s i g n s operate as second l e v e l s i g n i f i e r s (in

c o n n o t a t i o n ) c a l l e d c o n n o t a t o r s i n coded i c o n i c or v i s u a l

symbolic signification. T h i s s e c o n d l e v e l o f t h e c o n n o t a t i o n of

iinage s i g n s relies o n p r e - e x i s t i n g bodies of culturally learned

knowledge. The r s l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s i g n i f i e r and t h e

s i g n i f i e d of t h e s e second l e v e l signs, while using a s t h e i r

s i g n i f i e r s t h e non-coded i c o n i c s i g n s , is a r b i t r a r y . The
s i g n i f i e r ( d e n o t a t i v e s i g n ; t h i n g a n d concept) a t t h i s

c o n n o t a t i o n a l l e v e l i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i g n i f i e d by c o n t r a c t o r

convention, thus forming a symbolic relationship. T h e same S i g n

i m a g e i n a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t may a p p e a r l i t e r a l l y n o n - c o d e d (by
analogy) and denoted, o r , a t t h e s e c o n d l e v e l of t h e s y m b o l i c

c u l t u r a l o b j e c t concept, connoted. I t is t h e i n e v i t a b l e f u s i o n

o f t h e t w o l e v e l s by t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r i n a s s u m i n g o n l y t h a t

t h e a d message i s communicated on t h e d e n o t a t i v e , or "message

without a codeM l e v e l , t h a t p e r m i t s t h e s y m b o l i c m e s s a g e t o be

'naturalized' i n t o t h e ad s t r u c t u r e of t h e product s i g n system,

Barthes connents:
... t h e denoted image n a t u r a l i z e s t h e symbolic message,
i t innocents t h e semantic a r t i f i c e of connotation, which
is e x t r e m e l y d e n s e , e s p e c i a l l y i n a d v e r t i s i n g . 6 8

The a d s t r u c t u r e is o r g a n i z e d i n a n o n - l i n e a r syntagmatic

r e l a t i o n o f d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s w h i c h f u n c t i o n a s s i g n i f i e r s of
i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e of t h e a d a n d r e n d e r s t h e m

a s s i g n i f i e r s of t h e ad structure. I n R a r t h e s s example, the

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n - i m a g e s o f a P a n z a n i P a s t a ad a r e n a t u r a l i z e d b y

sytagmatic organization i n t h e ad structure. For instance, the

v e q e t a b l e s a n d c o l o r s of g r e e n s a n d y e l l o w s o n a r e d b a c k g r o u n d

seem n a t u r a l l y p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h . Yet, a s

s i q n i f i e r s o f c u l t u r a l knowledge t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r b r i n g s i n t o

t h e s t r u c t u r e , t h e s e c o n n o t a t o r s produce, from t h e i r 2 o s i t i o n i n g
i n t h e ad as a c o n n e c t e d c h a i n of s i g n e l e m e n t s , t h e s i g n i f i e d
I t a l y o r i l I t a l i a n n e s s N . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f s i g n s which c o n n o t e

I t ~ t l i a nn a t i o n a l i t y o p e r a t e , a s w e l l , o u t s i d e o f t h e a d
s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f 3 n d i s i n p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n i n a s e t of

s i g n s t h a t r u n t h r o u g h t h e o p p o s i t i o n s of " F r e n c h n e s s " ,

q*Germannesso, qtSpanishnessw, and o t h e r country-"nessesn whose

v a l u e s a r e c u l t u r a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e s t e r e o t y p i n g and

emblematic codes of national i d e n t i t i e s . To s t a r t w i t h t h e

c o n n o t a t o r s i n t h e a 3 d i s c o u r s e a n d work b a c k t o t h e e x t e r n a l l y

coded s y s t e m s o u t which t h e y a c q u i r e t h e i r meaning ( a s s i g n s i n

a s y s t e m of d i f f 3 r e n c e s ) w o u l d e n t a i l a m a s s i v e s e s i o t i c
i n v e n t o r y a n d would s u g g e s t t o B a r t h e s t h a t :

... t h e same s i g n i f i e d ( c o n n o t a t o r s ) a r e t o b e f o u n d i n
t h e w r i t t e n p r e s s , t h e image a n 3 a c t o r ' s g e s t u r e s (which
is why s e m i o l o g y c a n o n l y b e c o n c e i v e d i n a s o t o s p e a k
t o t a l f r a m e w o r k ) . T h i s common d o m a i n o f t h e s i g n i f i e d o f
c o n n o t a t i o n is t h a t o f i d e o l o g y , which c a n n o t b u t b e
s i n g l e f o r a g i v e n s o c i e t y a n d h i s t o r y , n o ~ a t t e rw h a t
s i g n i f i e r s o f o f c o n n o t a t i o n i t may u s e 0 6 9

T h i s s a m e n e s s o r "common d o m a i n N is t h e e s s e n c e o f u h a t

Kline e a r l i e r r e f e r r e d t o as t h e w c u l t u r a l u n i t y found i n t h e

d i s c o u r s e of a d v e r t i s i n g n . While t h e domain o f c o n n o t a t i v e

s i g n i f i e d s is i d e o l o g i c a l , t h e s i g n i f i e r s on t h e 1 2 v e l o f

c o n n o t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e t h e ad i m a g e ' s rhet0ric.7~ aarthes argues

t h a t i t is w i t h i n t h e r h e t o r i c o f t h e w h o l e a d i m a g e a s a

s y n t a g m a t i c f l o w o f d e n o t e d i c o n i c s i g n s of t h e t e x t t h a t

scattered, discontinuous connotators of external ideological

systems a r e reworked i n t h e a d s t r u c t u r e . The s u b j e c t / r e a d e r i s

unconscious of t h i s naturalizing process i n uhich t h e i c o n s

become s y m b o l s o f i d e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s t h a t s i g n i f y c o m p l e t e

areas o f meaning to t h e product. T h e myth o f a d v e r t i s i n g i m a g e s

i s t h e r e f o r e b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t of p h o t o g r a p h i c n a t u r a l n e s s .
T h e i c o n i c n a t u r e of t h e p h o t o g r a p h c r e a t e s t h e i l l u s i o n f o r t h e

subject/ r e a d e r t h a t ' w h a t is t h e r e is a l l t h e r e is1 w h i l e a t

t h e s y m b o l i c l e v e l of t h e m e s s a g e t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s d i r e c t e d

i n t o using complete i d e o l o g i c a l systems, preconceived i n t h e

s i g n i f i c a t i o n a n d r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f more g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l

practice.

J u d i t h Williamson, i n a latsr study of t h e s i g n i f y i n g

p r o c e s s e s i n ad messages, u t i l i z e s ~ o s ot f B a r t h e s ' fundamental

assumptions of s i g n f u n c t i o n s and r e f e r e n c e ,

denotation/connotation, language systems and t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l

determinations. As w e l l , She maintains t h a t i n advertising

s y s t e m s o f meaning p r e - e x i s t e n t t o t h e message i n t e r s e c t with

and are t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c t u a l s i g n i f y i n g

e l e m e n t s o f t h e ad s t r u c t u r e ( t a k e n a s a ' m e a n i n g f u l w h o l e g ) .

T h e term w i l l i a m s o n u s e s w h e r e E a r t h e s e m p l o y e d ' s y n t a g m a t i c

r e l a t i o n s and paradigmatic r e l a t i o n s o f s i g n s 9 within t h e

advertising text, is * a d w o r k * . W i l l i a m s o n , i n a manner s i m i l a r

t o Barthes, argues t h a t a3s have t h e i r *ideolo;ical effects in

t h e a p p s r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t s i g n ( u s u a l l y a v i s u a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e commodity b e i n g a d v e r t i s e d ) w i t h o t h e r

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s b o t h c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e b o r d e r s of t h e a d a s

a m e a n i n g f u l whole. However, the denotative signs that lend

t h e i r meaning to t h s product s i g n h3ve a d u a l l i f e i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t t h e y connote deeper c u l t u r a l meanings and a l l o w t h e product

s i g n t o b e related t o c o m p l e t e meaning s y s t e m s e x t e r n a l t o t h e

d i s c o u r s e o f c o m m o d i t y i n f o r ~ a t i o na n d t h e a 3 m e s s a g e i t s e l f (it
is t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r who i s t h e l i n k betwean t h e s e e x t e r n a l

s y s t e m m e a n i n g s a n d t h e c o l l e c t i v e s i g n m e a n i n g of t h e a d s

composite s i g n message). Her s t r u c t u r a l i s t t h e o r y o f i d e o l o g y ,

l i k e Barthss', e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e c o n c e p t of # l p r e - e x i s t i n g

b o d i e s o f knowledge [ p e r m i t t i n g ] r e f e r e n c e t o t a k e t h e p l a c e o f

description, i n adsw.72 A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l

psycho-analytic p e r s p e c t i v e s a r e b o r r o w e d t o d e a l w i t h how t h e

s u b j e c t / r e a d e r is a p p e a l e d t o and c o n c e p t u a l i z e d w i t h i n t h e

l i m i t i n g s t r u c t u r e of t h e a d t e x t t h r o u g h a d w o r k . It i s t h r o u g h

t h i s s t r u c t u r e t h a t meaning i n a d s c a n a t t a c h p e r s o n a l and

s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o goods i n e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d a n d p r a c t i c e d

recognitions. Williamson tells u s that:

Advertisements must t a k e i n t o account not only t h e

i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s of t h e p r o d u c t s t h e y
a r e t r y i n g t o s e l l , b u t a l s o t h e way i n w h i c h t h e y c a n
make t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s m e a n s o m e t h i n g t o us....
Advertisements a r e s 2 l l i n g u s something b e s i d e consumer
g o o d s ; i n p r o v i d i n g u s w i t h a s t r u c t u r e i n w h i c h we, a n d
those goods a r e interchangeable, they a r e s e l l i n g u s
o u r s e l v e s . 73

Ads d o n o t s i m p l y a a n i p u l a t e t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r t h r o u g h a

r h e t o r i c of objects (goods), b u t r a t h e r , p r o v i d e meaning

s t r u c t u r e s t h r o u g h w h i c h s t a t e m e n t s of t h e p r o d u c t b e c o m e

s t a t e m e n t s d e p i c t i n g t h e s o c i a l and psychological v a l u e s an3

r e f l e c t i o n s of t h e c o n s u m e r a s t h e o n e who h a s e n t e r e d t h e r o l e

of o b s e r v e r / p a r t i c i p a n t o f t h e a d ' s meaning, I n a d d r e s s i n g u s

a d s presuppose c e r t a i n of our s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l

characteristics. We a r e i n v i t e d t o ' f i l l i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n s

between q u a l i t i e s and products; between o b j e c t s and ourselves.

Ads c r e a t e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n u s o f p o s s e s s i n g c e r t a i n p o s i t i v e a n d
emotional characteristics, which w i l l be o u r s o n c e t h e p r o d u c t
is p u r c h a s e d . A d e s i r a b l e self-image or s o c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n i s
s i g n i f i e d as t h e ' e x c h a n g e v a l u e * of t h e p r o a u c t s o m e t h i n g
( s o m e o n e o r s o m e p l a c e ) ve v a l u e is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o d u c t
giving equal value to both i . . , i H a p p i n e s s i s a c i g a r named
Hamlet'). iiilliamson refers t o t h i s p r o c e s s o f meaning t r a n s f e r
between s i g n s a s flcurrencyst - what is b e i n g e x c h a n g e d between
p e o p l e a n d goods. As w e l l , t h e ad does n o t e v o k e f e e l i n g s
directly, b u t e v o k e s t h e i d e a o f a f e e l i n g which a s a s i g n
' p o i n t s t o 9 t h e p r o d u c t meaning, Product and t h p emotional
referent, t h r o u g h r e p e t i t i o n , become i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e a s
signifier/signified (what means and u h a t i s meant). A "finished

c o n n e c t i o n u is e s t a b l i s h e d i n w h i c h t h e r e f e r e n t s i g n is n o
l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y and t h e p r o d u c t simply h a s t h e s i g n i f i e d
* h a p p i n e s s 8 , T h e c o n c e p t o f t h e r e f e r e n t i s crucial t o
W i l l i a m s o n ' s work t h r o u g h o u t a n d is d e f i n e d e a r l i e r i n h e r
a n a l y s i s o f p r o c e s s e s o f adwork:
S a u s s u r e s a y s t h a t u i t n t h e w o r d H-0-R-S-E where t h e
c o n c n p t o f h o r s e is w h a t is s i g n i f i e d , t h e r e f e r e n t is
u h a t k i c k s you. T h u s t h e r e f e r e n t a l w a y s means t h e
a c t u a l t h i n g i n t h e r e a l w o r l d , t o w h i c h a word or
c o n c e p t p o i n t s . (However, t h e e x t e r n a l ' r e a l i t y ' r e f e r r e d
t o b y t h e c o l l e c t i o n of s i g n s i n a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t is '

itself a m y t h o l o g i c a l system, a n o t h e r set o f s i g n s .

These a p t h o l o g i e s 1 call a e f e r e n t S y s t e s s ) . t +
T h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r of t h e a d i s d r a w n i n o r " a p p e l l e d f i t o
I

t h e l i n k i n g of t h e p r o d u c t s y s t e m a n d r e f e r e n t s y s t e m b y his own
knowledge and r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e t h e r e f e r e n t t u r n e d connotator.
The referent a s sign(denotative, connotative signifierf can only
i
mean if i t has s o m e o n e t o ' m e a n t o ' , I t m u s t h a v e m e a n i n g fpr
t h e s u b j e c t and h i s b e l i e f systems. Reciprocally, the referent

a s s i g n c a n o n l y h a v s m e a n i n g t h r o u g h repeated use by t h e

s u bject/reader. Williamson s t a t e s that:

It is i n t h e d i a l e c t i c between t h e ' f o r * and t h e @by1

t h a t i d e o l o g y m a i n t a i n s i t s momentum.75

I d e o l o g y is i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d t o t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s .

I t e x i s t s o n t h e o c c a s i o n t h a t we r e p r o d u c ? i t , y e t d e p e n d s o n

the subject/ reader's a n t e r i o r knowledge o f it. Williamson

d e f i n e s ideology a s e x i s t i n g i n t h e s u b t l e false assumptions

w h i c h a r e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y a s @ r e a l gb y t h e s u b j e c t j r e a d e r a n d

' n e e d n o t be q u e s t i o n e d ' ,

In the sense of *speechi an3 language', a d s a r e p r o d u c e d by

s o m e o n e b u t n e e d n o t s p e a k t h e i r ' s p e a c h g , Ads, in effect, leave

a g a p w h e r e t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d be. The s u b j e c t / r e a d e r d o e s n o t

have t h 2 opportunity, i n most a d t e x t s , t o f o r m an o p i n i o n o r a n

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e s u b j e c t who h a s c o n s t r u c t e d t h e ad aessage

b e c a u s e t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r f u n c t i o n s i n t h e a d m e s s a g e a s ?*both

l i s t e n e r and s p e a k e r , s u b j e c t and objectaB.7* T h i s is a v i t a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e r h e t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h o f a d m e s s a g e -- in

w h a t is d e s c r i b e d l a t e r i n C h a p t e r Two a s t h e i m p e r a t i v e

f u n c t i o n o f t h e a d message, t h e uay a d s r s f e r t o o r

conceptualize the subject/reader ( i n example, a generalized

'you' o r a confidential #yous [ ' t h i s is your c o n s c i e n c e

s p e a k i n g q ] ) s u g g e s t s how m e a n i n g w i l l b e t a k e n b y t h 2 a d d r e s s e e .

The s u b j e c t / r e a d e r , t h e t a r g e t of t h e p e r s u a s i v e message, m u s t ,

a s well, b e a b l e t o * p o i n t t o 9 a r e f e r e n t s i g n i n t h e more

m a n i f e s t f o r m s o f t h e message a n d come u p w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e which i s t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o d u c t

sign. I n a c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n o f how t h e a d a d d r e s s e s u s a n d w h a t

it a d d r e s s e s u s with, t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r v e r y seldom feels h e is

b e i n g s p o k e n t o by t h e a d v e r t i s e r a s 3 r e a l social message

s o u r c e a n d i n s t e a d t h e a d d r e s s e e i s c a u g h t u p i n the a c t i v e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of w a k i n g m e a n i n g f r o m s i g n s t h a t r e l y o n t h e m o r e

s u b t l e c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e s t h a t ' p o i n t a w a y s from t b e m e s s a g e

system o f a d v e r t i s i n g and ' p o i n t to1 e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n t systems.

I n Williamson's most e x t e n s i v e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a r e f e r e n t

system, i n a s s r i e s of p e r f u m e a d s f o r C h a n e l , Catherine

3 e n e u v e 8 s face is r e p r e s e n t e d i n a n a d t o m e t a p h o r i c a l l y s i g n i f y

a s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a b o t t l e o f ' C h a n e l No.5'. What i s s i g n i f i e d

i s g l a m o u r a n d b e a u t y b e c a u s e o f t h e a d d r e s s e e 8 s knowledge o f

t h e m o d e 1 8 s / a c t r e s s ~r e l a t i o n a s a s i g n i n t h e s y s t e m s o f f i l m

and f a s h i o n magazinss, S h e is a s y m b o l w h i c h m e a n s w i t h i n t h e s e

s y s t e m s e x t e r n a l t o t h e a d s t r u c t u r e , It i s t h e r e p e a t e d s i g n

connection o f Deneuve's f a c e with t h e product s i q n t h a t assumes

f o r t h e reader a n * o b j e c t i v e n e s s t or a ' t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e d n e s s '

i n product associations. The s u b j e c t makes t h e t r a n s f e r o f

meaning, n o t through any l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h i n g and

person, but through a n wideological", i r r a t i o n a l "mental leapw

from t h e a d system to t h e r e f e r e n t a s it e x i s t s a s a s i g n i n t h e

o t h e r media r e f e r e n t systems. I n a photograph of t h e product by

itself, w h i c h is t h e c o m p l e t e l a y o u t o f a n o t h e r a d f o l l o w i n g i n

t h e series o f Chanel ads, the intermediary referent sign of

Deneuve is o m i t t e d from t h e v i s u a l e l e m a n t s o f t h a t ad. The

c u l t u r a l knowlsdqe and experience i n r e a d i n g t h e s u b j e c t h a s o f
t h e o t h e r a d s and s e c o n d a r i l y , of t h e e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s
of f i l m and f a s h i o n i n magazine media l i n k t h e s i g n i f i e d of t h e

missing s i g n Deneuve with t h e product. T h i s l i n k i n g of p r o d u c t

and r e f e r e n t - o f t h e m e t a - s t r u c t u r e of t h e a d c a l l i n g u p o n t h e
a d d r e s s e e t o f i l l i n a frozen m e a n i n q o f D e n e u v e a s a s y m b o l o f

glamour (myth) - i m p l i c a t e s i n the communication earlier

associations of the personality-referent t h a t have given Chanel
m e a n i n g i n t h e s y s t e m of a d v e r t i s i n g . Williamson comments on

t h i s process:
... i t i s i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e , r e a l p e o p l e , who a r e t h e
c o n n e c t i n g l i n k h e r e : t h e y , we, c l e a r l y e x i s t i n tiwe
a n d s p a c e , i n a c h a n g i n g u o r l d , b u t also p r o v i d e t h e
a r e n a - unconscious - f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
ideas. T h i s only e x i s t s i n s o f a r as it e x i s t s i n s i d e
our heads, It is t h e r e f o r e through u s t h a t mythical
s t r u c t u r e s p a r t a k e of h i s t o r i c i t y , 7 7
A l l t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a v a i l a b l e t o a d v e r t i s i n g seem

c e n t r a l t o WilliamsonSs study of ideology since they a l l involve

r
.t
r e l a t i o n s of transformation - t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r is s i t u a t e d i n

r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d f a l s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o r e a l phenomena. While
a d v e r t i s i n g c a n n o t create o r i n v e n t s y s t e m s ( o t h e r t h a n itself
i n self-reference), a s Williamson demonstrates, they can
a p p r o p r i a t e meaning ( r e f e r e n t s i g n s ) from them 3nd r e c o n s t r u c t
t h i s m e a n i n g i n t h e new c o n t e x t of a d u o r k s t r u c t u r e s . For
Williamson, t h ? r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f m e a n i n g o u t o f i t s r e a l or
o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of f a l s e m e a n i n g i n s e r t e d b y
a d v e r t i s e r s ideologically s i g n i f i e s the system of t h e "naturalH
i n c u l t u r a l e x p r e s s i o n ( n o t t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h B a r t h ? s 8
" c o m e s t o b e f i l l e d w i t h p r o d u c t s t h a t we a r e u r g e d t o b u y , a n d

t h i s m e a n s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t h a s b e e n made t o s y m b o l i z e

nature, we a r e a l w a y s t r y i n g t o b u y a n d a t t a i n t h e

O t h e r r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f e x t e r n a l knowledge, p l u s t h o s e d e a l t

w i t h by B a r t h e s (i.e., of nationalities) , operate i n relational

p r o c e s s e s t h a t d i s p l a y some s i m i l a r i t y w i t h t h e form a n d

s t r u c t u r s r e l a t i o n s o f language systems and a r e a p p r o p r i a t e d i n

t h e speech or i n d i v i d u a l communications o f s i n g l e ads.

Williamson b e l i e v e s t h a t

i t is o n l y b y r e f e r r i n g b a c k t o t h e s y s t e m o f
d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t t h e s i g n c a n f u n c t i o n : i t is h o l l o w of
m e a n i n g i n i t s e l f , i t s s i g n i f i e d is o n l y a d i s t i n c t i o n
r a t h e r than a 'content'. Only t h e form and s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m are a p p r o p r i a t e d by t h e
a d v e r t i s e m e n t s y s t e m ; it i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p a r t s t h e m s e l v e s , t h a t make a n
already-structured e x t e r n a l system so valuable t o
a d v e r t i s i n g . T h e l i n k s made b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s f r o m a
r e f e r e n t system and p r o d u c t s a r i s e from t h e i r i n h e r e n t
q u a l i t i e s . 79

The e x t e r n a l , m y t h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m o f f a s h i o n a n d f i l m is a

s y s t e m o f d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g i t s c o l l e c t i o n of s i g n s

(personalities). Hargaux Hemingnay a n d C a t h e r i n e Deneuve, i n

Williamson's examples, have v a l u e s as connoted s i g n i f i e d s i n t h e

I
a d v e r t i s i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t s of ' B a b e * a n d ' C h a n e l No.5*

perfumes, respectively, bec3use they represent concepts, not

I
p o s i t i v e l y e s t a b l i s h e d by f l c t u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , but n s g a t i v ~ l y ~
I

a r r i v e d a t by t h e i r s i g n r e l a t i o n s w i t h e a c h o t h e r an,j o t h e r

terms of t h e f a s h i o n a n d f i l m s y s t e m s . T h e r e a r e n o n a t u r a l
boundaries betwesn p r o d u c t s a d v e r t i s e d , b u t o n l y d i f f e r e n c e s
among a n d w i t h i n r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s . * C h a n e l NO. 5' a n d ' B a b e * a r e
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b y d i f f e r e n t i m a g e s c r e a t e d out of t h e d i f f e r e n t

v a l u e s D e n e u v e a n d H e n i n g w a y h a v e i n t h e s y s t e m s of f a s h i o n a n d

films. Deneuve r e p r e s e n t s F r e n c h ' c h i c n e s s D a n d flawless b e a u t y ,

w h i l e Heningway h a s t h e v a l u e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g n o v e l t y , youth and

'tomboy style'. These v3lues a r e pre-existent to t h e i r use as

r e f 2 r e n t s i g n i f i e d s i n a3 m e s s a g e s . These d i s t i n c t i o n s of a

mythological system h a y s been used t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e p r o d u c t s i n

a m a n n e r w h i c h W i l l i a m s o n b e l i e v e s i s t h e r e v e r s e of t h e
s t r u c t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t o f * 8 t o t e m i s m J t . ~ oI n s t e a d o f a

symbol (totem o b j e c t ) d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g people, i t is p e o p l e

(Hemingway a n d D e n a u v e ) which are b e i n g used t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e

o b j e c t s ( p e r f une p r o d u c t s ) . However, the product then gives

m e a n i n g b a c k t o u s a s a new g r o u p o f c o n s u m e r s o f i t . P r o d u c t s

i n a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a r e s o m e t i m e s made t o s a y s o m e t h i n g a b o u t

t h e i r buyers (i.e., " P e p s i P e o p l e 1 * , " Y a r l b o r o manw) i n a n

a d j e c t i v a l sense. As w i l l i a m s o n q o e s o n t o s u g g e s t :

We a r e t h u s c r e a t e d n o t o n l y a s s u b j e c t s , but as
particular kinds of subjects, by p r o d u c t s i n
advertise~ents.~l

The p r o d u c t becomes a s i g n i f i e r o f d i f f e r e n c e . 'Chanel*

u s e r s 3re s u g g e s t e d b y t h e s y s t e s i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e

a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e t o be a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l 3roup t h a n t h o s e

who us* * B a b e 8 . ' R i c h e l o b * d r i n k e r s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be r u b b i n g

shoulders with ' E i l l e r g drinkers. These d i f f e r e n c e s f i r s t

s i g n i f i e d i n popular r e f e r e n t systems of famous persons or

l i f e s t y l e stereo-types a r e used i n t h e a d s t r u c t u r e t o c r e a t e
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among p r o d u c t s w h i c h t h e n create t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

a m o n g i t s u s e r s b o t h i n t h e a d a n d i n t h e broader d i s p l a y o f

consumer c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , W i l l i a m s o n sees a f u n d a m e n t a l

s i m i l a r i t y between t h e n o t i o n t h a t what p e o p l e buy

d i f f e r e n t i a t e s them, and C l a u d e L e v i - S t r a u s s g notion t h a t

d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l o b j e c t s (i.e., animal species) differentiate

d i f f e r e n t groups of people i n primitive societies. Levi-Strauss

c a l l s t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p totemism:
...
each other., .
o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e r e a r e a n i m a l s u h i c h d i f f e r from
a n d t h s o t h e r h a n d t h e r e a r e men... who
a l s o d i f f e r from each o t h e r ( i n t h a t t h e y are
d i s t r i b u t e d amonq d i f f e r e n t s e g m e n t s o f s o c i e t y , e a c h
occupying a particuaf position i n t h e s o c i a l structure).
The r e s e m b l a n c e p r e s u p p o s e d by s o - c a l l e d t o t e m i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i s between t h e s e two s y s t e m s o f
differences. 82

T h e term t o t e m i s m c o v e r s r e l a t i o n s , posed i d e o l o g i c a l l y , between

two series , one natural, the other cultural,B3

Levi-Strauss s a k e s c l e a r t h e p r o c e s s e s of a s o c i e t y ' s

ideological structure i n t h a t things taken fro% t h e natural

w o r l d become t h e s y s t e m a t i z e d emblems a r o u n d u h i c h c a n be

c r e a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s o c i a l . s y s t e m of men. This cultural

p r o c e s s i s m o t i v a t e d b y t h e need t o l e g i t i m a t e d i v i s i o n s i n

s o c i e t y a n d p r o v i d e a common i d e n t i t y t o t h e m e a b e r s o f e a c h

d i v i s i o n b a s e d o n t h e u n q u e s t i o n a b l e f o r m s of t h e s y s t e m o f

n a t u r e (i.e., s y s t e m of a n i w a l s a s t o t e ~ i cd e f i n i t i o n of a g r o u p

i n opposition t o o t h e r groups). I n advertising, t h e product

r e f e r e n t t h a t c r e a t e t h e s e t o t e m i c g r o u p s are n o t from t h e

s y s t e m of n a t u r e , yet, the differences of the productfreferent

systems are presented a s oppositions i n a 'naturalized' common

use (Barthes sense of n a t u r a l i z a t i o n ) , Thus t h e r e e x i s t two

types o f f a l s e d i f f e r e n c e s : t h o s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g products and

t h o s e s e p a r a t i n g a n d d e f i n i n g p e o p l e i n t o imaginary s o c i a l

groups, "4 Williamson states:

We, a s p e o p l e , h a v e t h u s b e e n made t o c r e a t e t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s between products, which t h e n d i f f e r e n t i a t e
u s ; b u t i t i s a l s o p e o p l e who h a v e a c t u a l l y m a d e t h e
products,... fidvertisements obscure and avoid t h e r e a l

w a g e s a n d who w o r k s f o r whom.. ,.
i s s u e s o f s o c i e t y , t h o s 2 r e l a t i n g t o work: t o j o b s , a n d
Th2 b a s i c i s s u e s i n t h e
p r e s e n t s t a t e of s o c i e t y , w h i c h d o c o n c e r n money a n d how
i t is e3rned, a r s s u b l i m a t e d i n t o *meanings8, *images*,
8 1 i f e s t y l e s * , t o be b o u g h t w i t h p r o d u c t s , n o t w i t h
money. 8 5

The m y t h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s o u t o f which a d v e r t i s i n g borrows

d i f f e r e n t meaning t o s i g n i f y p r o d u c t s a r e n o t b a s e d on "realw

social relationships . The i m a g e s o f l i f e s t y l e which

d i f f e r e n t i a t e consumers are n o t based on t r u e economic

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s y s t e m o f s o c i a l classes. Advertising r e f e r s

o n l y t o consumption and o u r i d e n t i t i e s as p o s s e s s o r s o f

products. P r o d u c t s h a v e come t o speak f o r u s a n d g i v e n u s

' i m a g i n a r y 9 s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s which t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d s t h e *realn

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t have gone i n t o t h e i r c r e a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t

place ( r e l a t i o n s of production. I n t h a Passaqe above, Williamson

pays l i p s e r v i c e to t h e Marxist f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l

consequences and self-perpetuating p r o c e s s e s of s o c i a l

c a p i t a l i s t i d e o l o g y c u r r e n t i n t h e i n t e r n a l and borrowed meaning

f o r m s of adwork, Ads b o r r o w a n d r e c o n s t i t u t e m o a n i n g f r o m o t h e r

a r e a s of c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d a c t i v i t y , However, i f t h e s e
b o r r o w e d s y s t e m s d i f f e r i n t h e i r c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t s , these

d i f f e r e n c e s are n o t based on any t r u t h f u l r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e

c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s among g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e ,

b u t r a t h e r d i s p l a y s b r e a k s c r 2 a t e d by t h e d i v i s i o n s o f

lifestyle, age, media ( r e f e r e n t s y s t e m p r e f e r e n c e ) , and brand

a l l e g i a n c e (e.g., * M a r l b o r o men'). Wilfiamsonls discussion of

t h e ' i d e o l o g i c a l 8 work t h a t t h e a d s t r u c t u r e i n v i t e s t h e

s u b j e c t / r e a d e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n is n o t s p e c i f i c i n its

d e c l a r a t i o n of w h i c h i d e a s ( r e f e r e n t s , r e f e r e n t sytems) are

permitted passage i n t o t h e d i s c o u r s e around commodities and

which i d e a s ( s o c i a l r e f l e c t i o n s , ways o f p r e s e n t e d goods) are

o m i t t e d i n t h e t h e c a p i t a l i s t program of s o c i a l a l i e n a t i o n , I f

a l i e n a t i o n is t h e p r o d u c t o f c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l f o r m s b e i n g

p r a c t i c e d i n dominance w i t h i n a d v e r t i s i n g , s s y i n g t h a t a d s must

always succumb t o t h e unconscious a s s o c i a t i o n p r o c s s s e s o f

a d w o r k d o e s l i t t l e t o s p e c i f i c a l l y i s o l a t e how w h a t i s s a i d i n

a d s causes a c e r t a i n set of s o c i a l relations. Williamson d o e s

n o t r e a l l y e x p l a i n w h a t is s o i r r a t i o n a l a b o u t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s

"leapw t h e s u b j e c t / r e a d e r supposedly performs i n decoding ads.

S i m i l a r l y , K l i n e a t t a c k s t h i s s e m i o t i c p e r s p e c t i v e when h e

explains that:

,.. t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n l o c a t e s ]:the s i g n i f i c a t i o n
o f g o o d s ] more d i r e c t l y i n t h e d i s c u r s i v e s p a c i f i c i t i e s
of advance? capitalism.,.. i d e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s which
sees a d v e r t i s i n g a s a c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c u l t u r a l
p r a c t i c e of c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y , h a s f a i l e d t o s h o w how t h e
p a r t i c u l a r c u r r e n t s e t of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a n d s y s t e a s
o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t f r o m t h e comiiiodity f o r m i a p o s e d
by t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e ; t h e d e t e r m i n i s m o f
ideology remains a matter of t h e o r e t i c a l f a i t h i n t h e
a b s t r a c t i o n s o f commodity exchange, r a t h e r t h a n a r e s u l t
o f c a r e f u l h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f c u l t u r a l development
of t h e c o n s u m e r m e n t a l i t y . 8 6
 T o s t u d y t h o way t h a t p r o d u c t s a r e d e p i c t e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g

d o e s n o t m a g i c a l l y p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e of w h a t c o n s u m e r s a c t u a l l y

' g e t * f r o a t h i s meaning ( s o m e t i m e s b a s e d on a b s t r a c t or u n r e a l

a s s o c i a t i o n s ) a n d how t h e y b e h a v e i n t h e i r s o c i a l a n d e v e n , t o

some e x t e n t , t h e i r consumptive behaviours. f l a r x i s t , semiotic

a n a l y s e s o f a d v e r t i s i n g d o n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r own claim o f

t h e d i s t o r t i o n of m e a n i n g a n d how i t r e f l e c t s r e a l s o c i a l

relations.

It must b e r e c a l l e d t h a t "9 s i g n is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h s t a n d s

t o somebody f o r s o m e t h i n g else, i n some r e s p e c t o r c a p a c i t y n a l

-- i t i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e way s i g n s w o r k t h a t t h e s i g n i f i e r

------
refers something to someone i n o r d e r f o r meaning to occur. A3s

are n o t c a r r y i n g unconscious messages n o r d i s t o r t e d r e f l e c t i o n s

of one s o c i a l r e a l i t y , but i n s t e a d are s p e c i f i c d i s c o u r s e s to

specific subject/readers who f i r s t r e c o g n i z e a n d t h e n p a t i c i p s t e

i n c o n n o t a t i v e meaning borrowed from t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s used,

J a n i c e Winship tells u s t h a t a s members o f s o c i e t y , a s

differentiated subjects:

W e a l l , s o t o s p e a k , b r i n g o u r own s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s w i t h
u s t o t h e r e a d i n g of a n y d i s c o u r s e ; a n d we a r e
a u t o m a t i c a l l y " i n t e r p e l l a t e d M a s t h e s u b j e c t ( s ) which
t h e discourse constructs. 88

T h i s a n a l y t i c assumption i s based on real g r o u p d i v i s i o n s of

consumer s o c i e t y and consequent u n d e r s t a n d i n g of d i f f e r e n t

consumer m e n t a l i t i e s . W i l l i a m s o n ' s p o i n t a b o u t how p r o d u c t s

I
I

operate a s totems f o r people is fundamentally c o r r e c t a t t h e

l e v e l o f adwork a s e f f e c t i n g s y s t e m i c o p p o s i t i o n s through t h e

r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f t o t a l a d meanings. However, she goes on

I
t o assume t h a t a l l p r o d u c t s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by r e f e r e n t s i g n s

and t h e r e f o r e perform p a r a l l e l oppositions a s those t h e r e f e r e n t

performs i n it e x t e r n a l r s f e r e n t system, D o e s t h i s mean t h a t

t h e r e a r e a s many c o n s u m e r g r o u p s / s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s c r e a t e d b y

t h s s e o p p o s i t i o n s a s t h e r e a r e b r a n d s of a product o r similar

mythological brand imagery r e f e r r e d to i n c l u s t e r i n g s over

d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t t y p e s (e.g., s l i f e s t y l e image taken from t h e

fashion d i s c o u r s e and found i n advertisements about c i g a r e t t e s ,

beer, c h a r g s c a r d s ) ? She can only maintain t h a t t h e referred-to

differsntiated identities that products give t o us a r e arbitrary

and s o c i a l l y false:

B e c a u s e of c o u r s e , t h e ' t o t e a i c * g r o u p s e x i s t i n g a r o u n d
p r o d u c t s m u s t i n e v i t a b l y o v e r l a p , s i n c e we c o n s u m e s o
many p r o d u c t s ; y o u c a n n o t b e a G i t a n e s man a n d a 3 e n s o n
a n d H e d g e s man, b u t y o u c a n b e a G i t a n e s wan a n d a
G u i n n e s s man, a n d a n O l d S p i c e man a n d s o on.. .. One
g r o u p is d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m a n o t h e r o n l y a t t h e p r i c e
o f a sameness within. 89

Williamson and B a r t h e s b o t h r e f u s e t o c o n d u c t a n y t y p e of

i n v e n t o r y o n t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s p r o d u c t s g a i n m e a n i n g from.

T h e r e i s n o a t t e m p t made t o m a t c h r e f e r s n t s i g n s / s y s t e m s w i t h

c o l l e c t i v e reader/consumzr m e n t a l i t i e s o r preferences, assuming i

o f course t h a t t h e s e latter ones vary. U i l l i a m s o n and B a r t h e s

l i m i t t h e i r analyses by refusinq t o approach any type of

sociological verification of different 8totemic8 group

b e h a v i o u r s i n r e a d i n g a d s a n d i n h a v i n g s o m e t y p e of o r d e r l y

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e knowledge o f r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s upon which

a d messages s o c o m p l e t e l y depend f o r t h e i r * i d e o l o g i c a l *

effects, I
 S e n i o t i c a n a l y s i s of a d v e r t i s i n g messages has not been

s o l e l y i n f o r m e d by t h e n a r x i s t c r i t i q u e of i t s s o c i a l

communicative r o l e i n contemporary c a p i t a l i s t society. As we

have seen i n Williamson's r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e work of C l a u d e

Levi-Strauss, a s t r u c t u r a l i s t c u l t u r a l (anthropological)

o r i e n t a t i o n f i t s well t h e t a s k o f d e c o d i n g t h e i n t e r n a l

o p e r a t i o n s o f advertisement p r e s e n t a t i o n a l forms, T h e s t u d y of

a d v e r t i s i n g from t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t e n d s t o

examine t h e s i z i i l a r i t y between what is l * m i c r o - e c o l o g i c a l l y ~

s i g n i f i e d i n a d s (how s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l scenes reveal

i n d e x i c a l l y and s y m b o l i c a l l y deep c u l t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n s ) a n d how 1

t h i s condensed d i s p l a y r e p r e s e n t s a c t u a l d i s p l a y s of c u l t u r a l

experience i n everyday s o c i a l l i f e .

E r v i n q Goffman, in Egnger BPpgr&tsgggggg, e x p l a i n s how

gender d i s p l a y s i n commercial a d v e r t i s i n g photographs assumes

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n s o f men a n d woinen i n t h e

m e d i a a n d i n t h e b r o a d e r f r s m e s of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . The

s i t u a t i o n s photographed i n ads are a s "readable" as their

o r i g i n a l c o u n t e r p a r t s i n re31 e x p r e s s i v e e x c h a n g e s . In the

econoiaic e x p r e s i v e n e s s o f a d v e r t i s i n g s y m b o l i z a t i o n s (every

picture s a y s a thousand vords), w h a t we a r e o f f e r e d a r e : 1

idealized characters using ideal f a c i l i t i e s t o realize
i d e a l ends - while, of course, micro-ecologically
arranged t o index ideal relationships,90

The s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , e x a j q e r a t i o n and s t e r e o t y p i n g which Coffwan

is r e f e r r i n g t o h e r e i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a d v e r t i s i n g , is i n

f a c t n o t t h a t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e senss o f r i t u a l i z a t i o n t h a t
D a r w i n u s e d i n g g ~ x g s s i o nof E g g t i o n ig ~ p q
and ~ q i g p & . From
~ ~

t h e e t h o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , a s a p r o d u c t of n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n

e m o t i o n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a c t i o n s are f o r m a l i z e d ( i n t o c o n v e n t i o n s

o f g e s t u r e ) f o r more e f f e c t i v e , readily readable expression of

a n i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l m e n b e r ' s s i t u a t i o n ( r a t h e r t h a n sct o u t i n

f u l l the gesture signals of, for instance, danger, in a

c o n d e n s e d form o f s i g n a l ) . What i s o f t e n u s e d f o r s u c h a s i g n a l

c o d e is a f o r m o f " r i t u a l i ~ a t i o n o~f ~ some p o r t i o n o f t h e

referred-to s i t u a t i o n o r r e a c t i o n t o it. I n a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r

understanding as t h a t established i n the e a r l i e r semiotic

a p p r o a c h e s , r i t u a l s i g n s p o i n t t o w h o l e s y s t e m s of k n o w l e d g e

(i.e., g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s i n s o c i e t y ) from o u t s i d e t h e ad frame

(ad a s a m e a n i n g f u l c o m p o s i t i o n o f s i g n r e l a t i o n s ) i n l i v e d

experience. As s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e i n f u s e d w i t h c e r e a o n i a l o r

r i t u a l displays, advertising presents a further condensation of

s o c i a l a c t i v i t y i n a type of uhyper-ritualu process i n

s i g n i f i c a t i o n ( r i t u a l o f a r i t u a l ) . Q Z I n e f f e c t , what t h e

i n d i v i O u a l is p r e s e n t e d w i t h by a d v e r t i s i n g i s

an opportunity t o face d i r e c t l y a representation, a

s o a e w h a t i c o n i c e x p r s s i o n , a mock-up o f w h a t h e i s
supposed t o hold dear, a representation of t h e supposed
ordering of h i s existence.93

I n t h i s u n c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e Goffman sees a d v e r t i s e m e n t s

as "hyper-ritualizeda e x p r e s s i o n s o f what a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n

c u l t u a l g r s c t i c e o f men a n d women. L e f t u n t r e a t e d is t h e use o f

t h e s e e x a c t i n g c u l t u r a l p r o f i l e s t o p r o j e c t new m e a n i n g o n t o

products. No e f f o r t i s made t o u n d e r s t a n d how t h i s c o n d e n s e d

s i g n a l l i n g (referent i n semiotic terms) operates i n an a d ' s

c o n s t i t u t i v e p r o c e s s e s a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of needs, T h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n g e n e r a l i d e o l o g i c a l systeas ( r e f e r e n t
s y s t e m s ) a n d t h e a d s t r u c t u r e i s e x p l a i n e d w i t h o u t much
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e system o f p r o d u c t s i n consumer s o c i e t y .
S t r u c t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , w h i c h o f f e r e d t h e c o n c e p t of
'totemism' f o r u s e i n t h e p r e v i o u s semiotic a p p l i c a t i o n b y

Williamson, p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r c o n c e p t of # @ m y t h wf o r e x p l a i n i n g
t h e e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n o u t of w h i c h a l l a d s a r e g i v e n
meaning and have s i g n i f i c a n c e for consumers. Myths are
c u l t u r a l l y f o r m e d d i s c o u r s e s i n which a society r e f e r s t o
itself, r e c o n s t r u c t i n g and d i s p l a y i n g i n a p r a c t i c e d

( r i t u a l i z e 3 ) f o r m i t s basic a s s u m p t i o n s , s o l v i n g i t s r o o t
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and c e l e b r a t i n g its shared values.9* Advertising,
a s a r e f l e c t o r a n d d i r e c t o r of t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f c o n s u m e r
society, can be i d e n t i f i e d a s a mythic system. There e x i s t s i n
t h i s d i s c o u r s e a h i d d e n s t r u c t u r i n g code from which t h e
s y m b o l i z e d s y s t e m of g o o d s a n d c u l t u r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f
c o n s u m p t i o n can b e r e a d .
U s i n g a s e m i o t i c m e t h o d v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of B a r t h e s

and Williamson, Varda Langholz Leynore s u g g e s t s t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g

messages, l i k e t h e m y t h s of p r i m i t i v e societies ( u s u a l l y i n

ceremony a n d n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e s ) , p r o v i d e f u n d a m e n t a l
anxiety-reducing s o l u t i o n s t o t h e d i f f e r e n t problems and fears
of human s o c i a l e x i s t e n c o i n a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l . 95 These
dilemmas a r e r e a l i z e d t h r o u c j h t h e s t r u c t u r i n g c a p a c i t i e s of
r e c e i v i n q / u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e n 3 i n g / e x p r e s s i n g , capscities
w h i c h a r e rooted d e e p l y i n t h e human m i n d ' s a b i l i t y t o s t r u c t u r e

signification. From t h i s " S t r u c t u r a l i s t n p e r s p e c t i v e a d v o r t i s i n g

is n o t a m a t t e r o f b o r r o w i n g f r o m m a n y c u l t u r a l l y i d e o l o g i c a l
s y s t e m s ( w a y s of e x p r e s s i n g c o n t e n t s ) , b u t is b a s e d o n o n e

f u n d a m e n t a l s y s t e m of r u l e s common t o a l l l a n g u a g e s ( b i n a r y

couplings i n thought). L e y m o r z gs a n a l y s i s r e d u c e s a d v e r t i s i n g ,

a s a " t o t a l m y t h i c s y s t e m v , t o a s e r i e s o f common d e n o m i n a t o r s
( o r i g i n a t i n g s t r u c t u r e of s i x b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n s ) c o m p o s i n g

basic t h e m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n s ( e . g . , * l i f e v.s. deathg, 'culture

v.s, nature*). She m a i n t a i n s t h a t i n t h e c o m p e t i t i v e p r o d u c t

m a r k e t s b r a n d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s by t h e i r

o p p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r a d s of t h e same p r o d u c t t y p e u s i n g o n e of

t h e basic t h e m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n s . I n t h i s s e n s e a d v e r t i s i n g must

be taken a s a "system i n toto" or o n e l a n g u a g e f o r meaning t o

occur.

Unfortunately, t h i s c u l t u r a l reductionism subjugates any

h a n d l i n g o f t h e s p z c i f i c c o n s u m e r c o n t e x t s of t h e a d d i s c o u r s e

t o an a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g , u n i v e r s a l human e x p e r i e n c e i n c u l t u r e ,

L e y m o r e V s s t u d y of a d v e r t i s i n g , which borrows Levi-Straussa

formal aethods, a n d h i s c o n c e p t of t h e * d e e p s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e

h u m a n m i n d * , p o s i t s a n o t i o n o f t h e u n i t y of h u m a n e x p e r i e n c ~i n

culture, and thereby, necessarily denies any specific reference

t o c u l t u r a l group f o r z a t i o n s i n consumer s o c i e t y or t h e

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s t h a t may b e u s + ? t o t a l k t o

them i n a d v e r t i s i n g . T h i s l a t t e r s h o r t c o m i n g i s s o m e t h i n g of t h e

k i n d t h a t h a s made L e v i - S t r a u s s i a n methodologies problematic for

t h e s t u d y of more coinplex s o c i e t i e s . ~t c a n n o t d e a l w i t h r e a l

c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s n o r c a n it d e a l w i t h

market societies. P o l l a y and Mc C r a c k e n comment o n a d v e r t i s i n g

a s "myth":

I t m u s t b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e a s s u m p t i o n s r e h e a r s e d by
a d v e r t i s i n g a r e n o t s h a r e d by a l l ( A n d r e n e t a l .
1978:115). S t i l l m o r e o b v i o u s l y a d v e r t i s i n g does n o t
work t o e v e r y o n e ' s a d v a n t a g e i n t h e s a m e d e g r e e . I t m u s t
also b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a n o s t e n s i v e p u r p o s e t o t h e
a d v e r t i s e m e n t t h a t myth d o e s n o t s h a r e : t h e s u c c e s s f u l
m a r k e t i n g of g o o d s . I n s h o r t a d v e r t i s i n g i s p u r p o s e f u l ,
a c c o u n t a b l e a n d r e v i s a b l e i n a w a y t h a t myth is n o t . 9 6

30th semiotic methodologies, S t r u c t u r a l i s t and Y s r x i s t , fail to

r e c o g n i z e t h e way d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l l y p o s i t i o n e d s u b j e c t s r e a d

a d v e r t i s e m e n t r h e t o r i c ( t h e way t h e a d * * a p p e l l s w t h e s u b j e c t ) ,

thematic o p p o s i t i o n s and r e f e r e n t systems. Even E a r x i s t a n a l y s e s

f a i l t o 3 f f i r m d i f f e r e n c e s of r e a d i n g by d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o r a d

t e x t s s t r u c t u r e d w i t h o n l y o n e s o c i a l g r o u p i n mind, preferring

i n s t e a d t o r e g a r d all m e a n i n g i n a d v e r t i s i n g a s a l i e n a t i n g ( l i e s

about o u r real r e l a t i o n s h i p with s o c i a l r e a l i t y ) . T h i s i s an

unfortunate p o s i t i o n f o r t h e Marxist i n t e r n a l analyses o f ad

message meaning t o t a k e , When a d i l l e r d r i n k e r s e e s t h e p r o d u c t

s i g n i f i e 4 with blue-collar work-reward s c e n e s a n d when a n o t h e r

c o n s u m e r sees t h e p r o d u c t Z i c h e l o b s i g n i f i e d w i t h t h e s e t t i n g

a n d a c t i v i t y o f a p a t i o p i c n i c on some b e a c h s i d e e s t a t e , I

b e l i e v e i t i s m i s l e a d i n g a n d t h e o r e t i c a l dogma t o c l a i m a

s a m e n e s s w i t h i n t h e d e c o d i n g s u b j e c t s a n d t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s of

product oppositions. True, b o t h a d s Bay d i s t o r t o r o m i t t h e m o r e

p r e s s i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , but the

a d v e r t i s e r i s still somewhat r e s t r i c t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t two

r e a l different msrkets/social groups a r e being spoken to about

t h e i r own r i t u a l a n d l i f e s t y l e k n o u l e d g e .

W h i l e myth i s e n g a g e d i n l e g i t i m i z i n g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d

r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e s of one society, advertising has an additional

f u n c t i o n o f c r e a t i n g a n d a d a p t i n g t o t h e rnqg$gt d i f f e r e n c e s o f

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d readers/consumers ( l i f e s t y l e and "hyper-ritualw

s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n t s i n ad messages). Structuralist

s e m i o t i c t h e o r y (Leymore) and t h e s e m i o t i c s o f v i s u a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y (Goffrnan) l o o k a t t h e

r i t u a l e l e m e n t s i n a d t e x t s f o r e v i d e n c e o f common s t r u c t u r i n g

p a t t e r n s o f t h e s y m b o l i z i n g human m i n d , T h e M a r x i s t - o r i e n t e d

s e m i o t i c s ( B a r t h e s and Williamson), on t h e o t h e r hand, s t u d y t h e

ideological alignment of t h e ad discourse t o discover t h e

d i s t o r t i o n i n r e f l e c t i o n s o f material social l i f e , Both views

summarize t h e s i g n i f y i n g s t r u c t u r e s of a d v e r t i s e m e n t s i n 'mass

c u l t u r e * terms. S o c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g r o u p s are subsumed

under t h e *dominated masses' or 'dominant' p a r a d i g m s of

conceptualizing the advertising subjoct/audience. Even t h o u g h i t

i s k n o w n ' t h a t admen t a r g e t t h e i r m e s s a g e s f o r d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l
groups w i t h d i f f e r e n t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f needing and r e a d i n g

(preference i n p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n t systeins used), seaiotic

a n a l y s e s h a v e n o t d i s c u s s e d s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of

s i g n i f i c 3 t i o n i n a d s beyond t h e "one u n i f y i n g c u l t u r a l

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c o d e 1 * ,9 7

T h e s e m i o t i c m e t h o d s m u s t r e a l i z e t h e i r own l i m i t a t i o n s i n

c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g t h e m y s t e r i o u s * * b l a c k boxtt, " i r r a t i o n a l m e n t a l
l e a p w o r c u l t u r a l r e d u c t i o n i s m t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r what s t r u c t u r e s
t h e t a k i n g o f a e a n i n g i n r e a l c o n t e x t s of a d v e r t i s i n g a s s o c i a l
communication for d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s u b j e c t s / r e a d e r s . Perhaps t h e
most l i m i t i n g a s p e c t of t h s s e approaches t o t h e i n t e r n a l
a n a l y s i s o f a d m e s s a g e s is t h e i r o b s e s s i o n w i t h an
inward-lookingness t h a t c o n f i n e s t h e o b j e c t of s t u d y t o t h e a d
message s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f , t h u s i g n o r i n g t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n s
t h i s s t r u c t u r e has with o t h e r social s t r u c t u r e s of t h e
a d v e r t i s i n g communication system. G. R. Kress, i n w S t r u c t u r a l i s m

a n d P o p u l a r C u l t u r e M comments:
B e c a u s e t h e y f o c u s on c l o s e d - o f f e n t i t i e s , s t r u c t u r a l i s t
a n a l y s e s c a n n o t a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n [how a n y r e a d e r
e x t r a c t s s i g n i f i c a n c e ] ; and t h e view o n e a d a p t s amounts
t o a simple a f f i r m a t i o n of f a i t h (though never simply
a f f i r m e d ) . A s o l u t i o n is p o s s i b l e o n l y i f o n e l o o k s a t
s y s t e m s o f s t r u c t u r a s (i.e., a new s t r u c t u r e ) ; t h e n i t
w i l l become a p p a r e n t t h a t n e t w o r k s o f r e l a t i o n s e x i s t
b e t w e e n t h e s t r u c t u r e s of c e r t a i n e n t i t i e s , a n d n o t
between others. O r a t least t h a t t h e d e n s i t y o f
r e l a t i o n s is g r e a t e r between c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s t h a n
betwaen others. 98
Kress t a k e s e x c e p t i o n w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l i s t t e n d e n c y t o

i s o l a t e a n d a n a l y z e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e text w i t h o u t a

social-theoretically q u i d e d c o m p a r a t i v e f r a m e u o r k ( e x a m i n i n g how
e x t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s [i.e., m a r k e t i n g ] i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e message ?,I
structure). Kress' a n a l y t i c a l s t r a t e g y c a n f o c u s o n t h e a d

s t r u c t u r e for its s y s t e m a t i c l i n k i n g t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f o t h e r
forms of popular c u l t u r o and i n s t i t u t i o n s . An a d v a r t i s m e n t , like
any o t h e r text, h a s s i g n i f i c a n c e for r e a d e r s through t h e n a t u r e / i,
a n d a r r a n g e m e n t i n t o r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l codes.
The e x t e n t t o which a d v e r t i s i n g ' s referent systems originate i n

57
o r a r e d r a w n i n t o o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s (i.e., film, ritual

behaviours, history, etc.) i n d i c a t e s t h e commonness or

u n c o m m o n n e s s of r e a d i n g p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s b e t w e e n d i s c o u r s e s
e x p e r i e n c e s b y e i t h e r t h e same o r d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s / r e a d e r s .
T h e d e n s i t y of r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e d i s c o u r s e of a r o c k c o n c e r t

a n d an a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r a s t e r g o - c a s s e t t e tape could display

many s h a r e d r e f e r e n c e s t r u c t u r e s . T h e d e n s i t y of r e l a t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h a t same r o c k c o n c e r t d i s c o u r s e a n d a n a d f o r * G e r i t o l a
w o u l d b e few. T h i s s h a r i n g of r e f e r e n c e s t r u c t u r e s d e p e n d s o n
consumer/reader mentality, r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e s ( u h a t a n d how
t h i n g s are read), a n d common k n o w l e d g e , I n t h e m e t h o d o l o j g
s u g g e s t e d b y Kress, a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e o r i g i n a t i o n or l o c a t i o n
of m e a n i n g i n a w i d e r s u r v e y of t h e r e l a t i o n s a a o n g d i f f e r e n t

textual s t r u c t u r e s and other strucutures influencing t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t , h e l p s t o v e r i f y t h e s e m i o t i c p r o b l e m of
w h a t t h e d e c o d e r a c t u a l l y ' g e t s o u t of t e x t s ' from h i 3

p a r t i c u l a r r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n f i x e d i n social practices a n d
experi2nce. Kress, n o t t h a t u n l i k e t h e p o s i t i o n of W i l l i a m s i n

--- S o c i o l o g y of C u & t u ~ e ,c a l l s
T h e ------- for both a n inward and outward

f o c u s o f t e x t u a l a n a l y s t s t o t h e ? c o m p l e x s t r u c t u r e s of c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l c o n s u m p t i o n by r e a l d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
g r o u p s of r e a d e r s . M e a n i n g does n o t s i 1 8 p l e r e s i d e i n t h e t e x t u a l
s t r u c t u r e as a frozen, l i f e l e s s form, but i n t h e actusl practice
of its m e a n i n g b o t h i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e
deconstruction/interpretation by r e a l r e a d e r s w i t h r e a l s o c i a l

e x p e r i e n c e s and preferences. S e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s of a d v e r t i s e m e n t s
must n o t o n l y l o o k a c r o s s to o t h e r informing p o p u l a r c u l t u r e

f o r m s ( s o u r c e of r e f e r e n c e s i n a d s ) , b u t a l s o u p w a r d s t o w a r d s

t h e s t r u c t u r e of o r d e r i n g p r o d u c t s / m e s s a g e s through marketing

a n d downwards t o t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f

a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n s ( g r o u p s of r e a d e r s / c o n s u m e r s of a

lifestyle),
What i s m e a n t b y ' u s e g h e r e i s t h e m a t e r i a l u t i l i t y v a l u e
of t h e p r o d u c t a n d n o t its form ( a s s o c i a l and p e r s o n a l
m e a n i n g s e x p r e s s e d i n a d s a n d c i r c u l a t e d i n t h e way p e o p l e
t h i n k about t h e i r goods i n consumer s o c i e t y ) .

S t e p h e n K l i n e , f t I m a g e s oi W e l l - b e i n g : M a r k e t S e g m e n t s a n d
U s e t y p e s a n d a S t u d y of C a n a d i a n M a g a z i n e Ads 1 9 1 0 - 1980"
( p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e L e a r n e d S o c i e t y s e m i n a r s on
a d v e r t i s i n g , V a n c o u v e r , B.C., l 3 8 3 ) , p p . 1-2.

This s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f
m a r k e t i n g b e s t t y p i f i e s t h e moral a n d i d e o l o g i c a l b e l i e f s
t h a t contemporary market2rs and a d v e r t i s i n g professionals
commonly e x p l a i n t h e s o c i a l e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e i r t r a d e
with.

J, K. Galbraith, The &ff&gsn&S o c i 2 t y , rev. ed., (London:

Hamish Hamifton, 1 9 7 0 1 , p. 141.

Ibid., p. lUO.

Ibid., p. 141.

Ibid., pp. 1YO - 141.

M i c h a e l S c h u d s o n , " C r i t i c i z i n g t h e C r i t i c s of A d v e r t i s i n g :
T o w a r d s a S o c i o l o g i c a l V i e w o f M a r k e t i n g , " Egd.p, +&&ygs
a n d ------
--- S o c i e t y , I11 ( l 9 8 l ) , p. 9.

F r e d 3 i r s c h i n The S q c i g L &&gttts yo Grqw&h ( C a m b r i d g e ,

Mass.: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1976) and T i b o r S c i t o v s k y
i n TI'g JYylgs~ Hcegpmy ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1 9 7 6 ) l o o k a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n i m p o r t a n c e of t h e
s y m b o l i c v a l u e s p l a c e d o n g o o d s a n d t h e w a y s i n which
h i e r a r a c h i c a l s o c i a l r a n k a n d s t a t u s are a s well a t t a c h e d
t o commodities i n consumer society.
15. Ibid,, p.29.

16. Leiss follows t h e lead of Sahlin's 'narxist' anthropology

w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e n e t w o r k o f e x c h a n g e s amonq p e r s o n s
is s f u n c t i o n o f more g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d

.
I t t h e materisl f l o w u n d e r w r i t e s or i n i t i a t e s s o c i a l
r e l a t i ~ n s * ~ . See R a r s h a l l S a h l i n s , l1On t h e s o c i o l o g y o f
P r i m i t i v e E x c h a n g e , " S ~ ~ Aqz
Q Z E~qnogi~c, ( C h i c a g o : A l d i n e ,
1972).

Lee F t a i n w a t e r , i d h a t Mqgey B g y ~ ; Ineqgpljiy q ~ Spc&pl g

M e a n i n g of zgcrxgs
------ (New Y o r k : B a s i c R o o k s , 1 9 7 4 ) , p. 35.

flodern i n d u s t r i a l marketing o b s c u r e s t h e c h o i c e between

'man a s c o n s u m e r s a n d 'man a s u s e r g . T h e ' H a r x i s t ' a p p r o a c h
claims t h a t t h e materisl o b j e c t b e i n g s o l d is n e v e r enough.
Ads s t r e s s t h e s y m b o l i c v a l u e o f g o o d s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f
t h e a c t u a l u s e o f g o o d s or a t t h e e x p e n s e o f a c k n o w l e d g i n g
how g o o d s a r e p r o d u c e d .

E l l e n Willis, w C o n s u r n e r i s m a n d Yomen," S o c i a l i s t
R e v o l u t i a n , I ( H a y - J u n e l97O), p. 7 6 .

1 9 6 8 ) , p. 1 3 . .
H e r b e r t Msrcuse, Qngzp&geqs&pnpl &pn (London: Sphere,

Ibid., p.23.

Ibid., p. 20.

Debra C l a r k e , "The S t a t e o f C u l t u r a l Theory: A Review o f

P a s t a n d P r e s e n t F a ~ h i o n s ,&&&ggqa&e
~ g p g t s , IV ( 1 9 8 0 1 , p .
110.

C. H. Hills, T h g ggygy E&&tg ( N e w York: Oxford University

Press, 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 315.

Clarke, " T h e S t a t e of C u l t u r a l T h e o r y w , p . 1 2 0 .

Raymond W i l l i a n s , & 3 r g i ~ g gqd L i t e r a t u r e ( L o n d o n : ,1977),

pp, 1 3 6 - 1 3 7 .
Clarke, "The S t a t e o f C u l t u r a l Theory", pp. 118-119.

Telp~,
XXXV (1978) p. .
R o b e r t D 8 A m i c o , "Desir? a h d t h e C o m m o d i t y F o r m , "

S t e p h e n K l i n e a n d W i l l i a m L e i s s , " A d v e r t i s i n g . Needs, and

' C o m m o d i t y F e t i s h i ~ m ' , ' ~C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l pf g q & i t i c a l qgd
S o c i a l -----
------ T h e o r y , 11 ( n o . 1 , 1 9 7 8 ) , 2, 1 6 .

Raynond W i f l i s m s , " A d v e r t i s i n g : t h e Magic System," frpblemg

i n M a t e r i a l i s m ---
,---,------,- and C ulture
------,* ( L o n d o n : Verso, 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 186.

K l i n e a n d Loiss, N A d v e r t i s i n y , N e e d s a n d ' C o m m o d i t y
F e t i ~ h i s m * ,p.~ 1 7 .

Raymond W i l l i a m s , 2'2 % c & p & o q y of C u l t u r e (London:

F o n t a n a , 1 9 8 1 ) , p , 29.

M a r s h a l l S a h l i n s , p ~ & & gpqd ~ z Pyqcr&cp& &?qh?on ( C h i c a g o :

U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , p p , 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 ,

Most a c o n o m i c a n t h r o p o l o 3 i s t s m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e r e i s a
common f a c t o r u n d e r l y i n g b o t h p r i m i t i v e a n d m o d e r n
s o c i e t i e s -- c u l t u r e ' s f u n c t i o n i n m e d i a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l
e x c h a n g e s between humans a n 1 n a t u r e ( p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t ) .
Symbolic s t r u c t u r e s predominating i n a s o c i e t y ' s c u l t u r s l
f o r m a t i o n s work o n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l u t i l i t y a n d
what n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s a r e c h o s e n and changed i n t o
d e s i r a b l e o b j e c t s f o r exchange.

Mary D o u g l a s a n d B a r o n I s h e r w o o d , The World of G o o d s (Hew

Y o r k : P e n g u i n , 1 9 7 i 3 ) , p. 59.

S c h u d s o n , l 8 C r i t i c i z i n g t h e C r i t i c s o f A 3 ~ e r t i s i n g , ~p*. 10.

Douglas and Isherwood, The H o r l d qf Chods, p , 59.

Ibid., p. 65.

S c h u d s o n , " C r i t i c i z i n g t h e C r i t i c s o f A d v e r t i ~ i n g , p~. ~ 10.

Ibid., pp. 5-6.

50. E. D. M c C r a c k e n a n d 2 i c h a r - j . P o l l a y , " ~ n t h r o p o l o g y a n d t h e
Study o f Advertising," (unpublished paper, Department of
A n t h r o p o l o g y , U n i v e r t s i t y o f B r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 2.

51. Ibid., p. 4.

52. Ibid., p. 2.

55. K l i n e and L e i s s , "Advertising, Needs and *Com@odity

F e t i s h i s m 8 , I g p. 18.

56. Kline, "Images o f Well-being," p. 8.

57. S t u a r t Hall, "Culture, t h e 3 e d i a and ' t h e I d e o l o g i c a l

flqss g p m g g i g a t i p q 222 % ~ c j g t y, e d . by C u r r a n ,
Gurevitch, a n d W o o l l a c o t t (London: Edward Arnold , 1 9 7 7 ) ,
pp. 327-325.

58. T h i s d i s c i ~ l i n eh a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h ? ' s c i e n c e w h i c h
s t u d i e s t h e l i f e of s i g n s i n s o c i e t y * ( F e r d i n a n d e d e
S a u s s u r e , l i n g u i s t i c s ) , or a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f s i g n s
( C h a r l e s S a n d e r s P e i r c e , p h i l o s o p h y a n d a f o r e r u n n e r of
information theory). The first d e s c r i p t i o n emphasized t h e
s o c i a l function of t h e s i g n while t h e second looked a t t h e
l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n o f s i g n s , Today S a u s s u r e ' s N s e m i o l o g i e u
and P e i r c 3 ' s s e m i o t i c s refer t o t h e same a c a d e m i c e n d e v o u r
a n d b e c a u s e s e m i o t i c s is now t h e o f f i c i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l
designation f o r the science, it w i l l be referred to as
semiotics throughout the thssis.

59. T h e term c o d e comes o u t o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y a n d r e f e r s t o

a n i n v e n t o r y o f a r b i t r a r i l y c h o s e n s y a b o l s o r d e r e d by a
group o f r u l e s f o r composition (i-e,, words coded i n
English 1 2 n g u s g e ) . S i g n s , t h o s e u n i t s o f o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d
m e a n i n g s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , r e q u i r e a code or 'means' f o r
t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of t h e i r meaning from s o u r c e t o r 9 c e i v 5 r
( u n d e r s t o o d a t b o t h e n d s of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n e v e n t ) . A
c o d e , i n s sense u s u a l l y l e s s f o r a a l i z e d a n d complex t h a n
language, refers to t h e u s e r s knowledge o f t h e o b j e c t s and
i d e a s t h a t t h e code e x p r e s s e s and relies on c o n v e n t i o n s of
how d i f f e r e n t b i t s ( s i g n v e h i c l e s ) o f i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e
s t r u n g t o g e t h e r i n i n t o a s i g n s t r i n g e x p r e s s i o n o r message
form w h i c h o r d e r s i n t e r n a l l y t h e way t h + s e i n f o r m a t i o n b i t s
s i g n i f y t o g e t h e r a s a m e a n i n g f u l whole ( s i m i l a r t o grammar
i n language).

60. Hall, "Culture, t h ? Media and t h e ' I d e o l o g i c a l E f f e c t ' , " p.

One c a n t 3 l k a b o u t , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e ad t e x t ( o n e a d t 3 k e n
a s a m e a n i n g f u l a n d s t r u c t u r e d w h o l e ) i n t h e way i t b e l o n g s
t o t h e l a r g e r s y s t e m s of a d v e r t i s i n g a s a p r a c t i c e d
d i s c o u r s e ; t h e s y s t e m c o m p o s e d o f d i f f e r e n t ad t e x t s e a c h
o n e t a l k i n g a b o u t c e r t a i n o b j e c t s , i n similar
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s a n d c o d e s s t r u c t u r e d i n similar ways
i n t a o r d e r l y m e s s a g e s . T h e terms d i s c o u r s e a n d t e x t h a v e
a l s o b e e n u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e c e r t a i n n o n - l i n g u i s t i c semiotic
p r o c e s s e s (i.e., a r i t u a l , 3 f i l m , a r t ) . A d i s c o u r s e is t h e
l i n k i n g of t e x t s b y t h e c o m m o n n e s s o f t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n i n
f o r m a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s of s e n d i n g / r e c e i v i n g .

Hall, "Culture, t h e Media a n d t h e * I d e o l o g i c a l Effect'," p.

329.

Ibid,, p. 330.

R o l a n d Bart h e s , E l g g g n t s pf Sgmlg&oqy (London: Jonathan

C a p e , 1 9 6 7 ) , p. 89.

J u d i t h H i l l a i m s o n , Qe_c_odc3nq & _ d ~ g g & i _ s g g _( eL ~

o nt d~o n : Marion
B o y e r s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 1 0 2 ,

Kline, " I m a g e s of W e l l - b e i n g , t * p. 9. -
S i g n i f y i n g p r a c t i c e s of a d v e r t i s i n g ( a s t r u c t u r e ~ js y s t e m of
a d ~ r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m s ) c o n s i s t of r u l e s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s
w h i c h , i n a way s i m i l a r t o l a n g u a g e , a r e a u t o n o m o u s o f a n y
o n e o c c a s s i o n of t h e i r u s e i n o n e a d . A s i n g l e a d , a s a n
o c c a s s i o n of ' s p e e c h 9 , r e l i e s o n t h e r u l e s of a d v e r t i s i n g
a s l a n g u a g e a n d is t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f s e l e c t e d , c o m b i n e d a n d
a r t i c u l a t e d elements within preconceived formats.

R o l a n d B a r t h e s , zgaqg ggs&c = p a g ( N e w York: H i l l a n d

Wang, 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 4 5 .

Ibid., p. 43.

R h e t o r i c m e s n s t e c h n i q u e s ( v i s u a l o r v e r b a l ) t h a t aim a t
p e r s u a d i n g or i m p r e s s i n g t h e s u b j e c t / r s a d e r , It also
s u g g e s t s t h e u s e of puffery or non-informational s a l e s
a p p e a l s ( p e r s o n a l a n d s o c i a l m e a n i n g s ) w h i c h way e n t e r t a i n
or e n g a g e t h e r e a d e r b u t s a y s l i t t l s a b o u t p r o d u c t u t i l i t y .
B a r t h e s t s e m i o t i c a c c o u n t of a d v e r t i s i n g i n c l u d e s t h e
r h e t o r i c of t h e i m a g e o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e c o n n o t a t i v e
s i y n i f i e d s of t h e i m a g e . R h e t o r i c a l f i g u r e s i n i m a g e r y , f o r
i n s t a n c e g r o s s e x a g z r a t i o n or o m i t i o n s , p r o v i d e a s e t of
p e r s u a s i v e form; t h a t , t h r o u g h t h e i r p r a c t i c e d r e p e t i t i o n s
i n t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e , l n a t u r a l i z e l w h a t i n t h e real
w o r l d w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e i l l u s i o n or f a l s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
of p e o p l e o b j e c t s and i d e a s .

Ibid., P. 100.

Ibid., p. 20.

Ibid., p 14.

Ibid., p. 137.

Ibid., p. 26.

L e v i S t r a u s s ' u s e of S a u s s u r e l s t h e o r y o f l i n g u i s t i c s
e n a b l e s h i m t o s u q g e s t a t h e o r y o f how c u l t u r a l w e a n i n g i s
o r d e r e d , T o t e m i s m may b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h o use o f a s e t of
d i f f e r e n c e s f o u n d i n n a t u r e f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n qf a s e t
o f d i f f e r e n c e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n c u l t u r e . T h i s t h e o r y of
c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g has g a i n e d w i d e a c c e p t a n c e i n
anthropology.

Claude Levi-Strauss, T p & g g i g ~(New Y o r k : Penguin, 1973),

pp. 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 .

Ibid., p, 84.

F o r n a r s h a l l S a h l i n s i n Culture 324 gggcmjcgl Eeppoq,

modern s o c i e t y has s u b s t i t u t e d m a n u f a c t u r e d o b j e c t s f o r
s p e c i e s , w i t h e x c h a n g e a n d c o n s u m p t i o n a c t i n g a s t h e means
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e t o t e m i c o r d e r .

Kline, allmages o f # e lf-being,n p. 9.

J a n i c e Winship, " ' f i a n d l i n g S e x 1 i n w k d v e r t i s i n g w , l t Fbd&a,

------- a n d ------
C u l t u r e --- Society, ed, b y C u r r a n , I I I ( n o . 1 , 1 9 5 1 ) , p.
28.

E r v i n g G o f f m a n , Gendikg A d v e r t L ~ e i e n t s ( L o n d o n : Mac M i l f a n ,
1 9 7 9 ) , p. 2 7 .
Goffman d i s c u s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n i n a d v e r t i s i n g between t h e
f a s h i o n i m a g e a n d s o - c a l l e d n a t u r a l b e h a v i o u r ; t h e way i n
which a d v e r t i s e m e n t s e x p r e s s ( i n a model photograph)
a r t i f i c i a l poses based on o r r e s i g n i f y i n g a n o t h e r set of
a r t i f i c i a l p o s e s ( b o d y l a n g u a g e of a c u l t u r e ) .

Mc C r a c k e n a n d P o l l a y , uAnthropology and t h e Study of

Advertisingw.

Varda L a n g h o l z Leymore, fiidign Dyth (London: Heinemann,

1975).

Mc C r a c k e n a n d P o l l a y , " A n t h r o p o l o g y a n d the S t u d y o f
A d v e r t i s i n g , " p, 16.

Kline, " I m a g e s of W e l l - b e i n g t t .

G . 8. Kress, w S r t u c t u r a l i s m a n d P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , " i n
-A g ~ g p q c h e st q
P g g u l a r CqJIAygg, e d , b y C . W. E. B i g s b y
(Bowling G r e e n , Ohio: Bowling Green U n i v e r s i t y P o p u l a r
P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 93.
11, A Semiotic Framework For Segmentation ~ d s

A d v e r t i s i n g c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a means by which g o o d s

acquire symbolic value i n society. T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is found i n

t h e n u m e r o u s a n d v a r i e d a r g u m e n t s of t h e n e o - l i b e r a l , Harxist,

and a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on communication i n consumer

society. T h i s c h a p t e r f o c u s e s on t h e a c t u a l meaning s y s t e m s

c o n v e y e d b y a d m e s s a g e s a n d o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e

s i g n i f y i n g s y s t e m s t o consumer audiences.

The i n t e r p r e t i v e framework f o r t h ? a n a l y s i s is d e r i v e d from

a p e r s p e c t i v e o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a d v s r t i s s i n e n t

producers and e x i s t i n g popular c u l t u r e forms an4 e x p r e s s i o n

consumed by v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s . I n particular, this analysis

s u b s c r i b e s t o t h e notion t h a t groups of consumers purchase t h e

meanings t h a t goods r e p r e s e n t i n forms r e f l e c t i n g t r e n d s ,

styles, s o c i a l v a l u e s a n d t a s t e s , a s well a s t h e g o o d s

themselves, A d v e r t i s e r s p r o d u c e s u c h m 2 a n i n g by r e f e r r i n g

a u d i e n c e s to, and a s s o c i a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t with, c u l t u r a l meaning

from d i s c o u r s e s i n o t h e r areas o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y . T h i s complex

communication between producers and consumers o f goods and t h e

a s s o c i a t e d social and personal meanings t h a t t h e s e goods assume

i n advertisements, involves a 'double symbolic process', Kline

and Leiss, g u i d e d b y t h e i n s i g h t s of S a h l i n s , d e s c r i b e t h i s

process :
 One f a c e t o f i t i s t h e s y m b o l i s m c o n s c i o u s l y e m p l o y e d i n
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e a n d s a l e of t h e p r o d u c t , i n c l u d i n g t h e
imagery employed i n t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d e s i g n s , The second
f a c e t is t h e s y m b o l i c a s s o c i a t i o n s s e l e c t i v e l y e m p l o y e d
by consumers i n w c o n s t r u c t i n g i t l i f e s t y l e models; t h e
w h o l e m a r k e t p l a c e i s zdividec? i n t o s e m i a u t o n o m o u s s e c t o r s
which r e s p o n d t o d i f f e r e n t c u e s i n d i f f e r e n t ways.'

T h e s e m i o t i c m e t h o d o l o g i e s of B a r t h e s , Williamson and

Goffman a l l s t u d y t h e s i g n p r o c e s s e s and s y m b o l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s

of t h i s f i r s t f a c e t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n by c o n f i n i n g t h e i r a n a l y s i s

t o the ad text, T h e s e s e m i o t i c s t u d i e s i n t e r p r e t how a d s b o r r o w ,

from o u t s i d e t h e i r i m m e d i a t e d i s c o u r s e ( m a r k e t i n g of g o o d s ) , a

m a s s i v e l e x i c o n o f c u l t u r a l forms a n d r e f e r e n c e s , which K l i n e

and L e i s s i d e n t i f y a s "of a mythological, historical,

characterological, s o c i a l , p s y c h o ~ o g i c a la n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l

nature, a s well a s s c e n e s a n d s i t u a t i o n s f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y
l i f e M . 2 T h e s e m i o t i c a p p r o a c h d i s c u s s e s how t h e s e o r i g i n a l l y

e x t e r n a l meaning s y s t e m s a r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t o a d v e r t i s i n g

m e s s a g e s a n d how t h e i r s y m b o l i c a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o d u c t

s i g n , t h r o u g h adwork, g i v e s t h e p r o d u c t new m e a n i n g .

T h e s e c o n d f a c e t of t h e d u a l s y m b o l i c p r o c e s s a s s u m e s t h a t

t h e r e e x i s t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c u l t u r a l formations within one

s o c i e t y an3 t h a t t h e s e d i v i s i o n s are r e f l e c t e d i n consumer

behaviours and predispositions, Groups of consumers c o n s t r u c t

various and d i s t i n c t i v e l i f e s t y l e s through t h e purchase and

consumption o f goods. People have a c u l t u r a l predisposition i n

t h e i r social interactions, t h e i r r e c r e a t i o n and l e i s u r e

activities, t h e i r consumption p a t t e r n s i n r e l a t i o n t o popular

c u l t u r a l productions, a n d t h e i r more i n h e r e n t s o c i a l a n d
political beliefs. A d v e r t i s e r s a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e m a r k e t s and

t a l k t o consumers through messages mirroring t h e c u l t u r a l

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s of c o n s u m e r s .

As we s h a l l s e e i n t h e s e c t i o n o n m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n l a t e r

on i n t h i s c h a p t e r , p r o d u c e r s and a d v e r t i s e r s acknowledge t h i s

c u l t u r a l view of consumer s o c i e t y . T h e y a r e k e e n l y aware o f t h e

f a c t t h a t a u d i e n c e g r o u p s t e n d t o c o a l e s c e a l o n g l i n e s of

l i f e s t y l e p a t t e r n s and consumption. Of a n y m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y t o

d a t e , market segmentation a t t e m p t s t o c u e and sell t o s p e c i f i c

g r o u p s o f c o n s u m e r s g o o d s i n terms o f t h e s e c o n s u m e r s * c u l t u r a l

predispositions.

Present semiotic analyses of advertising do not deal with

t h e g r o w i n g p r o p e n s i t y o f admen t o b o r r o w c u l t u r a l l y s p e c i f i c

c o n t e n t s and p a r t i c u l a r d i s c o u r s e s t h a t would be m e a n i n g f u l a n d

f a v o u r a b l y r e a d by o n l y c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e s . B a r t h e s and

Williamson, f o r e x a m p l e , a d d r e s s n e i t h e r t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of

a u d i e n c e n o r t h e ways i n which s p e c i f i c a t i o n might b e r e f l e c t e d

i n t h e c o n t e n t s of t h e m e a n i n g s y s t e m s i n a d s . As B a r t h e s

argues:

W e make it c o n s i d e r a b l y e a s i e r f o r o u r s e l v e s f r o m t h e
b e g i n n i n g i f we s t u d y o n l y t h e a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e . Why?
Because i n a d v e r t i s i n g , t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e image
is c e r t a i n l y i n t e n t i o n a l : t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s
o f t h e p r o d u c t w h i c h make u p a p r i o r i t h e s i g n i f i e d s o f
t h e a d v a r t i s i n g m e s s a g e , a n d t h e s e s i g n i f i e d s h a v e t o be
transmitted as c l e a r l y as possible.3

B a r t h e s seeins t o b e l i e v e t h a t a d v e r t i s e m e n t s are s i m p l y

product-cantered and therefore, he overlooks the forms of

user-centered a d s (segmentation ads), H e does not take i n t o

a c c o u n t t h a t of a n y message d e p e n d s on t h e s e n d e r h a v i n g a

p a r t i c u l a r i m a g e of t h e r e c e i v e r i f t h e i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g i s t o

avoid unintended s i g n i f i c a t i o n s a t t h e r e c e p t i o n end o f t h e

co~wunication.Similarly, Williamson does n o t consider a

d i f f e r ~ n t i a t e da u d i e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e . Instead she posits the

existence of an a b s t r a c t subject/text r e l a t i o n s h i p i n which t h e

t e x t r i g i d l y p o s i t i o n s t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t h e m e c h a n i s m s of

a d w o r k a n d i t s e f f e c t s a t d e e p e r l e v e l s of t h e human p s y c h e .

The s t r u c t u r a l i s t - s e m i o t i c approach a t t e m p t s t o s e c u r e a n

i a m a n e n t p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t must a s s u a e a g e n e r a l i z e d o r u n i v e r s a l

audience/subject. I n doing so, i t restricts s y m b o l i c a n a l y s i s t o

' w h a t c a n b e seen i n t h e a d ' , an? a b s t r a c t s t h e message and t h e

r e a d e r o u t o f t h e l a r g e r communications system through which

messages a r e transmitted. I n t h i s way, d e f i n i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s

p e r t a i n t o t h e s e semiotic c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f a u d i e n c s

reading, a n d i t i s o n t h i s p o i n t t h a t B a r t h e s ' s claim o f *fthe

method c a n wake t h e t h e o r y " i s a r g u a b l e . I n c o n t r a s t with t h i s

non-audience assumption i n decoding advertisements, Kfine and

Leiss have demonstrated t h a t a d s d i r e c t e d a t d i f f e r e n t audiences

h a v e been c o n s t r u c t e d i n uays r e f l e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a u d i e n c e

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s i n 'mode o f a d d r e s s * . F u r t h e r , Pope a r g u e s

c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t t h e communication c o n t e x t of a d s d i s t r i b u t e d

t o t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s i n d i c a t e f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s d i f f e r e n t from
more mass m a r k e t o r l e s s s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e a p p e a l s , T h e s e
a u d i e n c e r e l a t e d i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e t e x t a n d its d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

r e a d i n g s c a n n o t be c u l t u r a l l y n o r s t r u c t u r a l l y d e c o n s t r u c t e d by
t h e immanent a n a l y s i s o f t h e a d t e x t .
T h i s c h a p t e r o n m e t h o d o l o g y c r i t i q u e s a n d a d a p t s t h o s e more
w o r k a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e semiotic p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t d e a l
with a u d i e n c e o r i e n t e d s p e c i f i c i t y i n ad t e x t r e f e r e n c e s and
*modes o f a d d r e s s i . I n d e v e l o p i n g a new m e t h o d o l o g y , structures

w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d b e y o n d t h o s e of s y n t a c t i c - s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s

v i s i b l e i n a d yramtaar (adwork). O p e r a t i o n s a t t h e l e v e l of a d
g r a m m a r r e f e r t o r u l e s of s e l e c t i n g a n d c o m b i n i n g s e m a n t i c
e l e t a e n t s ( c o n t e n t u n i t s ) i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of a d i m a g e r y a n d

written texts. T h e s t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s i g n s

t h e m s e l v e s ( s y n t a c t i c s ) a n d t h e s t u d y of how s i g n s a r e r e l a t e d
t o what t h e y s t a n d f o r , r e p r e s e n t , a n d refer t o ( s e m a n t i c s ) ,
must be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a c o m a u n i c a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t
a d d r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s i g n s and t h e i r h u m a n u s e r s
(pragmatics), The c o n s i d e r a t i o n of what s i g n s r e f e r to or

r e p r e s e n t c u l t u r a l l y for c e r t a i n real s u b j e c t s i n e ~ p i r i c a l
c o n t e x t s o f c o m ~ u n i c a t i o ni s a v i t a l c o n c e r n i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
how a u d i e n c e s ' u s e * t h e s e s i g n s i n d e c o d i n g ,
S t u a r t Hall, Umberto Eco a n d o t h e r s a r g u e t h a t t h e s e n d e r
a n d r e c e i v e r s i d e s of t h e a d m e s s a g e p r o c e s s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d
t o r e p r e s e n t two s e p a r a t e b u t r e l a t e d c o n t e x t s of w e a n i n g . The
p a t t e r n s of s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d f r o a
a t h e o r e t i c a l p o i n t of v i e w t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r t h o s e who s e n d a n d
r e c e i v e a d messages. A s E l i s e o Veron s u g g e s t s :

,..the d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l r u l e s of a l a n g u a g e
s y s t e w , p l u s t h e s t u d y of t h e r u l e s of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
b e t w e e n s i g n s a n d t h i n g s , g i v e u s a c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e of
t h e p r o c e s s of m e a n i n g ; t h e r e m a i n i n g a r e a f t h a t o f t h e
 ' u s e ' of t h e s y s t e m , i n v o l v e s e m p i r i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t
a r e ' e x t e r n a l * t o t h e b a s i c s y n t a c t i c - s e m a n t i c model...
f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of human c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y ,
meaning is a s o c i a l p r o c e s s . S y n t a c t i c s a n d s e m a n t i c s ,
a s t h e y h a v e b e e n c l a s s i c a l l y d e f i n e d , s t a t e some o f t h e
g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s t o w h i c h t h i s p r o c e s s is s u b j e c t .
P r a g m a t i c s i s n o t t h e s t u d y o f how s i g n s ( a n d t h e r e f o r e
m e a n i n g s ) a r e ' u s e d ' ; i t d e s c r i b e s how m e a n i n g comes
i n t o b e i n g a s an e m p i r i c a l f a c t o f s o c i a l communication.
4

The methodology developed h e r e a t t e m p t s t o c o n s i d e r t h e

e m p i r i c a l f a c t of a d v e r t i s i n g a s a s o c i a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m
a n d t o i n c l u d e a n a l y s i s of o t h e r e x o g e n o u s f a c t o r s ( s y s t e m s
a f f e c t i n g t h e encoding and decoding s t r u c t u r e s ) which connect
t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e with o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s a n d o t h e r areas
of s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n .

Semiotics e x p l a i n s t h r o u g h a t h e o r y o f c o d e s t h e e x p r e s s i o n

a n d r e c e p t i o n of m e s s a g e s . C o d e s r e p r e s e n t a s e t o f r u l e s or
c o n v e n t i o n s c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e who t r a n s n i t a n d
r e c e i v e messages, and t h e s e c o d e s imbue w i t h meaning t h e v a r i o u s
s i g n e l e m e n t s of t h e m e s s a g e . A t t h e l e v e l of c o n n o t a t i o n , as
explained previously i n c h a p t e r one, coding conventions e x i s t
b e c a u s e of t h e ' u s e r ' s * k n o w l e d g e of t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s
o f s i g n s i n m o r e g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s of c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
T h e s e same s i g n s o p e r a t e i n t h e s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s t h a t
r e g u l a t e t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n o n t h e o c c a s i o n of t h e i r u s e i n
p a r t i c u l a r messages. While s i g n s connect inwardly i n a message
a n d are combined t h r o u g h s y n t a g m a t i c r u l e s , s i g n s c o n n e c t
o u t w a r d l y a s well t o m o r e g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k s of w h a t t h e y r e f e r

t o o r represent. This paradiqmatic r e l a t i o n i n t h e *languageg

p r a c t i c e s of a d v e r t i s i n g h a s been decribed as o p e r a t i n g through

c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e c o d e s b a s e d i n t h e * u s e r g s p a t r i m o n y of

k n o w l e d g e ; t h a t i s , h i s k n o w l e d g e of p o p u l a r c u l t u r a l

?reductions and r i t u a l s y m b o l s of h i s s o c i e t y , h i s t a s t e s a n d
evaluations of people, h i s ideological perspectives, and o t h e r

b a s i c r e c o g n i t i o n s o f a l l i d e a s and objects t h a t h i s c u l t u r e h a s

g i v e n m e a n i n g to.

B a r t h e s a n d W i l l i a m s o n a r g u e t h a t c o n n o t a t i v e c o d e s are

c o n t r o l l e d and r e d e f i n e d by t h e 'meta-systemn of ideological

adwork. Ads r e p r o d u c e i m a g e s , notions, concepts, m y t h s , etc,

t h a t a r e s i g n i f i e d s o f i d e o l o g i c a l systems and thought a v a i l a b l e

i n society's general cultural discourses, a n d r e n d e r s them a s

s i g n i f i e r s i n t h e ad structure. T h i s c o n n o t a t i o n p r o c e s s relies

u p o n o u r k n o w l e d g e of t h e s e a l r e a d y * w o r k e d o n * ( i d e o l o c ~ i c a l )

systems i n o r d e r t o create t h e f i n a l s i g n i n t h e ' i d e o l o g i c a l

e f f e c t g o f t h e a d a t t h e s y n t a g m a t i c l e v e l o f adwork. Thus t h e

s i g n i f i c s t i o n of s i g n s a t t h e d e n o t a t i v e l e v e l o f t h e a d is t h e

dominant i d e o l o g i c a l s i g n process i n a d v e r t i s i n g : the d e n o t a t i v e

l e v e l g r a m m a t i c a l l y c o n n e c t s or combines s i g n i f y i n g e l e n e n t s

t h a t p o s s e s s a n o t h e r connoted meaning which t h e Bessage

a p p r o p r i a t e s and reworks. W i l l i a m s o n states:

,.,thore is a c i r c u l a r p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d b e c a u s e h a v i n g
i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m by means of c o n n o t a t i o n ,
i t is t h e n made t o d e n o t e t h e p r o d u c t - ' p l a c e ' i t i n a
s y s t e m of n e a n i n g . T h i s p r o c e s s is b a s i c a i l y t h e p r o c e s s
d e s c r i b e d i n [ a d w o r k 1.5

83
 As w e l l , B a r t h e s t e l l s u s t h a t s i g n i i y i n g e l e m e n t s from

r e f e r e n t systems o u t s i d e o f t h e ad a r e i c o n i c a l l y coded i n t h e

t e x t a s t y p i c a l s i g n i f i e r s of c o n n o t a t i o n t h a t produc?

' s i g n i f i e d s i n common':

... t h e s i g n i f i e d s are t o b e f o u n d i n t h e w r i t t e n p r e s s ,
t h e i m a g e o r t h e a c t o r ' s g e s t u r e ( w h i c h i s why s e m i o l o g y
c a n o n l y b e conceived i n a s o t o s p e a k t o t a l framework).
T h i s d o m a i n of t h e s i g n i f i e d o f c o n n o t a t i o n i s t h a t o f
i d e o l o g y , which c a n n o t b u t be s i n g l e for a g i v e n s o c i e t y
a n d h i s t o r y n o matter w h a t s i q n i f i e r s o f c o n n o t a t i o n i t
Bay u s e . 6

~ o t hW i l l i a m s o n * s e m p h a s i s of t h e ' c i r c u l a r process1 of

adwork and B a r t h e s ' c l a i m of t h e * s i n g u l a r d o m a i n o f i d e o l o g y '

focus on t h e syntagmatic aspect of t h e a d s t r u c t u r e a s t h e

essential level of ideological operations i n signification, I n

t h i s semiotic a c c o u n t , t h e s i g n i f i e d s of c o n n o t a t i o n o p e r a t e

through a dominant i d e o l o g i c a l coding because t h e r e f e r e n t

s y s t e m s t h e y are e x t r a c t e d from have a n a l r e a d y p r a c t i c e d and

p r e d e t e r m i n e d s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l meaning. T h i s common c o d i n g

l i n k s s i g n s i n t h e s y n t a g m a t i c arrangement o f t h e message with

t h e suggested semantic universe of prevailing s o c i a l ideoloqy,

Connotative s i g n i f i e r s (denotative signs) 'point to' referent

s y s t e m s m z r e l y as f o r m s o f knowledge o r whole a r e a s o f i d e a s ,

but not a s single specific ideas. W i l l i a m s o n g o e s so f a r a s t o

s a y t h a t c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e 3 s o f f e r t h e i r meaning o n l y a s

distinguishable elements or paradigiaatic d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t h e

r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s o u t o f w h i c h t h e y come, r a t h e r t h a n a s

contents. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e s e s i g n i f i e d are 'hollow o f meaning8

by t h e m s e l v e s , As W i l l i a m s o n s t a t s s :
 Only t h e form and s t r u c t u r e of t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e a a r e
a p p r o p r i a t e d by t h e a,jvertisernent system; i t is t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p and d i s t i n c t i o n between parts, r a t h e r t h a n
t h e p a r t s t h e m s e l v e s , t h a t make a n a l r e a d y s t r u c t u r e d
e x t e r n a l system s o v a l u a b l e t o a d v e r t i s i n g . The l i n k s
made b e t w e e n e l e n e n t s f r o m a r e f e r e n t s y s t e m a n d
p r o d u c t s arise from t h e p l a c e t h e s e have i n t h e whole
system r a t h e r t h a n from t h e i r i n h e r e n t q u a l i t i e s . 7

The c o d e s t h a t adwork c a l l s upon us t o refer t o i n c r e a t i n g

t h e meaning around , t h e product s i g n of t h e a d are f a m i l i a r ,

c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d a n d t y p i c a l of mass c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s /

s i g n i f i c a t i o n s t h a t we h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d i n o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s ,

Operating i n s i q n i f i c a t i o n processes s i m i l a r to Saussuress

'language*, t h e s e c o n n o t a t i v e c o d e s a r e s o c i a l l y d e r i v e d and d o

n o t o r i g i n a t e i n t h e t h o u g h t of i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s , T h e y are

s o c i a l l y shared and constituted. They e x i s t i n o u r t h o u g h t b u t

are n o t a b s t r a c t i o n s because a s S a u s s u r e m a i n t a i n s ,
associations w h i c h b e a r t h e s t a m p o f c o l l e c t i v e a p p r o v a l a r e

realities t h a t have t h e i r seat i n brain.*s For Uilliamson,

l a n g u a g e c o n d i t i o n s snd i s c o n d i t i o n e d by ' s p e e c h S ( t h e

s i g n i f y i n g p r a c t i c e s of * s u b j e c t s g ) a n d is c o i n p o s e d o f a d i v a r s e

s e t of s o c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s . A d v e r t i s e m e n t s are t h e * s p e e c h g -

s y n t a c t i c combination of s i g n s i n t o messages- a n d l a n g u a g s is

t h e means ( c o d e s ) through which messages f u n c t i o n ( r e f e r e n c e s

a n d adwork t e c h n i q u e s employed by a d v e r t i s e r s a n d e f f e c t i v e i n

reading f o r *subjects8). I n t h i s speech t h e 'subject' enters

i n t o a *spaces between t h e connotative s i y n i f i e r (denotntive

s i g n s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d by adwork i n t h e m e s s a g e ) a n d

the connotative signified, W i l l i a m s o n e x p l a i n s t h e 'spats* o f

t h e i s u b j e c t g within t h i s s i g n i f i c a t i o n process:
 ... t h e i d e o l o g y of t h e ' R e f e r e n t System' is a l w a y s
b e i n g r e g e n e r a t e d i n o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e ad. T h i n g s
' m e a n * t o u s a n d we q i v e t h i s m e a n i n g t o t h e p r o d u c t o n
t h e b a s i s of a i r r a t i o n a l m e n t a l l e a p i n v i t e d b y t h e
form o f t h e a d , . , , ideas v a l u e s , meaning, e x i s t i n
p r a c t i c e , t h e p r o c e s s of m a k i n g t h e a d m e a n , i.e. m a k i n g
t h e r e q u i r e d l e a p from t h e r e f e r e n t o b j e c t t o t h e
p r o d u c t : i t i s n o t o n l y m e a n i n g t h a t emerges i n t h e
spacs c o v e r e d by t h i s l e a p - b u t also, o u r s e l v e s . 9

Williamson's conceptualization of * t h e s p a c e of t h e s u b j e c t

c o v e r e d by a n i r r a t i o n a l m e n t a l l e a p * , o b s c u r e s t h e whole

q u e s t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t a n d u l t i m a t e l y l e a v e s i t a s a n e m p t y

space.10 w i l l i a m s o n t a k e s S a u s s u r e 8 s t h e o r y of l a n g u a g e

e x p l a i n e d by p r a c t i c e s w h o l l y e x c l u s i v e of t h e ' s u b j e c t * a n d

reconceptualizes language as explicable exclusively a t the l e v e l

of t h e ' s u b j e c t 8 . 3 i l l i a m s o n d i s c u s s e s t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e

'subject' i n t h e m e s s a g e ( t h e r o l e of a p p e l l a t i o n ) a n d t h e

constitution o f t h e s u b j e c t b y r e f e r r i n g t o a p e r s p e c t i v e o f

lsubjects-in-qenerall found i n psycho-analytic approaches. She

borrows h e r concept o f adwork from F r e u d t s psycho-analytic

c o n c e p t o f ' d r e a m w o r k * t o s u g g e s t how t h e ' s u b j e c t * i s l o c k e d

i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f y i n g r e l a t i o n between a s t r u c t u r e d or

c o d e d messacje a n d t h e a p p a r a t u s e s of t h e m i n d . The unconscious

p r o c e s s t h a t creates t h e ' s u b j e c t ' is t h e sa%e o n e t h a t

positions t h e 'subject* i n language, As well, s h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t

t h i s p r o c e s s 'creates t h e s u b j e c t for i d e o l o g y * .

Barthes and Williamson g i v e aduork and t e x t u a l s t r u c t u r e s a

central place i n t h e i r analyses. The ad t e x t c a n n o t c o n v e y t h e .

m e a n i n g o f referent systems o r ' r e f l e c t d d realityq: its p r o d u c e d

meaning is basod on t h e adwork's a b i l i t y t o s i t u a t e / r e c r e a t e the

a d d r e s s e e i n a r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n of u n p r o s l e a a t i c
identification/knowledge. S i m i l a r l y t h i s p r o c e s s c o n s t i t u t e s t h e

process of formation of t h e 'subject'. W i l l i a m s o n writes:

T h i s s p a c e is t h a t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s s u b j e c t : h e o r
s h e i s not a s i m p l e r e c e i v e r b u t a c r e a t o r o f
meaning.... As a n a d s p e a k s t o u s , we s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
c r e a t e t h a t s p e e c h ( i t means t o u s ) , a n d are c r e a t e d b y
i t a s its creators.11

The s i g n i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s of language, t h e p r a c t i c e s o f

representation, a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f i d e o l o g y a l l seea t o c o l l a p s e

i n t o one another i n t h i s psycho-analytical p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e

generalized 'subjectg/text relationship. By d e f i n i t i o n t h e

' s u b j e c t * is a l w a y s ' a l r e a d y 8 o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t

i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n adwork h a s c o n s t i t u t e d i n its n e c e s s a r y

message-forms. T h e s u b j e c t is s e c u r e d i n p l a c e b y a d w o r k i n o n e

message a f t e r another. This critical perspective, w h i c h assuaes ,

t h e u n i v e r s a l s t r u c t u r i n g e f f e c t of t h e dominant ideology,

s u f f e r s t h e same s h o r t c o m i n g s a s n o n - l i n g u i s t i c domination

t h e o r i e s i n its m a s s - c u l t u r e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of e m p i r i c a l

communication s y s t e m s and t h e i r c o n t e x t s o f use. Barthes

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l r e f e r ~ n c e se m p l o y e d i n a d s a r e so

g e n e r a l i z e d a n d k n o w l e d g e of t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s s o

r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e h y a l l s s c t o r s of c u l t u r a l r e 3 d e r s , t h a t i t

i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r a d v e r t i s i n g r e f e r e n c e s a s a 'common
domain o f c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e d s ' . The only possible r e a l i z a t i o n

o f t h e s e c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i e d s becomes t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n by t h e

' s u b jectg ( c o n s t i t u e d by language') posi tionsd i n t h e t e x t and

e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of a s i n g l e , u n i v e r s a l set o f

psycho-linguistic structures (1. e., t h e language of t h e self).

The psycho-analytic o r i e n t a t i o n o f B a r t h e s and Williamson

a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n t h e t e x t u a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s t

t h e a b s t r a c t e d l e v e l of t h e unconscious. The c o n s t i t u t i o n of t h e

'mirror-self*, which a d s s u p p o s e d l y a p p e l u s i n t o , is an
o p e r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d more by o u r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s f o r

communic?ition 2nd s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n o u r k n o w l e d g e of

references t o different discourses of varied semantic values i n

our s o c i a l experiences.

T h e s e s e n i i o t i c t h e o r i e s o f c o d e s and l a n g u a g e s u g g e s t t h a t

t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n of s i g n s i n a m e s s a g e h a v e a

self-identity; t h a t is, t h e y are d i s t i n c t and r e c o q n i z a b l e a s

p a r a d i g m a t i c and s y n t a g m a t i c elements. The r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n

o f s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s is a c h i e v e d by t h e s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s ,

o f s i g n s i n a m e s s a g s w h i l e t h e s u b s t a n t i a l m e a n i n g s of s i g n s

c o m e s f r o m t h e i r i d e a l o p p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r terms i n p a r a d i g m a t i c

systems, S a r t h e s and Williamson are s o l e l y concerned with t h e

universal, i n t e n t i o n a l , s e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a s i g n a n d its

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s f o r a l l u s e r s o f a language system (code o r

metastructure [advartisingJ). T r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e i n t e n t i o n a l or

u n i v e r s a l i s t l i n g u i s t i c approach t o representational processas

of s i g n s h a v e r e l i e d upon S a u s s u r e ' s s i g n i f i o r / s i g n i f i e d I

r e l a t i o n i n which t h e s i g n i f i e d r e m a i n s i w p r e c i s e , h a l f w a y

between psychology and t h e P l a t o n i c t h e o r y o f ide2s. The t e n s i o n

b e t w e e n a n i n t e n t i o n a l s e m a n t i c s ( s e m i o t i c claim o f immanence)

and an e x t e n t i o n a l s e m a n t i c s ( r e f e r e n t s a r e real t h i n g s i n t h e

real world) is t h r e a t e n i n g t o S a u s s u r e a n m o d e l l e d semiotics.12

 T h e e m p i r i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c e l s m e n t s

(i.e.words)suggests t h a t g e n e r a l terms l i k e "dog" g a i n i d e n t i t y

by t h e s y m b o l r e f e r r i n g r e p e a t e d l y t o t h e r e a l o b j e c t . Terms

e n t e r i n t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c u r r e n c y o f language u s e by t h e

symbol h j v i n g a c o n c e p t u a l and l e a r n e d r e f e r e n c e t o t h e real

object, However, 0.n t h i s p o i n t , semiotics d e f e n d s its

i n t e n t i o n a l s 9 m a n t i c p e r s p e c t i v e by e x p l a i n i n g , f o r example, t h e

u s e of s i g n - v e h i c l e s t h a t r e f e r to non-existent e n t i t i e s such as

'unicorns o r 'mermaid*. The f u n c t i o n o f r e f e r r i n g to f i c t i v e

e n t i t i e s i s e s s e n t i a l l y n o t u n l i k e t h e f u n c t i o n of r e p r e s e n t i n g

actual entites. Umberto E c o d e f e n d s s e m i o t i c o r i n t e n t i o n a l

s e m a n t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s on t h e b a s i s o f c u l t u r a l l y - o r d e r e d codes

m e d i a t i n g how a s o c i e t y t h i n k s a n d s p e a k s a b o u t i t s e l f :

W i t h i n t h e f r a ~ e w o r kof a t h e o r y of c o d e s i t i s
unnecessary to r e s o r t t o t h e notion of extention, nor t o
t h a t o f possible worlds; t h e codes i n s o f a r as they are
a c c e p t e d by a s o c i e t y , s e t u p a ' c u l t u r a l x w o r l d w h i c h
is n e i t h e r a c t u a l nor p o s s i b l e i n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l s e n s e ;
i t s 2 x i s t e n c e is l i n k e d t o a c u l t u r a l o r d e r , w h i c h i s
t h e way a s o c i e t y t h i n k s , s p e a k s a n d , w h i l e s p e a k i n g
e x p l a i n s t h e ' p u r p o r t * of i t s t h o u g h t t h o u g h o t h e r
t h o u g h t s . S i n c e it is t h r o u g h t h i n k i n g and s p d s k i n g t h a t
a s o c i e t y d e v e l o p s , e x p a n d s o r c o l l a p s e s , e v e n when
d e a l i n g with 'impossible' worlds (i.e. a e s t h e t i c t e x t s ,
i d e o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s ) a t h e o r y o f c o d e s i s very much
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f o r m t o f s u c h ' c u l t u r a l ' worl3s, and
f a c e s t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m of how t o t o u c h c o n t e n t s . 1 3

F o r Eco, it appears unnecssary t o explain contents within a t e x t

by a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r r e f e r e n t s . Yet, E c o f a l l s i n t o n e i t h e r

t h e empiricist nor psycho-analytic conceptualizations of textual

c o n t e n t s a n d how t h e y r 2 f e r o u t u a r d l y f r o m t h e t e x t . T h e r e is a

p e r s p e c t i v e b a s e 4 o n o t h e r e m p i r i c s l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h it

i s n o t s t r i c t l y l i n g u i s t i c , w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
language elements, n o t i n terms of t h e f i x e d p o s i t i o n of t h e

s u b j e c t i n t h e t e x t 3nd t h e obvious s e l f - i d e n t i t y of signs, but

i n terms o f r e l a t i o n s of w h a t i s c o m m u n i c a t e d a n d who i t i s

c o m m u n i c a t e d to. T h e a s s u m p t i o n of t h e s e l f - i d e n t i t y of i d e a l

contents and t h e psycho-analytic notion t h a t a l l "subjectsN i n

a l l s o c i e t i e s a t a l l t i m e s a r e u n c o n s c i o u s l y c o n s t i t u t e d w are

b o t h p r e d i c a t e d o n a transcendental/universal f o r m . I + Stuart

Hall a r g u e s t h a t t h i s view of t h e * s u b j e c t 8 / t e x t e n c o u n t e r d o e s

n o t e x p l a i n "how h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t s , already

*positionedg i n language i n general, f u n c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to

p a r t i c u l a r dicourses and h i s t o r i c a l l y s p e c i f i c formations". 8s

R a t h e r t h a n v i e w i d e o l o g y a s d o a i n a n t o r s i n g u l a r f o r s o c i e t y by

v i r t u e o f its d e t e r m i n e d p l a c e i n l a n g u a g e p r o c e s s e s for a l l

subjects, i d e o l o g y must b e u n d e r s t o o d , a s Hall a n d E c o c o n t e n d ,

a s t h e ' u n i v e r s e of k n o w l e d g e of t h e r e c e i v e r a n d t h e g r o u p t o
which h e belongss. T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g d o e s away w i t h t h e

idealist notion of language and correctly refornulakes ideology

i n a way t h a t i s more o r l e s s c o t e r m i n o u s w i t h c u l t u r e i n t h e

anthropological sense. Further, i t p l a c e s correct e m p h a s i s u p o n

t h e knowledge (ideologies) subjects/addressees bring to t h e

encounter with v a r i o u s texts. The a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e g a r d f o r

d i f f e r e n t s u b j o c t p o s i t i o n i n g i n c u l t u r e and meaning

systems(Sahlin's s e c o n d f a c e t of t h e d o u b l e s y m b o 1 . i ~ p r o c e s s ) is

n o t s h a r e d i n t h e n o t i o n o f i d e o l o q y f o u n d i n t h e s e m i o t i c s of

Barthes and Williamson,

 Barthes and Williamson have focused on t h e i d e o l o g i c a l

'contents' o f s i g n e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e s y n t a g m a t i c d i m e n s i o n of

t h e m e s s a g e t h e r e b y e x a ~ i n i n gt h e t h e i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e

sign. The paradigmatic dimension which l i n k s t h e i n t e r n a l

s t r u c t u r e o u t w a r d s a n d is o n e i n d i c a t o r o f w e a n i n g c o n s i d e r s t h e

ideoloqical''contents' of c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i e d s s i m p l y w i t h i n a

generalized subjects-for-language model. This structuralist

p e r s p e c t i v e cannot adequately deal with t h e ' f u n c t i o n a l weaning'

of t h e a d s t r u c t u r e , f o r instance, operating i n a larger

s t r u c t u r e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; i.e., o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s of .of

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s u b j e c t / a u d i e n c e c o n t e x t s i n which a s s s a g e

reception occurs. As a p r o p o n e n t o f t h e c u l t u r a l approach to

sign reception, Kress i d e n t i f i e s t h e p r o b l e m w i t h p u r e l y

immanent a n a l y s i s o f s i g n s a s

... a major s h o r t c o m i n g of s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n a l y s i s : i n
o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o e n u m e r a t e items, s t a t e r + l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n them, e s t a b l i s h t h e i r s y n t a g m a t i c and
paradigmatic values, i n short, to display t h e structure,
one h a s to procesd as though t h e o b j e c t contracted no
e x t e r n a l e x t e r n a l r e l 3 t i o n s . T h i s g i v e s t o many
s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n a l y s e s t h e i r p e c u l i a r l y formal a n d
s t e r i l e f e e l : it is d i f f i c u l t t o l i n k s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t a
s t r u c t u r e outwarAs, S a u a s u r e g s dictum a g a i n s t t h e s t u d y
of c o n t e x t h a s r e m a i n e d w i l l y - n i l l y w i t h s t r u c t u r s l i s t
a n a l y s i s : 'language a u s t , t o p u t i t c o r r e c t l y , b e
s t u d i e d i n itself*.l6

S i m i l a r l y K l i n e a n d L e i s s a t t a c k s3miotic a n a l y s e s t h a t

h a v e c l a i m e d t h e ' u n i f y i n g c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e of t h e

code* ( i . e . , 'common d o m a i n of c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i e d s ' ) , On t h e

b a s i s o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o q i c a l t h e o r i e s and o b s e r v a t i o n s of

Sahlins, and Douglas and Isherwood, K l i n e and Leiss b e l i e v e t h a t

a d v e r t i s i n g c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d from t h e s u b j e c t s - i n - g e n e r a l
semiotic a p p r o a c h -- o n e set of c u l t u r a l v a l u e s a n 2 s o c i a l

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n for a l l consumers/subjects. Immanent a n a l y s e s

c a n n o t t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s y s t e m a n d its

r e l a t i o n s h i p to s t r u c t u r s d a s s i m i l a t i o n by s o c i a l l y

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d groups. I t a b s t r a c t s a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o u t of t h e

l a r g e r communications system through which t h e y are transmitted.

Semiotic a n a l y s i s e s s e n t i a l l y restricts i t s s t u d y t o t h e

c o m m u n i c a t e d t e x t w i t h l i t t l e i f n o c o n s i d e r a t i o n of c o n t e x t ( a

c o m w u n i c a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h s t u d i e s s e n d e r s and receivers o f

messsages) ,

U n b e r t o E c o s u g g e s t s t h a t a semiotic a p p r o a c h is p o s s i b l e

i n t h e s t u d y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n i f a n a t t e m p t is made t o d e a l w i t h

'what i n f a c t t h e audience g e t s g f r o @ t h e transmission of signs. ,

An a n a l y s i s w h i c h i n t e r p r e t s t h e f o r m s and c o n t e n t s o f t h e

wessaqe should, a c c o r d i n g t o Eco, s i n g l e out:

( 1 ) t h e i n t e n t i o n s of t h e s e n d e r ; ( 2 ) t h e o b j e c t i v e
s t r u c t u r e of t h e m e s s a g e ; ( 3 ) t h e r e a c t i o n s o f t h e
a d d r e s s e e t o items ( 1 ) a n 3 ( 2 )

a a r t h e s * a n d W i l l i a m s o n i s semiotic i n q u i r i e s s i n g l e o u t

o n l y t h e s e c o n d item, H o w e v e r , i n t h i s s e c o n d item of t h e

' o b j e c t i v e * c o n t e n t r e l a t i o n s a n d f o r m s of t h e a d t e x t l i e t h e

i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e emitter ( i . e . , m a r k e t e r s , advertisers, and

creative personnel). T h e emitter, a s c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e r ,

i n t e n t i o n a l l y selects meaningful r e f e r e n c e s and adwork

c o m b i n a t i o n s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . He

d e t e r m i n e s why, f o r whom, a n d how c h a i n s o f s i g n s s h o u l d b e

arranged. T h e s e l e c t i o n of s f r a m e w o r k o f c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s
c a n be a n a l y s e d b y s e m i o t i c s a s a s y s t e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n

c o n v e n t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o p a r t i c u l a r s y s t e m s of k n o w l e d g e (a

shared emitter/receiver code) once it takes t h e 'objective' form

of a s y s t e m o f s i g n s .

Barthes and Williamson have attempted o n l y t o deal with t h e

r e a c t i o n s o f t h e a d d r e s s e e t o Z c o y s f i r s t a n d s e c o n d items f r o m

the unfortunate perspective of the 'selfq/'subject' c r e a t e d by

adwork, From t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s and

communication t h e o r i s t s t h e 'subjects-in - g e n e r a l 8 d e f i n i t i o n of

m e s s a g e r e c s p t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y a m o u n t s t o n o t h i n g wore

t h a n a n e b u l o u s a s s u m p t i o n o f mass-culture/msss-audience. A more

f a i t h f u l d e s c r i p t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t o f the a u d i e n c e a s a

personality type of one global 'subjectq. It is t h e

psychological mechanisms o f t h e 'subject', and n o t 3 careful

a n a l y s i s o f e m p i r i c a l c o n t e x t s o f a d v e r t i s i n g mass r e c e p t i o n ,

t h a t t y p i f y t h e model of m e s s a g e r e c e p t i o n of B a r t h e s a n d

Williamson, S o r is t h e r e a n y m e n t i o n of t h e o t h e r d i s c u r s i v e

formations t h a t are brought i n t o play through t h e s u b j e c t ' s

placenent in other practices - cultural, educational,

institutional. I f we a r e t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e a d d r e s s e e r e a c t s -
u t i l i z e s r e a d i n g c o d e s ( c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e systems) called up i n

t h e o b j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s and forms o f t h e m e s s a g e - to the

i n t e n t i o n s of t h e e m i t t e r , t h s n d a r t h e s 2 n d N i l l i a ~ s o n

c o n c e p t u 3 l i z e t h e s e i n t e n t i o n s a s t h o s e of a m a n i p u l a t i n g

d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y p r o d u c e ? i n t h e l a n g u a g e p r a c t i c e s of a

one-dimensional and u n i v o c a l s o c i e t y . Advertisers intend and

e f f e c t more t h a n s i m p l y a f a l s e r e - c r e a t i o n of o u r s e l v e s t h r o u g h

a n imaginary world of coamo?ities and t h e i r s o c i a l values. Kline

and L e i s s provide u s with an a l t e r n a t i v e , more e m p i r i c a l

e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e emitters o f a d s b a s e d o n

presuppositions of c u l t u r a l l y differentiated reading audiences.

S p e a k i n g i n terms of t h e c o a m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t o f the

contemporary marketplace, instead of the general context of

d o m i n a n t d e f i n i t i o n s of s o c i a l r e a l i t y , K l i n e a n d Leiss s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e emitter u n d e r s t a n d s a d v e r t i s i n q / r n a r k e t c o n s u m e r s

... n o t as a p e r s o n a l i t y type, but a s a demographic

substratum organized around p a r t i c u l a r me3surable
behaviour p r a c t i c e s ( l i f e s t y l e , consumption s t y l e s ,
m e d i a u s e , b r a n d p u r c h a s e ) (Sommers, 1983.). This...
p r e m i s e is b a s e d o n n o t i o n s which a s s u m e t h e r e i s no
mass b u t o n l y s e g m e n t e d a u d i e n c e s which must be t a r g e t e d
b y r e s e a r c h a n d d e l i v e r e d t h e goods i n terws of t h e i r
' p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s ' . 18

K l i n e snd L e i s s s t u d y t h e cnanqing s t r u c t u r e of t h e message

system i n ads and t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n t h e y off2r above

c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e contemporary phase i n t h e presentation of

a d v e r t i s i n g forms and c o n t e n t s caile3 ' l i f e s t y l e ' . It is

a d v e r t i s i n g mode o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t s t a r t e d a b o u t 1 9 6 5 a n d i s

now i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s b e i n g m o r e f u l l y r s a l i z e d by

e s p e c i a l l y magazine a d v e r t i s e r s . T h e messaqe/aud i e n c r

r e l a t i o n s h i p s u q q e s t e d by t h e p s y c h o - a n a l y t i c semiotic a n a l y s e s

t y p i f y t h e t h e e a r l i e r p h a s e of a p p e a l s t o c o n s u m e r s c a l l e d

'personification* (1945- 1 9 6 5 ) . Here a d s s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

a p p r o a c h of m a r k e t e r s t o c o n s u m e r s , a t t h e mor? u n i v e r s a l l e v e l

of reflecting a generalized 'self', seems more a p p l i c a b l e a n d

e m p i r i c a l 1 y c o r r e c t . 1n d e s c r i b i n g t h i s p h a s e , K l i n e writes
that:

The m o d e l a p p e a r s t o r e f l e c t b a c k t h e mirror i m a g e o f
t h e s e l f d e f i n e d and t r a n s f o r m e d i n f a n t a s y by t h e
p r o d u c t . I n t h e m i r r o r a ? , the p r o d u c t ' s p o w e r i s n o t
t u r n e d a g a i n s t someone else, o r used i n a s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a g a i n s t t h e ego of t h e c o n s u m e r . l9

T h i s is n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e i s n o r e f e r e n c e t o

specified cultural values i n these 'selfg centered ads, but

r a t h e r c o n s u m e r / c u l t u r a l g r o u p i d e n t i t y is r e p l a c e d a s t h e

e s s e n t i a l p o s i t i v e p r o d u c t a s s o c i a t i o n by g e n e r a l consumer i d e a l

'self * images.

T o d a y t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f a d v e r t i s e r s a n d t h e r e a c t i o n of

a u d i e n c e s t o t h e s e i n t e n d e d messages is b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s

t h e r e s u l t o f a a r k e t segmentation and t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n

consumer groups. Differentiated audience predispositions* are a

g r o w i n g f a c t o r i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s t r u c t u r e d c o d e s of

cultural reference i n advertising.

In t h o c o m m u n i c a t i o n of c u l t u r a l l y p r o d u c e d m e s s a g e s t h e
emitter s n g a g e s i n t w o J i s t i n c t s e m i o t i c o p e r a t i o n s . He s e l e c t s

p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t s a n d c o d e s ( f o r t h e r e p r e s a n t a t i o n . o f these

c o n t e n t s ) f r o a a p o o l of c u l t u r s l m a t e r i a l s . As well, he

combines and arranges t h e s e s e l e c t i o n s i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r t e x t ,

t h a t s h a r e s w i t h o t h e r s i m i l a r l y combined and s e l e c t e d e l e a e n t s

of o t h e r t e x t s , an i n t e n t i o n 3 1 r e c o g n i t i o n ( f o r emitter and
r e c e i v e r ) t h a t i s common o f a p a r t i c u l a r d i s c o u r s e . These

o p e r a t i o n s o f s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n r e s u l t from t h e

d e c i s i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n 3 e x e r c i s e d by t h e s e n d e r / p r o d u c e r i n

c u l t u r s l production practices, The decision-making a c t i v i t y

d e s e r v e s a t t e n t i o n if t h e r e e x i s t m u l t i p l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e

d e n o t a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t (i.e.,adwork) of selected or r e f e r r z d - t o

contents. T h e s e e m i n g l y o r d i n a r y o r n a t u r a l r e c o g n i t i o n of

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s l s i g n i f i e r s i n communicated mossages c a n have

v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e l e v e l of c o n n o t a t i o n b y s i m p l e

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e combining process. For a n example from

advertising, a woman a n d a c a r may b o t h a p p e a r i n a t e l e v i s i o n

commercial f o r t h a t car. W h e t h e r s h e i s s i m p l y p l a c e d b e s i d e t h e

c a r o r i s a c t i v e l y e x a m i n i n g t h e % a n y new f e a t u r e s o f t h e

v e h i c l e a n d d r i v i n g i t , c o n n o t e s two v e r y d i f f e r e n t

weanings:'this car is s e x y a n d a s s o p h i s t i c a t e d a s t h i s ~ o d e l *
o r ' t h i s v e h i c l e i s s u i t e d t o t h e t a s t e s o f t h e woman c o n s u ~ e r ' .
E v e n t h o u g h t h e v i s u a l s i g n i f i e r s of t h a woman a n d t h e c a r a r e

denotatively co-present, t h e d e n o t a t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of t h e s e

e l e m e n t s c o n n o t e d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s i n a a c h c o m a e r c i a l ; t h a t is,
t h e y m e t 3 c o ~ m u n i c a t es o m e t h i n g b s y o n d t h e o b v i o u s r e c o g n i t i o n s
of t h e c o m n i u n i c a t i o n . Veron d i s t i n g u i s h e s betweon t h e s e t w o

l e v e l s a s t h o s e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m e t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n . The

s e c o n d l e v e l , t h a t o f c o n n o t e d m e a n i n g , r e q u i r e s t h e emitter t o
h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t h e c o n t e x t of c o m m u n i c a t i o n (iaedium a n d

audience) and t o have performed p a r t i c u l a r s e l e c t i v e and

combinatory decisions. For V e r o n , the transmission of
i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d n o t s i m p l y be a n a l y z e d a t t h e l e v e l o f

c o n t e n t s ( d e n o t a t i v e message u n i t s ) communicated, but should be

a n a l y z e d b e a r i n g i n mind t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o a b i n a t o r y

o p e r a t i o n s i n t e n t i o n a l l y made by t h e s e n A e r .

M e a n i n g i s n o t a n i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t y o f t h e message a l o n e ,

b u t e n t a i l s what s e n d e r s and r e c e i v e r s ' i n t e n d ' t o do with a

p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n i c a t e d m e s s a g e s s well. ffetacommunication is a

p r a g m a t i c n o t i o n t h a t r e g a r d s t h e c o n t e x t of t h e e m p i r i c a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m o u t o f w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r messages a r e

g e n e r a t e d and c i r c u l a t e d . Even t h o u g h q e s s a g e s c o n v e y s o m e t h i n g

i n t h e i r contents, they a l s o o r i e n t t h e t h e receiver toward an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t h e s e n d e r i n t e r p r e t s t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p i n

t h e communication. T h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s e n d e r s h a v e o f how

audiences i n t e r p r e t messages f a c i l i t a t e , f o r i n s t a n c e , what

Williamson i d e n t i f i e s as a n unproblematic ' i r r a t i o n a l mental

l e a p a i n t h e m i n d of t h e a d * s u b j e c t 8 . T h e a d v e r t i s e r

p r e s u p p o s e s i n h i s o p e r a t i o n s of s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n

c e r t a i n audience decoding predilections.

Yet, 2 u d i e n c e s h a v e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s w h i c h t h e y t a k e t o t h e

r e a d i n g o f a n ad a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e t h e emitter w i t h a

c o n t e x t of m e t a c o r a m u n i c a t i o n t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s h e s e l e c t s a n d

combines coded c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s i n ad messages. Janice

Winship, i n a n example from a d v e r t i s i n g , illustrates this

c o n s i d e r s t i o n by d e s c r i b i n g t h e c a s e of a p u b l i c i t y p o s t e r f o r a

car t h a t e f f e c t e d a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e mass-marketed
wetacommunication. The ad read, ' I f i t were a l a d y i t w o u l d g e t
i t s b o t t o m p i n c h e d * a n d was defaced b y t h e r e j o i n d e r : 'If t h i s

l a E y were a c a r s h e ' d r u n you down'. 20 The ad managed t o o f f e n d

t h e f e m a l e s e g m e n t o f t h e mass a u d i e n c e a n d u l t i m a t e l y p r o d u c e d

a n unexpected n e g a t i v e metacommunication response. he e r r o r i n

p r o d u c t p r e s e n t a t i o n c a n be i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of a

predominantly. c h a u v i n i s t c u l t u r a l r e f e r s n c e combined i n t o a

mass-sudience message. I n d e c i d i n g o n how t h e p r o d u c t w i l l b e

c o n n o t e d t h e s e n d e r m u s t t a k e a c c o u n t o f who t h e a u d i e n c e of t h e

m e s s a g e w i l l b e a n d how t h a t a u d i e n c e i s l i k e l y t o f a v o u r a b l y o r

d i s f a v o u r a b l y r e g a r d t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e emitter.

T h r o u g h s p e c i f i c c u t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s (select l e x i c o n s o f a

mythical, historical, social and e t h n o g r a p h i c n a t u r e ) and i n t h e

more s u b t l e s t y l e s of l a y o u t , t h e r e c e i v i n g a u d i e n c e is cued, at I

t h e l e v e l of m e t a c o m m u n i c ~ t o i n a s t o t h e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n of t h e

sender/cultural producer. A t t h e c o n n o t a t i v e l e v e l s o f t h e coded

message, t h e a u d i e n c e may w i t c h t h e i r * p r e d i s p o s i t i o n 1 w i t h t h a t

a s s u m e d by t h e a d v e r t i s e t / p r o d u c e r , thus defining into existence

t h e s h a r i n g or non-sharing of c u l t u r a l p e r s p a c t i v e . Advertisers

r e l y upon c r e a t i n g a f a v o u r a b l e metamessage i n t r a n s f e r r i n g

s o m e t h i n g (someone, s o m e p l a c e ) we r e c o g n i z e a n d v a l u e o n t o t h e

product, T h e y m u s t a s s o c i a t e t h e p r o d u c t w i t h i n c o d e s of

i m a g i s t i c presentation and c u l t u r a l presentation, I t Is i n t h i s

s e n s e t h a t we may b e g i n t o t a l k a b o u t i ~ e o l o g i c s lc o m m u n i c s t i o n ,

Veron e x p l a i n s t h a t :

A t t h e societal l e v e l , c o n n o t a t i o n is t h e communication
dimension through which i d e o l o g i c a l metamessages are
t r a n s m i t t e d embodied i n meszages having a manifest
r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n . J u s t 3s i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l
 r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o m m u n i c ~ t o r st r a n s m i t t h r o u g h
metacommunication t h e 'imageg t h e y have with regard t o
t h e o n g o i n g r e l a t i o n s i p a n d i t s norms, s o t h e s o c i a l
mass-messages a l w a y s metacommunicate a c e r t a i n 'image'
of society, a certain conception o f s o c i a l reality, the
way o f o r g a n i z i n g i t a n d t h e way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s
d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s , As t h i s i m a g e a n d t h e s e p o s s i b l e w a y s
o f c o n c e i v i n g and understanding s o c i a l r e a l i t y a r e n o t
t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e o n e s , a n d ss t h e y a r e t r a n s m i t t e d
t h r o u g h m e t a c o m m u n i c s t i o n , i.e., a t the implicit level
of m s a n i n g , t h e term I d e o l o g i c a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n seems
f a i r l y ,adequate.21

A d v e r t i s i n g is i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e s e n s e t h a t

i t o p e r a t e s w i t h i n a set of s o m a n t i c r u l e s , i-e,, r u l e s o f hou

s i g n s a r e r e l a t e d t o what t h e r e f e r t o , a n d t h i s s e t is not t h e

o n l y way o f r e p r e s e n t i n g s o c i a l r e a l i t y . In describing the

s e l e c t i o n and combination p r a c t i c e s e v i d e n t i n ads, Richard

Pollay observes that, "advertising selectively reinforces

c e r t a i n b e h a v i o u r s a n 3 c e r t a i n v a l u e s and n e g l a c t s others**,zZ

Decisions about s e l e c t i o n and combination o f semantic elements

a r e l i m i t e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e message. Yet, a d v e r t i s i n g

i n its d i v e r s i t y a n d i n n o v a t i v e c r e a t i o n s makes e v i d e n t t h a t t h e

s e t of m e s s a g e s t h a t c a n b e g e n e r a t e d by t h e ' r u l e s o f s e l e c t i o n b

and combination* a r e i n f i n i t e , It i s n o t enough t o d e s c r i b e

t h e s e r u l e s s i m p l y a s t h e way a d v e r t i s i n g p o s i t i o n s u s i n t h e

s e m a n t i c - s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t s of its m e s s a g e s a n d t h e r e f o r e i n

t h e p o s i t i v e n o r m a t i v e s e c t o r s of s o c i a l l i f e . T h i s l e v e l of

a n a l y s i s a l o n e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e d i f f e r e n t modes o f a d d r e s s

employed i n a d s f o r d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t t y p e s (markets) and

different audience predispositions. Kline tells u s t h a t i n

a d v e r t i s e m e n t s " t h e u s e of p r o d u c t s i s i n t e g r a t e ? w i t h t h e pool

o f c u l t u r a l imagery, b u t n o t a s a c u l t u r a l u n i t y , b u t more
s p e c i f i c a l l y a s v a l u e d embl2rns o f p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t s a n d s o c i a l

g r o u p s w . z 3 K l i n e e x p r e s s e s h e r e a more p r a g m a t i c c o n c e r n w i t h

how m e a n i n g c o m e s i n t o b e i n g a s a n e a i p i r i c a l f a c t o f s o c i a l

communication. This involves a concern with t h e l a r g e r

s t r u c t u r e d c o n t e x t o f i n t e n t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n of t h e m e s s a g e and

r e c e p t i o n by d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a u d i e n c e s - where t h e a d d r e s s o r and

a d d r e s s e e a r e n o t empty domains b u t are competent s u b j e c t s .

S t u a r t Hall e m p l o y s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y

c o n c e p t s o f s e n d e r s and r e c e i v e r s f o r t h e s t u d y o f communication

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s of m a s s - m e d i a production

and its i n t e n t i o n a l messages (encoding s t r u c t u r e s ) , and t h e

r e c e p t i o n o f media m e s s a g e s by a u d i e n c e s (Aecoding s t r u c t u r e s ) .

The s e n d e r / m e s s a g ~ / r e c e i v e r model o f media coninunication

examines meaning a s a complex p r o c e s s d e t e r m i n e d by two d i s t i n c t

s t a g e s of o f e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o a i n g . T h i s model h e l p s e x p l a i n ,

..,a p r o c e s s i n terms of a s t r u c t u r e p r o d u c e d a n d
sustained through the articulation of linked but
d i s t i n c t i v e moments - p r o d u c t i o n , c i r c u l a t i o n ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n / c o n s u m p t i ~ n ~r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s w o u l d b e t o
t h i n k of t h e p r o c e s s a s a 'complex s t r u c t u r e i n
dominancea, sustained through t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of
c o n n e c t e d p r a c t i c e s , e a c h of which, however, r e t a i n s its
d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s a n d h a s i t s own s p e c i f i c m o d a l i t y , i t s
own f o r a s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f e x i s t e n c e . * *

i i a l 1 8 s s e m i o t i c m e t h o d o l o g y r e f u t e s t h e s t a t i c c o n c e p t of

p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n of t h e t e x t -- the isolated t e x t as t h e only

d e t e r m i n a n t of m e a n i n g . U n l i k e t h e s e m i o t i c s of S a r t h e s a n d
Williamson, H a l l p r o v i d e s an a n a l y t i c framework t h a t a t t e m p t s to

i d e n t i f y t h e e m p i r i c a l u i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i n t e n t i o n a l

semantic 'use' p r o d u c e r s a n d a u d i e n c e s m a k e of an objective t e x t

from t h e i r d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e coBmunication

system. T h s p r o d u c e r o p e r a t e s o n p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s of

what c o n s t i t u t e s a 'good' a c t i o n s h o t i n a d e t e c t i v e movie o r

what is newsworthy f o r n e t w o r k t e l e v i s i o n n e w s c a s t s for

instance, while the audience uses interpretivz codes of t a s t e i n

f i l m s o r s c e p t i c i s m t o w a r d s A a e r i c a n n e w s s e l a z t i o n of

international affairs. iihile a u d i e n c e s w i l l seldom n o t recognize

t h e s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t s o f media messages, there i s n o g u a r a n t e e

t h a t t h e y w i l l u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y a r r i v e a t t h e same

metacommunicated or c o n n o t e d meaning a s i n t e n d e d by t h e s e n d e r .

A t t h e monient o f production/circulation a message is

s t r u c t u r e d a s m e a n i n g f u l d i s c o u r s e v i a a s e r i e s d e c i s i o n s made

within apparatuses, r e l a t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s of t h e e n c o d i n g

institutions, Hall n o t e s t h a t t h i s e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r e

encompasses media p r o d u c t i o n ' s "material i n s t r u m e n t s - its

'means' - a s well a s i t s o u n s e t s of s o c i a l ( p r o d u c t i o n )

relations - t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s and c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r a c t i c e s

w i t h i n media a p p a r a t u s e s w . 2 ' I n i t s d i s c u r s i v e f o r m t h e message

is d i s t r i b u t e d t o m e d i a a u d i e n c e s who d e c o n s t r u c t i t a n d r e t u r n
t h e c o m m u n i c a t e d m a t e r i a l s of t h e t e x t t o t h e f o r m o f c u l t u r a l

practice -- t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e a d i n g its meaning by d e c o d i n g

it w i t h implied, t e x t u a l and subjoct-centered, predispositional

r e a d i n g codes. E a l l a d d s a n i m p o r t a n t "useu q u a l i f i c a t i o n of
t h i s decoding process:

I f no 'meaning' is taken, t h e r e c a n b e no *consumptiono,

I f t h e meaning i s n o t a r t i c u l a t e d i n p r a c t i c e , i t h a s no
effect, 26

While Hall d o e s n o t deny t h a t t h ? message h a s a ' p r i v i l e g e d 8

p o s i t i o n i n communication a t t h e p o i n t o f c i c u l a t i o n a s a melia

product, t h e moments o f e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g a r e d e t s r m i n a t e

moments i n t h e c r e a t i o n / p r o d u c t i o n and recreation/consumption of

meaning. E f f e c t i v e communication depends on a c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e

t r a n s p o s i t i o n i n t o a n d o u t of t h e mode o f s y m b o l i c e x c h a n g e ( t h e

code). I n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f media messages s e l e c t i v e and

c o m b i n a t o r y d e c i s i o n s e f f e c t t h e mode o f s y m b o l i c e x c h a n g e a n d

i n c l u d e wknowled.ge-in-use concerning the routines of production,

historically defined technical skills, professional ideologies,

i n s t i t u t i o n a l knowledge .,. a n d assumptions about the

audiencew,z7 The p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e should n o t b e c o n c e i v e 3 of

I
in isolation, but rather as actively selected treatments,

e v e n t s , images o f t h e audience, d e f i n i t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n from

o t h e r a r e a s o f s o c i a l p r a c t i c e and o t h e r d i s c u r s i v e f o r z ? i t i o n s

contained within t h e wider socio-cultural practices of a

society. Hall s u g g e s t s t h a t media producers, i n encoding t h e i r

messages f o r p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s o f message u s e ( i , e . , n a t i o n a l

news, e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) v i e w t h e a u d i e n c e a s both t h e ' s o u r c e g a n d

t h e ' r e c e i v e r g , t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d of t h e c o m m u n i c s t i o n . The

encoder r e a l i z e s both t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e a u d i e n c e and t h e

expect3tions t h a t h i s profe?ssional p r a c t i c e i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l

media d i s c o u r s e r e q u i r e s ,
 The message i n its d i s c u r s i v e form between ' s o u r c e 1 and

' r e c e i v e r a c a n n o t assume a n immediate i d e n t i t y based on its

o b j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l form -- i t must e n t e r i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r

c o n t e x t o f communication where s e n d e r s and r e c e i v e r s are real

human a g e n t s . If t h e c o d e s a c t i v e l y e m p l o y e d i n e n c o d i n g a n d

d e c o d i n g a r e , n o t t h e saBe, a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e a s s y m e t r i c a l , then

a misunderstanding of t h e i n t e n d e d message a t t h e p o i n t o f
r e c e p t i o n is i n e v i t a b l e , i f i n f a c t a n y m e a n i n g is t a k e n . In

t h i s case a s s y m m e t r y o r n o n - e q u i v a l e n c e o c c u r s b e t w e e n t h e c o d e

i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e e n c o d e r / p r o d u c e r a n d t h i s same c o d e n o t

identified by t h e decoder/receiver. A non-sharing o f t h e code

b e t w e e n t h e moments o f t h e m e s s a g e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e message

r e a d i n g b y a n a u d i e n c e r e s u l t s i n a d i s t o r t i o n of t h e

t r a n s m i t t e d message. E f f e c t i v e transmis;ion of meaning, on t h e

o t h e r hand, is p o s s i b l e i n a communication exchange i f t h e c o d e s

a r e u n d e r s t o o d a n d u s e d i n s i m i l a r u a y s by b o t h m e s s a g e
p r o d u c e r s and consumers. T h i s n o t i o n of s y m m e t r y a l l o w s B a l l t o

a r g u e t h a t b o t h s i d e s of t h e communication p r o c e s s ars

'rslatively a u t o n o m o u s a a n d h a v e t h e i r own d s t e r m i n a t i o n s i n

c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l p r a c t i c a . U n l i k e media p e r s ? e c t i v s s e s p o u s e d

by d o m i n a t i o n t h e o r y a n d i a a s s - c u l t u r e theorists, Hall's c u l t u r a l

s t u d i e s approach is more s p e c i f i c i n its d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and professional i d e o l o g i e s of t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and r e l a t i o n s of media p r o d u c t i o n

(i.e., professional codes) , a n 2 i n its a n t h r o p o l o q i c a l and

s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s of p a r t i c u l a r d e c o d i n g a u d i e n c e s (i.e.,
based on a u d i a n c e g r o u p s o c i a l and media u s e e x p e r i e n c e ) .

H a l l i n t r o d u c e s t h e n o t i o n of a u d i e n c e i n h i s semiotic

methodology and adds t h e t a s k of i d e n t i f y i n g audience decoding

h a b i t s t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l a n ? l y s i s of m e a n i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r c o d e s

of a message. I n t h i s respect codes a r o not r e l a t e d t o one

u n i f y i n g . c u l t u r a 1 sxperience of 'subjects-in -general' nor a r e

t h e y n e a t l y o r d e r e d i n t o a p l u r a l i t y of a u d i e n c e - r e l a t e d

c a t e g o r i e s , each 2 q u a l i n p r o d u c t i o n v a l u e t o t h e n e x t , The

s i g n , a n 3 t h a t a r e a of s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e i t r e f e r s t o t h r o u g h a

c o d e , h a s f o r H a l l new v a l u e i n t h a t t h e s e m i o t i c l a n g u a g e model

i s a p p l i a d i n terms o f e m p i r i c a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s a s

'codes-in-ises a t t h e moments of e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g . Hall

explains that:

C e r t 3 i n c o d e s may, o f c o u r s e , b e s o u i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d
i n a s p e c i f i c l a n g u a g e community o r c u l t u r e , and b e
l e a r n e d a t so e a r l y a n age, t h a t t h e y appear n o t t o be
c o n s t r u c t e d - t h e effect o f a n a r t i c u l a t i o n b e t w e e n s i g n
and r e f e r e n t - b u t t o be n a t u r s l l y given,.,. The
o p e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l i z e d codes r e v e a l n o t t h e
t r a n s p a r e n c y a n d ' n a t u r a l n e s s ' of l a n g u a g e b u t t h a
d e p t h , t h e h a b i t u a t i o n , a n d t h e n e a r u n i v e r s a l i t y of
c o d e s i n use,... A c t u a l l y what n a t u r a l i z e d c o d e s
d e ~ o n s t r a t eis t h e d e g r e e of h a b i t u a t i o n p r o d u c e d when
t h e r e is a f u n d a m e n t a l a l i g n m e n t a n d r e c i p r o c i t y - a n
achieved equivalence - between encoding and decoding
s i d e s o f a n exchange o f meaning,*8

As a p r o d u c t of repeated d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e codes produce

'naturalt r e c o q n i t i o n s o f m a a n i n g b e y o n d t h e mere d e n o t a t i o n o f

t h e sign. Th* r e c a l l e d c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e d r a w n f r o m a s i q n is

c o n t r a c t e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d i n h a b i t u a l p r a c t i c e s

o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d

s i g n i f i e d s i n habitual s i g n i f i c a t i o n (codes), A t t h e l e v e l of
connotation t h e s i g n operates within t h e immediate discourse

( m e s s a g e c o n t e x t ) a n d a s well, w i t h i n e x t e r n a l d i s c u r s i v e f i e l d s

o f meaning d e f i n e d by p r a c t i c e d symbolic c o n d e n s a t i o n s of t h e i r

meaning i n t o codes. I f s y 3 m e t r y e x i s t s i n t h e c o d e of a m e s s a g e

i t is b e c a u s e t h e m e s s a g e i s b a s e d o n h 3 b i t u a l r e a d i n g c o d e s of

t h e c u l t u r a l l y defined audience.

H a l l g o e s o n t o s u g q e s t t h a t t h e s a m e s i g n i n a m e s s a g e may

o p e r a t e i n n o s e t h a n o n e c o n n o t a t i v e c o d e . T h e s i g n may h a v e

polysemic meaning f o r a decoding a u d i e n c e o r metacommunicate i n

a way u n f o e r s e e n b y t h e e n c o d e r . Y a b i t u a l r e a d i n g c o d e s of a n

a u d i e n c e may r u n c o n t r a r y t o t h o s e d o m i n a t i n g a m e s s a g e o r a n

e n t i r e discourse f o r t h a t matter. Uithin t h e possible range of

d i f f e r e n t h a b i t u a l r e a d i n g c o d e s b e l o n g i n g t o a s o c i e t y may b e t

different preferences i n t h e practice or non-practice of these

I
c o d e s by d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s . Hall explains that:
I

Polysemy must n o t , however, be c o n f u s e d w i t h p l u r a l i s m .

C o n n o t a t i v e c o d e s a r e n o t e q u a l a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s . Any
society/culture tends, with varying degrees of closure, i
t o i m p o s e i t s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of t h s s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l
and p o l i t i c a l world. These c o n s t i t u t e a dominant
I
c u l t u r a l o r d e r , though it is n e i t h e r u n i v o c a l n o r
u n c o n t e s t e d . The q u e s t i o n of t h e ' s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
d i s c o u r s e s i n dominance' is a c r u c i a l point.29

I n a l l s o c i e t i e s / c u l t u r e s d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s are I
J
I

d e v e l o p e d t o r e s t r i c t c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i e d s i n s u c h a way a s t o , =

e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m o f u n c e r t a i n signs; t h e l i n g u i s t i c message
1
i'
is s u c h a t e c h n i q u e , The c o n c e p t o f polysemy f i r s t g a i n e d
9
p r o m i n e n c e i n t h e s t u d y of r i t u a l s y m b o l s c o m m u n i c a t e 3 i n

primitive societies. Polysemy or m u l t i - v o c a l i t y a r e o r i g i n a l l y

1
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s u s e d t o e x p l a i n how a s i n g l e s y m b o l may
s t a n d f o r many m e a n i n g s o r r e f e r s n t s . For Hall, c o n n o t a t i v e

terms h a v e p o l y s z m i c p o t e n t i a l b y v i r t u e of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

c o n t e x t o f t h e i r u s e by s o c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and c u l t u r a l l y

d i s t i n c t groups of deco3ers. Hass m e d i a d e c o d i n g i s

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by polysemous frames of c u l t u r a l knowledge,

r e f e r e n c e and c o d e use. The s i g n ' s meaning t a k e n o u t o f t h e s s

l e x i c a l f r a m e s d o n o t o p e r a t e i n o n e s i n g l e or u n i v o c a l m e a n i n g

s y s t e m b u t may b e d e c o d a b f e b y t h e u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f

i n t e r p r e t i v e c o d e s b e l o n g i n g t o m e a n i n g systems ( a u d i e n c e

habitual reading preferences) t h a t can De s c a l e d from dominant

t o s u b o r d i n a t e when c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p r e f e r r s d p r o d u c e r ' s

encoding. C o n n o t a t i v e meanings i n media p r o d u c t s are i n

d o m i n a n c e by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y seem t o r e - o c c u r i n a type of

production/audience recognition c i r c u i t , But t h e s e dominant

codes and t h e i r meanings are not determined t h e i r f o r c e f u l

p o s i t i o n i n g i n t h e message alone, n o r by t h e a u d i e n c e b e i n g

fixed i n a particular social position enabling only certain

types of readings, I n d i s c u s s i n g d o m i n a n t code s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e

media, Hall argues t h a t they

... a r e ' s t r u c t u r e d i n dominanceg but not closed, t h e

communication p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s n o t i n t h e unproblematic
a s s i g n m e n t o f e v e r y v i s u a l item t o i t s q i v e n p o s i t i o n
w i t h i n a s e t o f p r e a r r a n g e d c o d e s , ~ u otf p e r f o r m a n c e
r u l e s of conpetence and use, of logics-in-use - which
s e e k a c t i v e l y to e n f o r c e o r p r e f e r one s e m a n t i c domain
o v e r a n o t h e r a n d r u l e items i n t o a n d o u t of t h e i r
a p p r o p r i a t e m e a n i n g - s e t s . Formal s e m i o l o g y h a s t o o o f t e n
n e g l e c t e d t h i s p r a c t i c e o f i n t e r p r e t i v e work, t h o u q h
t h i s c o n s t i t u t e s i n f a c t , t h e resl r e l a t i o n s of
broadcast practices i n television.30
 Media p r o d u c e r s a r e w o r r i e d t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e h a s n o t t a k e n

t h e i n t e n d e d message. N o w h e r e i s t h i s more t r u e t h a n i n t h e

a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e i n which t h e p r o d u c e r s i n t e n t i o n s are n o t

s i m p l y t h o s e of a t t r a c t i n ? a n d e n q a q i n g a u d i e n c e s , b u t a r e

d i r e c t e d towards e f f i c i e n t l y persuading audiences toward a

behaviour, When v i e w e r s d o n o t d e c o d e i n t h e ' d o m i n a n t ' or

# p r e f e r r s d s code, p r o d u c e r s f a c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

' s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d i s t o r t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n q , T h i s i s t h e c a s e of a n

a s s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g s i d e s of code. This i s

t h e consequence o f a n a s s y m w e t r y b e t w e e n e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g

s i d e s of t h e m e s s a g e u s e .

Aberrant decoding - t h a t u n f o r e s e e n by e n c o 3 e r s - is not a

r e s u l t of i d i o s y n c r a t i c r e a d i n g p r e f e r e n c e s . Audience s e l e c t i o n

of c o d e s is n o t r a n d o m n o r p r i v a t i z e d , but exhibits across

individual variants siqnificant clustering.3' Enco3ing c a n

'prefer' b u t n o t g u a r a n t e e t h e c o d e s t h r o u g h which a n a u d i e n c e

r e a d s a message. Without such l i m i t a t i o n s of r e f e r n c e i n

e n c o d i n g t h e a u d i e n c e w o u l d b e free t o a s s u m z u h a t e v e r i t w i s h e d

from t h e message. The p o s i t i o n i n g o r s i g n i f i c a n t c l u s t e r i n g

w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n s i s t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y of

multi-million d o l l a r r e s e a r c h e n g a g e d i n by a d v e r t i s e r s and

media r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s , T h i s i s t h e m a j o r c o a p o n e n t of

encoding s t r u c t u r e s f o r developing a n image o r c e r t a i n t r e a t m e n t

of c e r t a i n audiences, It is t h i s f a c t o r which g u i d e s t h e

s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n codes a n d m a t e r i a l s i n m e s s a g e s

e n c o d e 5 t o difi e r e n t a u d i e n c e s ,
 Armed w i t h k n o w l e d g e f r o m m a r k e t r e s e a r c h a n d w i t h

a s s u n p t i o n s o f a more t e c h n i c a l p r o i i u c t i o n - o r i e n t e d nature,

admen c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d d i r e c t m e a n i n g t o a u d i e n c e s , Hichael

S c h u d s o n c o m m e n t s o n t h e t y p e o f r e s e a r c h o n e is l i k e l y t o f i n d

a d v e r t i s e r s conductinq:

... ..
d e p t h psychology h a s been l o n g abandonned, Sex still
sells products,, b u t P r ~ u di s now r a r e l y t h e
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r market research. Sociology, not
p s y c h o l o g y , d i r e c t s t h e g a t h e r i n g of h a r d d a t a i n m a r k e t
research.32

Market r e s e a r c h i s g u i d e d more by s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s i n

the aarket/audience's p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t h a n w i t h d i s c o v e r i n g more

universal psycholoqical t r a p s operative a t t h e unconscious

l e v e l s beneath t h e 'subject's8 awareness. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the

@ o d e o f a d d r e s s is a n i d e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n s o f a r a s admen

d i s c o v e r p ~ g J q g &t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f c o d e s a n d r a n g e o f

s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s t h e audience w i l l r e c o g n i z e and

g a i n meaning f r o m w i t h i n i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s of

communication.

Ex-adman T o n y S c h w a r t z d e s c r i b e s t h e a d v e r t i s i n g

profession's p e r s p e c t i v e o n mode o f a d d r e s s and t h e r e f e r e n t i a l

f u n c t i o n o f t h e message, O n c e t h e a d v e r t i s i n g t a r g e t a u d i e n c e is

i d e n t i f i e d a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n of b a s i c p r o d u c t i m a g e s a n d t h e m e s

complete, c o m m e r c i a l s m u s t r e l y o n w h a t S c h w a r t z terms

"resonance", He s u g g e s t s t h a t a d s o p e r a t e a s a * * p a c k a g e o f
s t i m u l i t t an? draw upon a c e r t a i n r e c o g n i t i o n a n d c o n c s p t u a l

mechanisms o f an audience. Schwartz believes t h a t a d v e r t i s e r s

c o n s t r u c t or s h o u l d c o n s t r u c t a n a d which

...resonates u i t n information already within t h e

l i s t e n e r a n d a v a i l a b l * f o r recall.... Inforaation for
r e c a l l i n c l u d e s e v e r y t h i n g we h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d , w h e t h e r
we c o n s c i o u s l y r e m e m b e r i t o r n o t . . . . T h o s e of u s who
c r e a t e a d s are i n t h e b u s i n s s s of s t r u c t u r i n g
recall.When a u d i e n c e recall is e f f e c t i v e l y s t r u c t u r e d ,
t h e a u d i e n c e becomes an a c t i v e p a r t o f t h e communication
p r o c e s s . When t h e a u d i e n c e i s v i e w e d a s a w o r k f o r c e i n
t h e communication p r o c e s s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e s and a t t i t u d e s
people bring t o t h e viewing o r l i s t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n
become a c t i v e e l e a e n t s i n o u r a d v e r t i s i n g e f f o r t . 3 3

Schwatz d e f i n e s i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e f o r recall t o i n c l u d e

s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e w h e t h e r i t is r e m e m b e r e d c o s c i o u s l y o r a t

deeper levels. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is * s t o r e d f i n t h e a u d i e n c e and

frames e a c h new a d m e s s a g e e x p e r i e n c e . Schwartzas concept of

w r e s o n a n ~ e ' 'is a p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i c u l a t i o n o f what Williamson

e x p l a i n s a s t h e s e m i o t i c c o n n e c t i o n of a n ' o b j e c t i v s

c o r r e l a t i v e g l o c a t e d i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f adwork. I n attaching

m e a n i n g f u l a s s o c i a t i o n s t o t h e p r o d u c t s i g n ( t h e f i n a l message)

a d v e r t i s e r s a r o a t t e m p t i n g to i n d u c e evoked recall -- create a

s t i m u l u s t r i g g e r e d by t h e p r o d u c t . ' O b j e c t i v ~c o r r e l a t i v e g is

b o r r o w e d f r o m T.S. E l i o t ' s c o n c e p t of t h e l i n k i n g o f i n t e r n a l

t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g with s o a e t h i n g e x t e r n a l an9 o b j e c t i v e .

Eliot describes *objective correlative' a s t h e l i n k i n g a s p e c t of

art:
T h e o n l y way o f e x p r e s s i n g e m o t i o n i n t h e f o r m o f a r t is
by f i n 4 i n g a n " o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e w : i n o t h e r words,
a set of o b j e c t s , a s i t u a t i o n , a c h a i n o f e v e n t s , which
s h a l l be t h e formula o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r emotion; such
t h a t when t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t s , w h i c h m u s t t e r ~ i n a t ei n
s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e , are g i v e n , t h e emotion is
 immediately evoked.3*

W i l l i a m s o n s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a d v e r t i s i n g a p r o d u c t s i g n may

be e n c o d e d a s i f it represents an a b s t r a c t feeling: 'Happiness

i s a c i g a r named H a m l e t a , T h r o u g h a d w o r k t h e p r o d u c t s i g n may g o

from r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f e e l i n q t o b e i n g t h a t f e e l i n g . The p r o d u c t

becomes t h e r e f e r e n t of ' h a p p i n e s s g . For Schwartz, t h e ad

message has s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e a u d i e n c e a n d t h s p r o d u c t i s

p a t t e r n e d i n t o t h e message t o p r o d u c e a s t i m u l u s , P a r t i c u l a r

e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e s d d r e s s e e are a s s o c i a t e d with t h e product and

become a p r o d u c t / s t i m u l u s . On s e e i n g t h e p r o d u c t o n d i s p l a y i n

the store, t h i s s t i m u l u s s h o u l d be r e c a l l e d i f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

a s s o c i a t i o n s h a v e been s t r u c k i n t h e o r i g i n a l ad message, The

k e y f a c t o r f o r m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i s t s is i n f i n d i n g t h e

a p p r o p r i a t e a s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e p r o d u c t i n t h e ad and

s t r u c t u r i n q t h e message i n a r e c a l l a b l e form,

S c h w a r t z makes c l e a r t h a t t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t mak? a message

recallable a r e n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f w h a t t h e a d v e r t i s i n g
a u d i e n c e c a n remember. F i a t h e r , an a d w i l l be r e c a l l e d i f i t

makes a s t r o n g e n o u g h i m p a c t o n t h e i n d i v i d u 2 1 r e c a i v e r a t t h e
time o f v i e w i n g , i n ways t h a t a r e m e a n i n g f u l f o r t h a t p e r s o n .

S c h v a r t z s u g g e s t s t h a t msssages r e q u i r e t h e r e c e i v e r t o be t h e

'work f o r c e ' i n gaining information a t different levels of

message f u n c t i o n s . I t beconz3s n 2 c e s s a r y f o r a c o n t m u n i c a t i o n a l

s e m i o t i c a p p r o a c h t o describe t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betueen t h e

riworki8the r e c e i v e r m u s t u n d e r g o i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the

m e s s a ~ e a n d t h e l c t u a l d i r e c t i o n o f s u c h t a w o r k l * effected b y the

way the message f u n c t i o n s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a c t s , T h e semiotic

and communicational models of s t r u c t u r a l - l i n g u i s t Roman J a k o b s o n
h a s d o n e much t o h e l p f o r m a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s o f t h e
message, e a c h having a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l of t r a n s m i s s i o n

of significance for t h e receiver. These f u n c t i o n s are summarized

i n t h e f o l l o w i n q s i x d e f i n i t i o n s b y Eco:

1, R e f e r e n t i a l F u n c t i o n : T h e m e s s a g e ' p o i n t s t o *
something, It o c c u r s i n a l l normal p r o c e s s e s of
d e n o t a t i o n and connotation, even i f t h e intended
r e f e r e n c e t s n d s t o r e s t r i c t t o t h e minimum t h e s e m a n t i c
f i e l d which e x i s t s a r o u n d a s i g n and to f o c u s t h e
r e e i v e r g s a t t e n t i o n on one s i n g l e referent.
2. E m o t i v e F u n c t i o n : T h e m e s s a g e t e n d s t o s t i m u l a t e
emotions (associations, projections, identifications),
3 . I m p e r a t i v e o r C o n a t i v e F u n c t i o n : T h e m e s s a g e s aims t o
command s o m e t h i n g , t o p e r s u a d e t o an a c t i o n .
4 , P h a t i c o r C o n t a c t F u n c t i o n : T h e message a i m s a t
establishing a psychological contact with t h e receiver
( t h e most common form is t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a g r e e t i n g ) .
5. 8 e t a l i n g u i s t i c F u n c t i o n : T h e m e s s a g e s p e a k s 3 b o u t
a n o t h e r message o r a b o u t i t s e l f ,
6. A e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n : T h e m e s s a g e , e v e n i f i t p e r f o r m s
o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , aims p r i m a r i l y t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s
s u c h , a s a s y s t e m h a r m o n i o u s a t a l l l e v e l s a n d for a l l
f u n c t i o n s . 35
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f these f u n c t i o n s i n t h e a d m e s s a g e
s u g g e s t s t h a t d i f f * r e n t l e v e l s o f meaning are b e i n g s t r e s s e d . No

m a t t e r how c o m p l e x o r v a r i a b l e t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f

m a t e r i a l s f o r a d v e r t i s i n g iaay b e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember

t h a t t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e m e s s a g e s r e t h e p r o d u c t of t h e e m i t t e r
p u r s u i n g v a r i o u s f o r m a t s and a p p r o a c h s i n o r d e r t o strike t h e
'responsive chordg of c e r t a i n audiences. T h e w o r k of S c h u a r t z
and W i l l i a m s o n comes c l o s e t o r e p r e s e n t i n g what J a k o b s o n

i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n of m e s s a g e s . A s well, t h e two

c r i t i c s of a d v 2 r t i s i n g d i s c u s s how a d s r e f e r t o t h i n g s outside
of t h e message form i t s l l f ( S c h w a r t z g g r e s o n a n c e ' and
Williamsonws 'referent'). While it is t r u * t h a t a d v e r t i s e r s

c o m m u n i c a t e i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e r e f e r e n t

(referential function), ads a l s o ex2ress an a t t i t u d e towards t h e

referent object (product, thing signifying product): good or

bad, d e s i r a b l e o r h a t s f u l , b e a u t i f u l or ugly. While S c h u a r t z

e x p l a i n s t h e e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n i n terms of a f f e c t i v i t y f o r t h e

audience, Hilliamson p r e f e r s t h e Pavlovian dog analogy i n

explaining, for instance, the "objective correlati~e.~

S c h w a r t z does, h o w e v e r , r e c o g n i z e t h e v a l u e of t h e

r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i n h i s c e n t r a l c o n c ~ p to f r e s o n a n c e . Market

researchers, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ex-adman, s h o u l d be a b l e t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e 'experiences and a t t i t u d e s * people a r e l i k e l y to

r e s p o n d to, t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e c h a n c e s of t h e a u d i e n c e

i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e a d i n c o r r e c t l y or n o t a t a l l . Schwartz

recommends t h a t ,

An a d v e r t i s e r ' s r e s e a r c h s h o u l d d e e p l y e x p l o r e t h e
a c t u a l experiences people have with products i n
r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , and structure s t i m u l i i n t h s
commercials i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e r e a l - l i f e e x p e r i e n c e
w i l l b e e v o k e d by t h e p r o d u c t . ...
36

Rarketing research 'should' a n d d o e s i n f a c t i n s t r u c t ad

production i n h i s s t r a t e g y of r e p r e s e n t i n g ' a c t u a l e x 2 e r i e n c e s

people have with products' would f u n c t i o n for l i f e s t y l e

a d v e r t i s i n g of s u c h p r o d u c t s a s a l c o h o l a n d c i g a r e t e s . Cancer,

brown t o z t h , a n d d r u n k d r i v i n g a r e more c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h o s e p r o d u c t s t h a n what i s p r e s e n t l y viewed i n l i f e s t y l e ads.

T h i s i s p e r h a p s w h e r e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

m e t a l i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n (i.e., omit a n y r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e h e a l t h
h a z a r d ) a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n (i.e., d o n o t s u r p r i s e the
a u d i e n c e w i t h a i s h a r m o n i c a ? f o r m s a n d contents u s u a l l y n o t
associats2 with t h e discourse).
Kline a n d Leiss s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m a r k e t p l a c e i s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t a u d i e n c e s t h a t ' r e s ~ o n d t o

d i f f e r e n t c u e s o r t h e sam2 c u e s i n d i f f 2 r e n t w a y s ' . They a g r e e

w i t h S c h w a r t z 9 s claim t h a t a d v e r t i s e r s a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e and
t h e lspackage o f s t i m u l i s o t h a t i t r e s o n a t e s w i t h i n f o r a a t i o n
a l r e a d y s t o r e d w i t h i n an i n d i v i d u a l , and t h e r e b y i n d u c e s t h e
d e s i r e d l e a r n i n g o r b e h a v i o u r a l e f f e c t ~ . ~ * 3K7l i n e a n d L e i s s

e m p h a s i z e t h e r o l e o f c o n s u m e r market r e s e s r c h a s i t
establishes, f o r admen l i k e S c h w a r t z , t h e f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e s
a n d f o r e i t h e r g e n e r a l or s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e s :
T h r o u g h c a r e f u l d e s i g n , t h e b r a n d ' s i m a g e c o u l d be b a s e d
u p o n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e " d e c o d i n g 1 * o r m i n t o r p r e t i v e i *
p r e d i l e c t i o n s o f t h e consumer. I t is t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t a r e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e a d v e r t i s e r
t h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s of m a r k e t r e s e a r c h , i n w h i c h h e
a t t e m p t s t o r e f i n e t h e s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n s of h i s
p r o d u c t s t o s u i t v a r i o u s s e g m e n t s of t h e market. Here
then is t h e o r i g i n of t h e dual symbolic process.
Depending upon t h e m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s , t h e b r a n d ' s
i m a g e c a n b e d e v e l o p e d e i t h s r f o r mass m a r k e t s b y u s e of
o p e n c o d e s of i n t e r p r e t a i o n , o r f o r s p e c i f i c m a r k e t s b y
t h e use of more r e s t r i c t e d c o d e s , 3 8

S c h w a r t z 9 s a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e p r o f e s s i o n s 1 p r a c t i c e s o f
a d v e r t i s i n g i s solely f i x e d i n mass a u d i e n c e t e r a s ; w h a t a b o v e
i s c a l l e d ' o p e n c o d e s ' of a u d i e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Kline a n d

L e i s s are s e n s i t i v e to t h e ' r e s t r i c t i v e codess a 3 v e r t i s e r s

e n c o d e i n t o ad m e s s a g e s . H a l l ' s n o t i o n of c o d e s * s t r u c t u r e d i n
dominance' or ' preferred' m u s t n o t be c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e n o t i o n
o f ' r e s t r i c t e d s o r more close3 c o d e s , e x p r e s s e d b y K l i n e a n d
L e i s s . T h e f i r s t s e n s e o f p r e f e r r e d c o d e s d e a l s w i t h how

e n c o d e r s a t t e m p t t o restrict a u d i e n c e decoding through c o d e

selection, Encoders a t t e n p t t o e f f e c t dominant c u l t u r a l readings

i n m e s s a g e s t h a t p r e f e r o n e s e m a n t i c d o m a i n cver a n o t h e r . This

r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d o c c u r a s well w h e n t h e same e n c o d e r d i r e c t s

'target' messages t o s p e c i f i c audiences with s p e c i f i c

competencies ( f o r examples, a d v e r t i s i n g a u d i e n c e s for c h i l d r e n ' s

o r soap-opera programming on t e l e v i s i o n ) . The s9cond s e n s e of

c o d e s provided by K l i n e and L e i s s deal w i t h t h e open or

r e s t r i c t e d n a t u r e o f c o d e s a s viewed i n t h e image t h a t m a r k e t e r s

and a d v e r t i s e r s d e v e l o p of a u d i e n c e s a s mass-market o r more

s p e c i a l i z e d markets. Kline suggests therefore that:

A d v e r t i s n g a s a n i n d u s t r y m e d i a t e s b l t u e e n commodity
p r o d u c t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , a s a m e s s a g e form i t
adopts, r e n d e r s and s h a p e s o t h e r c u l t u r a l message
s y s t e m s , and m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h r o u g h r e s e a r c h i t
a p p r o p r i a t e s t h e social. s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a r k e t a n d t h e
a u d i e n c e f o r media, and r e c y c l e s them a s a s t r a t e g y t h a t
is t a r g e t e d t o w a r d s a segment of t h e population.Jg
Market and consumer r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t e s , as Schwartz

states i t should, w h a t p e o p l e t h i n k p r o d u c t s d o a n d what

p r o d u c t s a c t u a l l y mean f o r p e o p l e i n e v s r y d a y l i f e . T h i s

i n f o r m a t i o n is i n t e g r a t e d i n t o e n c o d i n g s t r a t e g i e s a n d r e c y c l e d

b a c k t o a d v e r t i s i n g a u d i e n c e s i n terms o f c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s a n d

s c e n e s w h i c h cue t h e a u d i e n c e ,

K l i n e and L e i s s a r g u e t h a t a d v e r t i s e r s d e v e l o p meaningful

ad d e s i g n s t o s u i t b o t h p r o d u c t t y p e and m a r k e t / a u d i e n c e

predisposition, On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r historical study of

c h a n g i n g modes o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and a d d r e s s i n m a g a z i n e
advertisements, t h e y c l a i m t h a t a d v e r t i s n g i n t h e l a s t two

d e c a d e s i s m o v i n g a w a y from p e r c e i v i n g t h e m a r k e t p l a c e a s a

'personality typeg, T h i s psychological approach, of c u e i n g o n e

common mass m a r k e t o n t h e b a s i s o f w h a t t h e y h a v e i n common -
t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e r e f l e c t i v e psyche - h a s been r e p l a c e d by

an a d v s r t i s i n g e n c o d i n g t r e n d b a s e d o n t h e " g r o u i n g s p e c i f i c i t y

o f a d v e r t i s i n g modes o f a d d r e s s f o r p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t t y p e s a n d

market s2gments". ' 0

To s u g g e s t t h a t m a r k e t e r s a n d a d v e r t i s e r s a r e i n f o r m e d b y

e x i s t i n g , o b s e r v a b l e consumar b e h a v i o u r s and a t t i t u d e s o r ,

conversely, c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o u r s and a t t i t u d e s a r e c u e d by t h e

i n t e n t i o n a l m a r k e t i n g c u e s of a d s , should not suggest an

either/or proposition. I n s t e a d t h e two symbolic p r o c e s s e s must

be c o n s i d e r e d a s a s i n g u l a r c i c u i t o r c h a i n o f 3 e t e r a i n i n g

moments w i t h i n t h e a d v e r t i s n g coinmunication s y s t e m , Market

s e g m e n t a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a new f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

s y s t e m which i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e e n c o d e d p h a t i c a n d a n d

r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y ad messaqes. In

particular, a u 3 i e n c e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e b e i n g cue3 by s e l e c t i o n

o f a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f more s p e c i f i c c o d e s of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e

c o m b i n e 3 i n m o r a dense c l u s t e r i n g s o f s e m a n t i c e l e m e n t s i n a d s .

The n o t i o n of a d v e r t i s e r s t a l k i n g t o c o n s u m e r s g t h r o u g h a

r e l e n t l e s s propaganda on b e h a l f o f goods i n g e n e r a l g is

inadequate given t h e growing fragmentation of markets and

consumer c u l t u r a l ideologies. L i f e s t y l e ad messages do n o t

a t t e m p t t o p e r s u a d e o r commsnd t o a n a c t i o n ( p r o p a g a n d a ,
c o n a t l v e f u n c t i o n 3 o m i n a t i n g ) i n t h e i r m o d e of a d d r o s s a s much

as they once did, Today a growing t r e n d e x h i b i t s t h e dominance

o f t h e l e v e l of m e a n i n g of a e s s a g e s m a n i f e s t l y c e n t e r e d i n

r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s ( t h o s e o r i e n t e d towards t h e c o n t i a u n i c a t i o n

context, w h a t is ref e r r e d - t o ) and p h a t i c f u n c t i o n s ( e n l i s t t h e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e r e a d e r i n t h ? s h a r i n g o f v a l u e s , e x p r e s s i o n

forms a n d of a c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e s e n d e r ) ,

---
2,5 ------
narket Sgqggggm&ign

T h i s s e c t i o n d e f i n e s t h e marketing z t r a t e g i e s and

commercial m e s s a q e e n c o d i n g i n t e n t i o n s o p e r a t i n ? i n t h e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o s p e c i f i c g r o u p s of c o n s u m e r s , The advertising

e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r e does n o t view r e c e i v e r s i n t h i s communication

s y s t e m a s p r i ~ a r i l yc u l t u r a l l y d i s t i n c t g r o u p s ; r a t h e r t h e

r e c e i v e r i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t a s p a r t of a n

approachable market segment with c e r t a i n consumer behaviours

commonly h e l d by t h i s g r o u p , I n t h e e n c o d i n g s t a g e of i n e d i a

stgmentstion - s e l e c t i n g a media a u d i e n c e i n o r d e r t o

communicate to t h e d e s i r e d market segment - t h e encoder must

c o n s i d e r t h e p r e f e r r z d c u l t u r a l r e a d i n g codes a n d

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e c o n s u m e r g r o u p g a r k e t e d to. -
.-
narket -
s e g m e n t a t i o n d o e s n o t e n t a i l t h e m a k i n g of p r o d u c t s f o r c o n s u m e r
-. - . -

groups, b u t e n t a i l s t h e m a k i n g o f messages f o r c o n s u m e r g r o u p s

t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e m e a n i n g o f p r o d u c t s is c o m m u n i c a t e d . This

discussion o f market segmentation i d e n t i f i e s t h o motivstions

b e h i n d a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s c u e i n g c o n s u m e r s i n c l o s e d c o d e s of
 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d i n terms of t h e c o n s u m e r ' s own

predispositions.

I n t h e m o d e r n c o n t e x t o f i n t e n s i v e c o m p e t i t i o n m a r k--e t i n g ,

t h e r o l e s of m a r k e t i n g a n d a d v e r t i s i n g h a v e g r o w n e n o r m o u s l y t o . .
w h a t is now c h a r a c t e r i z e d by K l i n e a n d L e i s s a s * * l i f e - s t y l e a 8
i
' 1
advertising. T o d a y - - p t o d u c e r s m u s t know n o t o n l y w h a t n e e d s t o
- -/

s e r v e , b u t a l s o whose needs. As p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y a n d

c o m p e t i t i o n f o r markets grows, t h e c h o i c e s o f b r a n d s and p r o d u c t

t y p e s i n t h e consumer marketplace grows e x p o n e n t i a l l y . P r o d u c e r s

i n t h e l a s t few d e c a d e s e s p e c i a l l y h a v e r e a c t a d w i t h a g r o w i n g

t e n d e n c y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g c i f f e r e n t m a r k 2 t s f o r p r o d u c t i o n and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of g o o d s a n d h a v e c o n s e q u e n t l y s t i a u l a t e d

h e t e r o g e n e o u s demand t r e n d s i n c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y . In a sesinal

s t a t e m e n t , e c o n o m i s t s Ben E n i s a n d K e i t h Cox sum u p t h i s major

t r e n d i n terms of m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s : f ,

,/ The t h e o r y of p e r f e c t c o m p e t i t i o n assumes homogenaity

among t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f b o t h demand a n d s u p p l y s i d e ; o f
,,/ t h e market. But d i v e r s i t y o r h e t e r o g e n e i t y had come t o
1
be t h e r u l e r a t h e r than t h e exception. Q1
\
\
Growing p r o s p e r i t y h a s n o t meant a homogeneous c o n s u m p t i o n

c o n t e x t of l o y a l p u r c h a s e r s o f a s m a l l n u m b e r of

heavilg-advertised brands. Rather, t h i s p r o s p e r i t y h a s warked

t h e movement away f r o m 3 homogeneous mass o f consumers. Pope

e x p l a i n s t h a t w i t h i n t h e contemporary c o n t e x t of complex

c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y , consumption ? a t t e r n s

...m i r r o r the d e m o q r a p h i c a n d s o c i a l f i s s u r e s i n
American l i f e . L2ading brands not conquer e n t i r e
do
n a t i o n a l markets; they s h a r e t h ? market with o t h e r
b r a n d s t h a t a p p e a l t o d i f f e r 2 n t t a r g e t groups.42
 S m i t h a n d P o p e h a v e u s e d t h e term " m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n ' * i n

t h e i r discussion of marketer's r e a c t i o n t o demand d i v e r s i t y .

M a r k e t e r s u s e t h e s t r a t e g y of s e g m e n t a t i o n t o i n t e r p r e t a
, _ --
' h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a r k e t ( d i v e r g e n t d e m a n d ) i n w h i c h a nuraber of

smaller homogeneous m a r k e t s , each with d i f f e r i n g product

p r e f e r e n c e s and social neeJs, a r e discernable a s market

segments. R a t h s r t h a n make d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t s f o r e v e r y o n e ,

market r e s e a r c h h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t is " b e t t e r therefore, to

d i v i d e up t h e b r o a d e r m a r k e t an? d s s i g n a campziign t h a t c o u l d

a t t r a c t a s p e c i f i c t a r g e t a u d i e n c e with d i s t i n c t i v e needs and

desires."+3 M a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n is t h e p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i f y i n g

groups of consumers with d i f f e r e n t consumptive needs. Philip

Kotler, i n o n e o f t h e most w i d e l y u s e d m a r k e t i n g t e x t b o o k s i n

b u s i n e s s s c h o o l s a c r o s s Morth America, states:

R a r k e t segmentation, t h e most r e c e n t i d e a f o r g u i d i n g
marketing strategy, starts not with distinguishing
product p o s s i b i l i t i e s , but r a t h e r with distinguishing
customer groups, Market segmentation is t h e s u b d i v i d i n q
o f a market i n t o d i s t i n c t s u b s e t s of consumers, where
a n y s u b s e t may c o n c e i v a b l y b e s e l e c t e d a s a m a r k e t
t a r g e t t o b e r e a c h e d w i t h a d i s t i n c t m a r k e t i n g mix. T h e
power o f t h i s c o n c e p t is t h a t i n a n a g e o f i n t e n s e
c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e m a s s m a r k e t , i n d i v i d u a l s e l l e r s may
prosper through a d v e r t i s i n g brands f o r s p e c i f i c market
s e g m s n t s whose n e e d s a r t i m p e r f e c t l y s a t i s f i e d by
mass-market o f f e r i n g s . 4'

K o t l e r a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of r e a c h i n g a ~ a r k e t

s e g m e n t t h r o u g h a d i s t i n c t i n a r k e t i n g mix -- through t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l p r o d u c s r s t o a u d i e n c e s whose c o n s u m e r

p r e f e r e n c e s are t r a n z l a t e d from p r e f e r e n c e s i n a e d i a c o n s u m p t i o n

(social constitution of readership). I n t h e last 25 years,

market s e g m e n t a t i o n h a s had tremendous i m p a c t on n a t i o n a l

 a d v e r t i s i n g campaigns. It h a s been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o m p l i c a t i n g

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s of a d v e r t i s n g a g e n c i e s

a n d m a r k e t i n g firms i n t h s i r a t t e m p t s a t p r o f i l i n g a n d r e a c h i n g

t h e m a r k e t t h r o u g h a p a t c h w o r k of m e d i a / a u d i e n c e purchase

1 selections. S p e c i a l i z a t i o n a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of a u d i e n c e
s e g m e n t s and media r e q u i r e d i v e r s i t y i n t h e d e s i g n of a d v e r t i s n g

p r o g r a m s ( a d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s ) a n d , more

particularly, i n t h e c u l t u r a l forms and contents o f ad wessages

themselves.
I

1 Segmentation campaigns a r e user-centered and f o c u s on t h e

d e s i r a b i l i t y of t h e p r o d u c t u s e r e n t e r i n g i n t o 3 consumption

community. Explicit product a t t r i b u t e s a r e subordinated i n t h i s

t y p e of a d v e r t i s e m e n t t o c a r e f u l l y p r o f i l e d i m a g e s o f l i f e s t y l e

common t o a r e c o g n i z a b l e c o n s u m p t i o n c o m m u n i t y . Once m a r k e t
$

research e s t a b l i s h e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b a s i c demographic

s e g m 2 n t a t i o n , i.e., a g e , sex, f a m i l y l i f e c y c l e and s i z e ,

income, occupation, education, religion, nationality, and s o c i a l

class, i n t e n d e d m a r k e t s are c u e d by a r 2 s u l t a n t l i f e s t y l e i m a g e

i n t h e ad. It s h o u l d b e added h e r e , t h a t media s e l e c t i o n

p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i l l have a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on t h e v a r i o u s

l i f e s t y l e images choosen f o r t h e a d v e r t i s i n g appeal an9 t h i s

w i l l be r e t u r n e d t o l a t e r . I n discussing t h e marketing approach

to the concept of lifestyle, Kotler tells u s t h a t :

L i f e s t y l e r e f e r s t o t h e d i s t i n c t i v e mode o f o r i e n t a t i o n
r1
a n i n d i v i d u a l or g r o u p h a s t o w a r d s c o n s u q p t i o n , work a n d
p l a y . S u c h terms a s h i p p i e s , s w i n g e r s , s t r a i g h t s , a n d
jet-setters a r e a l l d e s c r i p t i v e of d i f f e r e n t l i f e s t y l e s .
H a r k e t e r s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g drawn t o l i f e s t y l e
segmentation, They are t a r g e t i n g v e r s i o n s o f t h e i r
 p r o d u c t s t o l i f e s t y l e g r o u p s a n d s t u d y i n g new p r o , l u c t
o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r i s i n g o u t of l i f e s t y l e a n a l y s i s . 4 5
This notion of l i f e s t y l e guides t h e professional

assumptions of a d v e r t i s e r s and marketers i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o

d e f i n e t h o m a r k e t t h a t is t o b e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h r o u g h

advertisements. L i f e s t y l e is by n o means t h e o n l y t y p e o f

information market r e s e a r c h e r s seek. For instance, psychographic

segmentation r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t e s consumer buying motives,

p r o d u c t knowledge and p r o d u c t use. L i f e s t y l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s most

s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n by a d e n c o d e r s o f c u l t u r a l

r e f e r e n c e s i n a d s and d e t e r m i n i n g which media v e h i c l e s a r e b e s t

s u i t e d t o a d v e r t i s i n g management a n d g o a l s i n s e g m e n t a t i o n

strategies, H o n t r o s e Sommers h a s o b s e r v e d t h a t i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d

ad encoding s t r u c t u r e s , t h e c r e a t i v e f u n c t i o n and t h e media

s e l e c t i o n f u n c t i o n a r e h i g h l y d e f i n e d and s p e c i f i c i n r e s p o n s e

t o i n c r e a s i n g segmentation of markets and i n c r e a s i n g

s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f media. Lifestyle definitions of t h e

m a r k e t p l a c e a r e b e c o m i n g more c o m p l e x a n d e s s e n t i a l f o r r e a c h i n g

t h e markst.

The encoding p r o c e s s d o e s n o t begin and en3 simply i n t h e

c r e a t i o n of an ad, S p e c i f i c l i f e s t y l e and s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a d v e r t i s i n g a p p e a l s a r e d e r i v e d from c o n s u m e r b z h a v i o u r a n a l y s e s

i n a s t r a t e g y o f a u d i e n c e t a r g e t i n g t h r o u g h s e l e c t aedia. Media

a u d i e n c e d e n o g r a p h i c s a r e A t f i n e d by media s e g m e n t a t i o n

analysis. B r o a d c a s t a n d p u b l i s h i n g media h a v e grown i n t h e

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n w i t h w h i c h t h e y m a r k e t t h e i r s p a c e o r time -
t h e i r l i f e b l o o d and p r o d u c t of demographically d e f i n e d a u d i e n c e s
 - t o media buyers.
-
\
M a g a z i n e a d v e r t i s i n g space i s more s u i t a b l e ' ,
',
for lifestyle, user-centered c a m p a i g n s because m a g a z i n e

a u d i e n c e s t e n d t o be more s e l e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d t h a n i n a n y o t h k r

media. M a g a z i n e s d e p e n d upon t h e i r e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t s e c u r i n g a
- - .-
p a r t i c u l a r r e a d e r s h i p t h a t is s i g n i f i c a n t l v l a r g e and a f f l u e n t

t o maks t h e i r a d v e r t i s i n g s p a c e m a r k e t a b l e a n d p r o f i t a b l e .

Richard P o l l a y cites a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s magazine n a r k e t i n g

s t r a t e g y a s e x p l i c a t e d by t h e m a r k e t i n g d e p a r t m e n t o f "Better

Homes a n d G a r d e n s w :

M a g a z i n e s a r e s u r e l y t h e most e f f e c t i v e f o c u s i n g
i n s t r u m e n t s i n t h e whols world o f conmunications. They
select d e f i n i t e areas of concern and i n t e r e s t .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e y select audiences.... Magazines reach
p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l s of education, l i f e s t y l e and
responsiveness. 46

The m a r k e t segrnsnt c a n o n l y be communicate3 t o t h r o u g h t h e

a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t a n d n o o n e knows t h i s b e t t e r t h a n medis b u y e r s

and magazine s a l e s departments. What t h s a d v a r t i s i n g i n d u s t r y

r e f e r s t o a s u l i f s s t y l e magazinesw a t t r a c t p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e s

with t i g h t l y i d e n t i f i e d l e i s u r e and consumption h a b i t s (i.e,,

skiing, ~ i c r oc o m p u t e r s , cars, exclusive fashion). As w e l l ,

l i f e s t y l e ads i n such publications include typical product

catecjories o f booze and c i g a r e t t e s . * 7 T h e n a t u r e of t h e p r o d u c t

d i c t a t e s i n v a r i o u s d e g r e e s t h e level at which t h e

r e p r e s o n t a t i o n o f p r o d u c t s w i l l r e s o n a t e o r evoks meaning for

the reader. Some p r o d u c t s s u c h a s u o m e n s s 2 e r s o n a l c a r e items

w i l l a p p e a r i n a w o m e n ' s f a s h i o n m a g a z i n e i n d i r e c t messages of

assumed c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y and i n f o r m a t i o n , while c i g s r e t t e a d s

a p p e a r i n g i n t h e same p u ~ l i c a t i o nmay o f f e r women t h e

 o p p o r t u n i t y t o j o i n t h e " l i b e r a t e d g t or " p r o f e s s i o n a l " lifestyle

o f t h e "new womanu s e t . I n t h i s s e c o n d t y p e of p r o d u c t

p r e s e n t a t i o n w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e less

g p r o d u c t - u s e g or i n f o r m a t i o n - r e l a t e d a n d a r e more a c c e p t i n g of

l i f e s t y l e imagery and s o c i a l d i s p l a y associations, advertisers

s e i z e u p o n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of h a v i n g a c u l t u r a l l y a n d s o c i a l l y
F
S
defined audience. A d v e r t i s e r s h a v e t r a d e d t h e a d v a n t a g e of

speaking t o massive non-descript a u d i e n c e s w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e of

s p e a k i n g t o smaller w e l l - d e f i n e d a u d i e n c e s with c e r t a i n tastes,

beliefs, and knowledge. The l a t t e r media s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g y

n e c e s s i t a t e s a3 c o n t s n t s a n d modes o f a d d r e s s t h a t w i l l h a v e

d e f i n i t e meaning f o r t h e s p e c i f i e d a u d i e n c e and t h a t w i l l

respond t o p a r t i c u l a r social needs, dreams and a s p i r a t i o n s of

t h e audience -- t h e s e c o n t e n t s a n d modes o f a d d r e s s c e n t e r e d

around t h e possesion and consumption of products. In this

respect, Leiss is c o r r e c t i n a s s e r t i n g t h a t , unlike national

mass-market appeals, s e g m e n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s i n g "makes

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s risky." 48 However, f o r national l i f e s t y l e ads,

t a r g e t e d towards s p e c i f i c audience segments, t h e product

resonates with culturally specific reference systems t h a t a r e

n o t r i s k y b e c a u s e t h s y are b a s e d o n a u d i e n c e / r n e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n

data,

I n t h e c o n t e x t of n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n , i n which a u d i e n c e
s e g m e n t s a r e t i g h t l y d e f i n e d a t c e r t a i n times o f t h e d a y , Pope

e x p l a i n s how t h e s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g y i n f l u e n c e s t h e f o r m s a n d

c o n t e n t s o f a d v e r t i s i n g messages:
 Marketing s t r a t e g i s t s a l s o e f f e c t t h e information
c o n t e n t of advertisem2nts. Focus s t r a t e g i e s with t h e i r
e m p h a s i s o n u s e r - c e n t e r e d a p p e a l s , may b e 3 o s t l i k e l y
t o s u b o r d i n a t e p r o d u c t c l a i m s t o u r e s o n a n c e n . It is
s u g g e s t i v e t h a t , among t h e t e l e v i s i o n c o m m e r c i a l s
e v a l u a t e d , a d s a p p e a r i n g on weekday a f t e r n o o n s and on
w e e k ~ n d m o r n i n g s were t h e l e a s t i n f o r m a t i o n a l . I n t h e s e
time p e r i o d s , t h s a u d i e n c e s a r e l i k e l y t o b e n a r r o w l y
d e f i n e d ( c h i l d r e n a n d n o n - w o r k i n g women), a n d
segmentation campaigns are t h e most s u i t a b l e . * 9

In segmentation advertising of t h i s type, resonance (a

c o n c e p t s h a r e d by b o t h Pope and Schwartz) i s c o n f i n e d t o t h e

determinations of audience predisposition r a t h e r than product

information. Focus s t a t e g i e s r e l y on t h e i m p l i c i t t r a n s m i s s i o n

o f a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s i n ad p r e s e n t a t i o n . The media/ a u d i e n c e

r e l a t i o n s h i p f i x e s t h e means ( c o d e s ) t h a t t h e e n c o d e r selects i n

t h e attempt t o gain a preferred reading -- favorable product

message. A n t h r o p o l o g i s t a n d m a r k e t i n g e x e c u t i v e W a l t e r J. Dickie

explains that:

...choosing t o b u y o r n o t t o b u y is a p a r t of t h e s y s t e m

i
of s y m b o l s a n d m e a n i n g s t h a t A m e r i c a n s u s e t o d e f i n e
themselves, and t h a t p u r c h a s e b e h a v i o u r c a n be
I
understood a s one of t h s s t r u c t u r e s of s o c i a l I b

i n t e r a c t i o n . P e o p l e who c h o o s e t t P l i l l e r T i m e M o v e r
" p u t t i n g a l i t t l s weekend i n t o t h e i r weeks" w i t h
Michelob are choosing one symbol of themselves (tough,
macho, h a r d w o r k i n g , e n j o y i n g t h e c o m r a d e r i e o f o n e ' s
buddies) over another (dress for success o u t f i t s ,
b r i e f c a s e s , s e m i p r i v a t e r e v e r i e s of a more p r o s p e r o u s
f u t u r e w i t h 3 f e u c l o s e f r i e n d s ) . The a d v e r t i s i n g f o r
t h e s e b r a n d s h a s i n v e s t 2 d them w i t h s y m b o l i c v a l u e s ,
enabling buyers to appropriate t h e brands a3 symbols
expressing t h e i r social i d e n t i t i e s . 5 0

B i l l e r i s n a r k e t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l mass m a r k e t w h e r e a s

n i c h e l o b i s a more e x p e n s i v e s u p e r p r e m i u m m a r k e t e d t o t h e

white-collar market, Two d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t s a r e c h o s e n f o r t h e

two b r a n d s a s a r e two d i f f e r e n t media u s u a l l y c h o s e n . T h e same

company t h a t p r o d u c e s M i c h e l o b h a s a b r a n d t h a t c o m p e t e s w i t h
Hiller. T h i s brand is c a l l e d 3udweiser and t h e l i f e s t y l e imagery

t h a t is employed t o s e l l t h i s b r a n d is similar t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d

f o r Miller. The s y w h o l i c v a l u e s f o r B u d w e i s e r a n d Hiller a r e

o f t e n t h o s e of t h e blue-collar working man's w o r l d when t h e n a s s

beer-drinking market is addressed.

What t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f m a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n s h o u l d m a k e

e v i d e n t is t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s o f 3 d v e r t i a i n g m e s s a g e s c a n n o t

u n i v e r s a l i z e o r g e n e r a l i z e t h e p r o c e s s e s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a n d

d i r e c t i n g meaning a n d t h e mz~nneri n which r s s o n a n c e is a c h i e v e d

(particular referent systems chosen). In s2miotic analysis, the

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of c u l t u r a l reference systems, which is t h e

p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e of f o c u s o r s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , is

completely overlooked. I n l i g h t o f t h e g r o w i n g s p e c i f i c i t y of

m e d i a a n d l i f e s t y l e d e f i n i t i o n s of p r o d u c t s f o r a d v e r t i s i n g , the

s e m i o t i c methodology, which assumes t h e u n i f y i n g c u l t u r a l

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c o d e , c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y claim one d e c o d i n g

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n from which a l l meanings a r e taken. As K l i n e

points out:

.,,such analyses f a i l to appreciate the relationship

b e t w e e n a m e s s a g e s y s t e ~s n d i t s s t r u c t u r e d a s s i m i l a t i o n
by a u d i e n c e s . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a d v e r t i s i n g i s
t h e r e f o r e p o s e d i n terms o f c u l t u r a l v a l u e s a n d s o c i a l
c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h s c u l t u r e a s a whole, r a t h e r t h a n for
i n d i v i d u a l s or s o c i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g r o u p s . S u c h
views have t h e r e f o r e tended t o deny o r overlook t h e
p r o c e s s o f market segraentation (Schudson 1931).

audiences.. ..
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d m e a n i n g s a ~ o n q s ts u b g r o u p s a n d
51

The semiotics of Barthes, Williamson, a n d Leymore d o n o t

mention t h e real decoding and consumer d i v i s i o n s e v i d e n t i n

a d v e r t i s i n g as a symbolic system. Nor is t h e r e a n y a t t e m p t t o

inform t h e i r a n a l y s i s with t h e r e a l i n t e n t i o n s o f m a r k e t e r s and

advertisement encoders -- a segmentation stategy a l t e r i n g t h e

way m e a n i n g i s m a d e i n a d s .

Before t u r n i n g t o t h e p r i m a r y m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f a o c u s o f

d e v e l o p i n g a n a u d i e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e a n a l y s i s of m e a n i n g i n

advertising, i t i s w o r t h w h i l e t o a t t e m p t t o more f u l l y

u n d e r s t a n d how g o o d s b e c o m e e m b l e m a t i c of d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f

consumers i n t h e marketplace.

In segmentation advertising u t i l i z i n g tho l i f e s t y l e format

of presentation, p r o d u c t s and s e t t i n g s i n their s i g n i f y i n g

r e l a t i o n s come t o g e t h e r i n t h e t e x t a s a ' ' s i t u a t i o n emblematic

o f a p a r t i c u l a r way o f l i f e n . s 2 On t h e b a s i s o f t h e i m p l i c i t

communication p e r s p e c t i v e of a d o u b l e symbolic p r o c e s s , drawn

o u t i n t h e anthropology of Sahlins, Kline a r r i v e s a t a summative

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h r e e ways i n which p r o d u c t i m a g e s and

c o n s u m p t i v e l i f e s t y l e p r a c t i c e s a r e s i g n i f i e d t o t e m i c a l l y for

market segaents:

1. t h e totem o b j e c t ( o b j e c t c l u s t e r ) b e c o m e s t h e b a s i s
o f s y m b o l i c r e l a t i o n upon which a l l o t h e r s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d t h r o u q h membarship.
2. m e m b e r s h i p i n a t o t e m i c g r o u p e n t a i l s p r o s c r i p t i o n s
over s o c i a l behaviour and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s both within
groups and bstween groups (food, c l o t h i n q , r i t u a l s
etc.).
3. t h e t o t e m i c s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c
system o f social c l a s s i f i c a t i o n pertaining to
i n t e r p o r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n and judgement. * 3

K l i n e 8 s d e s c r i p t i o n o f how g o o d s g i v e p e o p l e s o c i a l

i d e n t i t i e s i s p h r a s e 3 i n t e r m i n o l o g y n o t uncommon t o t h e
d e s c r i p t i v e s i d e of s t r u c t u r a l anthropology. or Kline t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l meaning t h a t goods t a k e on i n a d s and i n

o u r r e a l s o c i a l l i v e s i s n o t d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r e f l e c t i o n s of

t h e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y based mani?ulations i n dominant ideology, but

i s t h e p r o d u c t of r e a l d e s c r i b a b l e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l
meaning systems, The s y n b o l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e Michelob and

Hiller a d s , described earlier, f i t the theoretical suggestions

of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s d e f i n e d t h r o u g h m e m b e r s h i p a n d t h e i r

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n pertaining to intsrpersonal interaction.

U n l i k e Williamson's immanent approach t o Bessages, Kline

a n d L e i s s p r e f e r t o f r a m e t h e i r a n a l y s i s o n e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s of

social and c u l t u r a l behaviours i d e n t i f i a b l e i n t h e v i s i b l e

product-person r e l a t i o n s h i p s of communicated ads. While

l i f e s t y l e and g r o u p r e l s t e d consumption is n o t y e t a f u l l y

r e a l i z e d dominant consumer form, Kline is convinced o f its

growing s t a t u s i n marketplace oppeals, He c i t e s i d e a l - t y p i c a l

e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r i t u a l modes o f o b j e c t r e l a t i o n s

f o u n d i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of c l o t h e s ( j e a n s , punk, disco) and

foods (health foods, junk f o o d s ) . Group i d e n t i t i e s o r g a n i z e d

a r o u n d c o n s u m p t i o n a r e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s e e x a m p l e s a s well a s

coherently integrated lifestyle

Advertising c o n v e r t s demographic l i f e s t y l e research d a t a

i n t o specific aodes of address, b u t d o so by e q u a t i n q l i f e s t y l e

within product market boundaries. Because, as Kline points out,

f q l i f e s t y l e i s a l i t t l e u n d s r s t o o ? s o c i a l c a t e g o r y w h i c h seems t o

l i e somewhere a c r o s s t h e u s u a l breakdowns o f g r o u p s i n t o roles

and classes" ,54 a d v e r t i s e r s m u s t e n c o d e c o n s e r v a t i v e l y ; t h a t is,

w i t h i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e c o d e s common t o t h e

m a r k e t s e g m e n t os p r e v i o u s c o n s u m p t i v e b e h a v i o u r s , its media
c o n s u m p t i o n p r a c t i c e s a n d i t s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of

s i m i l a r l y t a r g e t e d a d R e s s a q e s u s i n g p a r t i c u l a r m o d e s of

address.

Advertisers, agencies, and consultant/suppliers o p e r a t e i n

a.coBpetetive and comparison-oriented environment, The i n d u s t r y

supplements product quality, l i f e s t y l e , b a s i c market,

psychographic, and media segmentation i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e

encoding p r a c t i c e s of advertising with information about t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m ' s messages a s a s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l index --

w h a t sds a p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t h a s r e c e i v e d i n t h e p a s t a n d w h i c h

o n e s a p p e a r t o b e most s u c c e s s f u l a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s asked i n

gaining t h i s last type of information. This information, as a

source f o r encoding decision-ma~ing, can help explain t h e degree

of a u t o n o m y t h e e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r e e n j o y s ( t h e f i r s t a s p e c t of

S a h l i n ' s doubla symbolic process) and t h e f a d and f a s h i o n s i n

coding messages t o p a r t i c u l a r market segments, a t p a r t i c u l a r

times a n d f o r c e r t a i n p r o d u c t s . 55 Advertiser's and marketer's

c o n c e p t i o n o f how t h e a u d i e n c e r a a d s a d v e r t i s e m e n t s is t h u s

t e m p e r e d b y t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f w h a t a u d i e n c e s h a v e come t o

e x p e c t f r o m t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e n a n 1 how t h e c o m p s t i t i o n

hpve encoded t h e i r messaqes t o similar audiences,

I n s e q m e n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s i n g t h e p r i m a r y i n t g n t is n o t
s i m p l y t o p r e s e n t t h e p r o d u c t i m a g e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o other
i m a g e s of l i k e p r o d u c t s , a s W i l l i a m s o n would h a v e u s u n d e r s t a n d

i t . R a t h a r , a d v e r t i s e r s ssek t o s e c u r e p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t s b y

emphasizing t h e p h a t i c f u n c t i o n i n ad messages -- a shared,

c l o s e d s e t o f c o d e s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by select a u d i e n c e s . By

s e l e c t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e "in r+ferencesqt for p a r t i c u l a r audience

segments, t h e ' h e y y o u 1 a p p e l l a t i o n o r p h a t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e

m e s s a g e i s h e i g h t e n e d o n t h e b a s i s of t h e p r e d i s p o s e d d e s i r e o f

t h e a d d r e s s e e t o b e p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l g r o u p c o n n o t e d by t h e s e

references. W h i l e i t i s n o t c l e a r w h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e s e

totemic group d i v i s i o n s a r e i n society, segmentation campaigns

of d i f f e r e n t b r a n d s f o r a s i m i l a r m a r k e t d i s p l a y c u r i o u s l y

c o n s i s t e n t i m a g e s of t h e g r o u p t h e y s p e a k t o e v i d e n t i n t h e

t o t e m g r o u p symbols u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e s o c i a l v a l u e s of t h e\

products. Whether t h i s is a p r o d u c t o f media s e g m e n t a t i o n and

audience information i n t h e encoding practice, t h e autonomy of

t h e i n d u s t r y i n c r e a t i n g and d i r e c t i n g newly d i s c o v e r e d m a r k e t s

i n fad and fashion-oriented ad presentations , o r researching

t h e t o t e m i c g r o u ~d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e a n d d e s i g n i n g

ads t o s u i t t h e s e s groups preferred reading codes, i t is c l e a r

t h a t c o n s i s t e n t l y d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l references a r e used to

reach d i f f e r e n t z a r k e t segments,
 --------
Audience

I t was e a r l i e r n o t e d t h a t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s c a n

e f f e c t i v e l y g e n e r a t e brand images f o r e i t h e r mass m a r k e t s (open

c o d e s of i n t 9 r p r e t i l t i o n ) o r s p e c i f i c m a r k e t s ( r e s t r i c t e d o r

closed codzs of interpretation), T h i s is a c o r r e c t a s s u m p t i o n t o

m a k e when t a l k i n g a b o u t how w a r k s t e r s v i e w t h e i r c o n m u n i c a t i o n

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e two t y p e s o f m a r k e t s . It does n o t ,
however, t e l l u s much a b o u t w h a t a c t u a l l y g o e s o n b e t w e e n t h e

o b j e c t i v e m e s s a g e a n d t h e a u d i e n c e n o r d o e s i t t e l l u s a b o u t how

a n a u d i e n c e m a k e s m e a n i n g f r o m a n a d t h s t p e r h a ~ sa n o t h e r

a u d i e n c e would n o t .

S c h w a r t z a r g u e s t h a t when t h e a u d i e n c e i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s

a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g or '*working" i n t h e t a k i n g o f meaning,

" t h e e x p e r i e n c e s and a t t i t u d e s people b r i n g t o 3 viewing o r

l i s t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n become a c t i v e e l e m e n t s i n o u r a d v e r t i s i n g

effort.It56 T h i s c o n c e p t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c o d i n g f i n d s

e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e s e m i o t i c s of P i e r r e G u i r a u d , G u i r a u d e x p l a i n s

t h a t v a r i o u s m e s s a g e s r e q u i r e v a r i o u s d e g r e e s of p a r t i c i p a t i o n

a n d a t t e n t i o n of t h e r e a d e r . Messages have %ore a t t e n t i o n v a l u e

if t h e o b j e c t o f t h e m e s s a q e ( t h e r e f e r e n t ) h o l d s t h e r e c e i v e r ' s

interest, G u i r a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f i n t e r e s t "is o f a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l k i n d a n ? i t stems f r o m t h e p l e a s u r e o b t a i n e d i n

r e c o n s t r u c t i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g f t h e rcferent].it57 A message

t h a t o f f s r s many r e f e r e n t s a n d t h a t i s n o t o v e r c o d e d i s g o i n g t o

more f u l l y i n v o l v e t h e r e c e i v e r ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n , i f i n fact t h e

r e c e i v s r c a n c o m p e t e n t l y d e c o d e t h e r e f e r e n c e s made. From t h e

same p o i n t o f v i e w , a m e s s a g e t h a t i s t o o h i g h l y p r o q r a m m 2 d is

u n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d d e m a n d s l.ess p a r t i c i p a t i o n f r o m a c e r t a i n t y p e

of r e c e i v e r . G u i r a u d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s "is t r u e of a n y a r t i n

which s t e r e o t y p e d r h e t o r i c makes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o o e a s y , and of

any ovcrcoded n e s s a g a i n which redundancy c a u s e s t h e r e c e i v e r ' s

a t t e n t i o n and i n t e r e s t t o flage1*58 These two t y p e s of messages

( m o r e o r l o s s p r o g r s m m e d ) s u q g ~ s tt w o d i f f e r e n t r o l e s i n

reading. 59

Umberto Eco, i n T&g Role Ql The Reader, provides a

s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e m i o t i c a e t h o d ~ l o g yf o r e x a m i n i n g t h e r e a d i n g

p r o c e s s i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of p o p u l a r c u l t u r a l n a r r a t i v e s .

Based i n a t h e o r e t i c a l a c c o u n t similar t o t h a t o f Hall's

d o m i n a n t a n d r e s t r i c t e d r e a d i n g c o d e s , E c o 9 s p e r s p e c t i v e seems

t o reject a p u r e l y immanent a n a l y s i s and t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of

s u c h a n a l y s e s t h a t a l l mass c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n o p e r a t e t h r o u g h

o p e n codes o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , I n e x p l a i n i n g h i s c o n c e p t s o f open

a n d c l o s e d t e x t s E c o t e l l s us t h a t :

What I c a l l o p e n t e x t s a r e r e d u c i n g i n d e t e r m i n a c y ,
whereas closed t e x t s , even though a i n i n g a t e l i c i t i n g a

randomly open t o every pr3gmatic accident..

h a s t h u s t o f o r e s e e a m o d e l of a p o s s i b l e r e a d e r
..
s o r t of ' o b e d i e n t ' c o o p e r a t i o n , a r e i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s
The a u t h o r

( h e r e a f t e r n o d e 1 Reader) s u p p o s e d l y a b l e t o deal.
i n t e r p r e t i v e l y w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i o n s i n t h e s a m e way a s
t h e a u t h o r d e a l s q e n e r a t i v e l y w i t h them..., Those t e x t s
t h a t o b s e s s i v e l y aim a t a r o u s i n g a p r e c i s e r e s p o n s e o n
t h e p a r t o f more o r less p r e c i s e e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r s ( b e
they children, soap-opera addicts, doctors, law-abiding
c i t i z e n s , s w i n g e r s , P r e s b y t e r i a n s , farmers, ~ i d d l e - c l a s s
women, s c u b a d i v e r s , e f f e t e s n o b s , o r a n y o t h e r
imaginable socio-psychofogical category) are i n f a c t
open t o any p o s s i b l e 'abberant' decoding. A t e x t so
immodgrately *open9 to every possible i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
 w i l l be c a l l e d a c l o s e 3 one,bo

Eco d r a w s t h e n o t i o n o f particular audience participation

i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e functions of t h e text. In the

ideal-typical o p e n t e x t t h e r e a d i n g s by r e c e i v e r s , r e g a r d l e s s of

socio-psycholoqical backgrounds, will b e d e c o d e d c o m m o n l y , I n

closed t e x t s t h e encoder does not t3ke i n t o account t h a t h i s

p r o d u c e d t e x t may b a i n t s r ? r e t e d i n m e a n i n g c o d e s d i f f e r e n t f r o m

those he intended; t h e e n c o d e r s o f s u c h t e x t s h a v e i n mind a

t a r g e t a d d r e s s e e i n a given s o c i a l communication c o n t e x t , For

~ c o ,t h e o p e n t e x t c a n s u s t a i n m u l t i p l e t h e m a t i c o r s y m b o l i c

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i l e t h e c l o s e d t e x t c a n n o t a c h e i v e its d e s i r e d

meaning t h r o u g h such v a r i a n t decodings.

If w e t u r n f o r t h e m o m e n t t o t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t of

s e q m e n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s n g a i r e c t e d a t more or l e s s p r e c i s e

empirical readers, 'aberrant' d e c o d i n g is a communicational

mishap a v o i d e d by t h e e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r z i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o

specify, through c o n t r o l i n distribution, the receiving context ,

of market audiences. 80th t h e t e x t and c o n t e x t o f t h e

communicated message e f f e c t i v e l y presuppose t h e t y p e of r e a d t r

i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e ad a n d t h r o u g h media s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s , the

r e a d e r is f i x e d w i t h i n a q u i d i n g s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l category.

This inscription of t h e socio-psychologicslly identified reader

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n i s e n c o d e d i n t o t h e message a t t h e l e v a 1 o f

e f f e c t i v i t y w h i c h Eco terms a n " e x t r a t e x t u a l c o n p e t e n c e w :

T h u s i t seems t h a t a w e l l - o r g a n i z e d t e x t o n t h e o n e h a n d
p r e s u p p o s e s a model competence coming, s o t o speak, from
o u t s i d e t h e t e x t , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand works t o b u i l d
up, by m e r e l y t e x t u a l means, s u c h a c o a p e t e n c e . . .el .
 E c o ' s c u l t u r a l a n d s e m i o t i c p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e t e x t i m p l i e s

t h e s t u d y o f s h a r e d c o d e s of meaning. Borrowing Ricouer's notion

of t e x t , c u l t u r e can be conceptualized a s an "assemblage of

t e x t s w : c u l t u r e i s g o v e r n e d by a r e p e r t o i r e o f t e x t s i m p o s i n g

models of behaviour and codes i n use. The reader never

i n t e r p r e t s a t e x t i n d e p e n d e n t l y from h i s k n o w l e d g e o f o t h e r

t e x t s b a s e d o n common c o d e s . Zco e x p l a i n s t h a t i n l e a r n i n g

l a n g u a g e a * v c h i 1 3 is t r a i n e 3 t h r o u g h e x p o s u r e t o a c o n t i n u o u s

t e x t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e of p r e - f a b r i c a t e d s t r i n g s of t h a t language,

and he is expected t o absorb h i s competence even though n o t

c o m p l e t e l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g r u l e ~ . ~ * b Eco
2 argues that

t h e r e a r e e n t i r e d i s c o u r s e s t h a t we d o n o t h a v e t o i n t e r p r e t a n d

decode because t h e y have been a l r e a d y experience'3 i n analogous

circumstances o r contexts. Th9 r e a d e r c a n o f t e n f i l l i n t h e

omissions of elements of a t e x t because t h e reader already

knows, through competence i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r code or discourse,

w h a t t h e s e n d e r i s g o i n g t o s a y o r means. Competence i n r e a d i n g

a l w a y s o p e r a t e s o n t h e b 3 s i s o f c o d e s t h a t may n o t b e m a n i f e s t l y

present i n a particular text. T h e s e t y ~ e so f c o d i n g r a n g e f r o m

* @ s o c i a l l yd e f i n e d p r o c e d u r e s ( s u c h a s t h e h e r o ' s o b l i g a t o r y

death i n a c l a s s i c a l tragedy) to a sort o f d i s c u r s i v e competence

whereby anyone c a n g u e s s t h a t a p h r a s e i n a spoken c o n t e x t o f a

c o n v e r s a t i o n i m p l i e s s u c h a n d s u c h a p r e s ~ p p o s i t i o n . 6~3 T h i s

e s t a b l i s h e s a n i a p o r t a n t c o n c e p t u a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n w h a t is

~ * c o n v e n t i o n a l l y wi m p l i c a t e d a n d w h a t i s i m p l i c a t e d

'conversationally8 (i.e.,dependinj o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l memory, on

an imprecise and non-explicit rule, on a weakly c o n t r a c t e d

agreement).

The s e n s e o f competence t h a t is most u s e f u l i n t h e s e m i o t i c

a n a l y s i s o f t e x t s is t h s t o f c u l t u r a l K n o w l e d g e a n d g r o u p

d i a l e c t i c s (i.e., a cultural perspective) r a t h e r than t h a t of

t h e c o g n i t i v e i d e o l e c t s of i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e n o t i o n of c u l t u r e

c o n c e i v e d a s a s y s t e m of u s e d c o m p e t e n c e is, a s R o g e r K e s s i n g

argues,

... not all

f e e l s about
o f what a n i n d i v i d u a l knows a n d t h i n k s a n d
h i s world. It i s h i s t h e o r y of what h i s
f e l l o w s know, b e l e i v e , a n d m e a n , h i s t h e o r y o f t h e c o d e
b e i n g f o l l o w e 3 , t h e game b e i n g p l a y e d , i n t h e s o c i e t y
i n t o which h e is born.6*

From t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n o f c o m p e t e n c e we c a n i d e n t i f y t h r o u g h

a n a l y s i s o f g r o u p i n g s of t e x t s t h 3 t t h e i n t e n d e d r e a d e r s , f o r

whom t h t s e t e x t s a r e e n c o d e d , d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s h a r e t h e same

"theoryn o f t h e c u l t u r a l code. s o t a l l s o c i a l m e m b e r s know a l l

t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e a s of m e a n i n g i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i l l f o r m a t i o n s .

Kessinq s u g g e s t s t h i s c o n c e p t u a l framework c a n h e l p p l o t t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a r i a n t v s r s i o n s o f c o m p e t e n c e among s u b g r o u p s 1
a n d m a k e p o s s i b l e t h e s t u d y of t h e p r o c e s s e s of c h a n g e i n
1
c o n c e p t u a l c o d e s a s well a s i n p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r . It I
i

is t h i s s e n s e i n which t h e c o n c e p t must be pursued i n o u r

a n a l y s i s o f a d v e r t i s i n g a s s o c i a l communication -- observable i n

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t e x t u a l forms and c o n t e n t s .

With r e g a r d t o t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s , Eco e x p l a i n s t h a t

e x t r a t e x t u a l c o m p e t e n c e is a m a t t e r of t h e c o d e s t h e a d d r e s s e e

h a s access t o t h r o u g h i n t e r t e x t u a l f r a m e s a n d common frames. His

c o n c e p t of i n t e r t e x t u a l f r a m e s r e l a t e s t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f

p a r t i c u l a r t e x t s t o t h e a d d r e s s e e ' s competent knowledge o f , m d

previous experiences i n other t e x t s available i n h i s culture.

This r e l 3 t i o n a l process assumes t h a t r e a d e r s have previously

decoded v a r i o u s t e x t s , a n d t h a t t h i s d e c o d i n g is s t o r e d i n t h e

r e a d e r s g memories t o b e c a l l e d u p o n a s a t e x t u a l c o m p e t e n c e .

C o m p e t e n c e i n t e x t s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d h e r e a s a s e r i e s of

g e n e r i c r e c o g n i t i o n s o f c u l t u r a l l y a r t i c u l a t e ? f o r a s and

c o n t e n t s i n a n y new a d r e a d e r / t e x t e n c o u n t e r . E c o u s e s t h e term

-----
intertextual i n s t e a d o f s i m p l y t e x t u a l f r a m e s b e c a u s e of t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e s e frames a r a c o n s t r u c t e d o u t o f t h e r e a 3 e r s '

e x p e r i e n c e s i n d e c o d i n g t e x t s l i n k e d by c e r t a i n t o p i c a l a n d

structural elements t h a t define a discourse. For example,

" w e s t e r n s g 1 a r e l i n k e d by a c o z r n o n t o p i c a l d i s c o u r s e o f

story-telling of t h e a d v e n t u r e s of t h e e a r l y h a e r i c a n west

c e n t e r e d on t h e l i v e s o f cowboys and g u n s l i n g e r s . In the

d i s c o u r s e of g l w e s t e r n " f i l m ; , one l e a r n s to expect c e r t a i n

coding conventions of t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e such 3s: the

cowboy d r e s s e d i n b l a c k w i l l i n e v i t a b l e be t h e v i l l a i n .

Compstence i n c e r t a i n d i s c o u r s e s r e d u c e s a m b i g u i t y i n t h e

r e c e p t i o n of new t e x t s / a e s s a g e s of t h a t d i s c o u r s e a n d e a c h

o c c a s i o n o f r e c e i v i n g a new message h a s the p o t e n t i a l of

f o r t i f y i n g or a l t e r i n g t h e r e a d e r s * competsncies.

As w e l l , Eco p o i n t s o u t t h a t v a r i o u s r e a d e r s p o s s e s s common

frames w h i c h o r i g i n a t e from t h e g g s t o r a g e o f e n c y c l o p e d i c

knowledje and are s a i n l y r u l e s f o r p r a c t i c a l life.ubs These

frames depend n t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e r e a d e r and r e f l e c t
t h e h i s t o r i c a l and p a t r i m o n i a l dimension of decoding. Eco

u n d e r s t a n d s t h i s t y p e of f r a m e i n a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f
c u l t u r a l "ltheoriesg1 o f r e a d e r s e a r l i e r found i n Keissing's
t h e o r y of t h e c u l t u r a l c o d e . Different experiences i n different

c u l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n s r e n d e r s d i f f s r o n t reading c a p a b i l i t i e s and

preferences. It is p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n

common f r a m e s b a s e d o n r e a d z r s 8 s o c i a l h i s t o r i e s o f e x p e r i e n c e

f r o m p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l p o i n t s o f view. I n a r e v i e w of Ecogs
i d e a of common frames, W i l l i a m H e n d r i c k s n o t e s :

W h i l e p e o p l e ' s d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e s i n a g i v e n c u l t u r e Bay
h a v e more i n t e r s u b j e c t i v i t y t h a n t h e i r r e a d i n g h a b i t s ,
t h e r s still r e m a i n s t h e p o t e n t i z l for major d i f f e r e n c e s
( s u b c u l t u r e ) ; a p e r s o n b r o u g h t u p i n Hew Y o r k C i t y h a s
d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e o f s o m e o n e
r a i s e d o n a f a r m i n lowa.66

The communication approach o f encoding and decoding c a n put

i n t o practice t h i s apparently abstract notion of different

c o m p e t e n c i e s (based o n p s y c h o s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s ) o n l y i f t h e

o b j e c t i v e material of t e x t s are analyzed. The t e x t d o e s n o t o n l y

effect r e c o g n i t i o n s , i n t h e r e a d e r s g d e c o d i n g s , o f forms
s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e z e s f r o m o t h e r t e x t s . T h a t e x t may c u e
r e c o g n i t i o n s f r o m r e a d e r s g c o d e s of d a i l y p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e
and p r a c t i c e and r e q u i r e thesa c o d e s i n t h e t a k i n g o f meaning i n

Bessages. T h e more esoteric t e x t u a l c o d e s t e n d t o h a v e b e e n

e n c o d e d i n t o the m e s s a g e w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r f o c u s i n mind --
t h e s e c o d e s w i t h i n t h e message 2 r e a l l c h o s e n f r o ~a c o n s i s t e n t

f r a m e o f what t h e "Model R e a d e r N c a n r e c o g n i z e and u s e . Codes

based on t h e frameworks o f c u l t u r a l knowledge o f t h e p e r s o n

b r o u g h t u p i n New Y o r k C i t y ( i - e . , time p a s s i n g s i g n i f i e d by

b e i n g c a u g h t i n downtown r u s h h o u r t r a f f i c ) w i l l b e a l i e n and

i n e f f e c t i v e i n a message, s u c h a s a t r a c t o r ad, f o r t h e r e a d e r

b r o u g h t u p i n I o w a who i s b e i n g t o l d t h a t p l a n t i n g s e a s o n w i l l

s o o n b e h e r e (i.e., time p a s s i n g s i g n i f i e d b y t h e sun b e i n g u p

d u r i n g t h e time f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r e c o g n i z e d m o r n i n g c h o r e ) .

I n E c o ' s n o t i o n s o f i n t e r t e x t u a l a n d common f r a m e s is

o b s e r v e d t h e idea o f s y m m a t r y o r a l i g n m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m o m e n t s

of encoding and decoding. Eco a p p r o p r i a t e l y t a k e s a d v e r t i s n g a s

a n i d e a l example o f r i s k s d a l i g n m e n t s i n c o d e s chanced by

e n c o d i n g a d m e s s a g e s i n c l o s e d t e x t u a l f o r m s f o r select *vHodel

Readers". T h e s e f o r m s r i s k * a b e r r a n t q d e c o d i n g ; t h a t is,

unforeseen by t h e encoder. Eco s t a t e s t h a t c l o s e d t e x t s

...
project.
ssem t o b e s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o a n i n f l e x i b l e
Unfortunately, t h e o n l y one n o t t o have Seen
' i n f l e x i b l y ' p l a n n n e d is t h e r e a d e r . . , , setter, t h e y
p r e s u p p o s e an a v e r a g e r e a d e r r e s u l t i n g from a m e r e l y
i n t u i t i v e l y s o c i o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n - i n t h e s a m e way
i n which a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t c h o o s e s its p o s s i b l e a u d i e n c e ,
It is enough f o r t h e s e t e x t s t o be i n t e r p r e t e d by
r e a d e r s r e f e r r i n g t o o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n s o r o r i e n t e d by
o t h e r p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e r e s u l t is i n c r e d i b l y 1

disa?pointiny.b7 1
I
Clearly, S c o is n o t f u l l y a w a r e o f t h e p r + c i s e a u d i e n c e 1
r e s e a r c h and media s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s i n f o r m a t i o n a d v e r t i s e r s

h a v e a t t h e i r d i s g o s a l f o r i d e n t i f y i n g a n d c u s i n g t h e "Model

Readerw. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is t h e key f o r a d v e r t i s e r s a v o i d i n g

'incredibly disappointing rzsults' of 2symmetry o f c o d e s u s e d i n

t h e c o r n ~ u n i c a t i o no f a d m e s s a g e s . Yet, E c o i s c o r r e c t i n h i s

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m a t i c t o be o v e r c o a e by

t h e advertising encoding s t r u c t u r e -- admen i n s e l e c t i n g t h e i r

I

i m a g e o f t h 2 a u d i e n c e (?lode1 R e a d e r ) m u s t t r y t o e n c o d e t h e i r

messages f o r t h e highest possible y i e l d i n planned, e f f e c t e d

meaning ( u l t i m a t e l y a p o s i t i v e p r o d u c t a s s o c i a t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n

purchase benaviour). E c o ' s semiotic f r a m e w o r k of o p e n a n d c l o s e d

t e x t s b r i n g s t h e problematic o f c e r t a i n encoder-decoder contexts

o f c o m m u n i c 3 t i o n t o t h e l e v e l of t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f f o r m s a n d

c o n t e n t s o f ad messages themselves, H i s approach suggests t h e

c o m p a r i s o n o f s c e r t a i n t e x t u n d e r s t u d y w i t h o t h e r t e x t s and

d i s c o u r s e s t h e i d e n t i f i e d r e a d e r s may h a v e e x p e r i e n c e o r

competence i n . As w e l l , i t s u g g e s t s t h e c o m p a r i s o n of m e s s a g e

s t r u c t u r e s and c u l t u r a l l y mediated reference codes with t h e

s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s of a u d i e n c e s f o r whom
w e s s a g s are i n t e n d e d .

E c o p r o v i d e s n o t o n l y a t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r t h e

"Model H e a d e r n , Sut also t h e conceptualization of decoding

contexts of empirical readers (those actually reading the text

r a t h e r t h a n t h o s e t h e t e x t is simply encoded f o r ) , However,

Eco's dicussion of open and closed t e x t s and t h e e x t r a t e x t u a l

f r a m e s they s u g g e s t d o e s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t s r g r a t e t h e e m p i r i c a l

addressee into h i s analyses of narrative text structuresg effect

on decoding. Eco p r e f e r s t o r e m a i n i n t h e t a u t o l o g i c a l

methodoloqy of d e f i n i n g t h e r e a d e r a s t h e one t h e t e x t p r e f e r s ,

w i t h o u t f u l l y d e v e l o p i n g the t r u e s o c i o l o g i c a l o r c u l t u r a l
intertextual habits/ experience.

A t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n made t o s i t u a t e e m p i r i c a l r e a d i n g

a u d i e n c e s b a s e d o n a s t a t i c s o c i o l o g i c a l m o d e l of c l a s s a n d

language. I n s u c h c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of a u d i e n c e r e a d i n g B a s i l

B e r n s t e i n a n d F r a n k P a r k i n d e v e l o p two s o c i o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s

p o s i t i n g a one-to-one correspondence of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

p o s i t i o n i n g o f r e a d e r s a n d d i s c o u r s e s : l a n g u a g e is d e a l t w i t h

a s c r i b e d by a n d i n s c r i b e d i n c l a s s p o s i t i o n . T h e m e a n i n g of

messages is anafyzable, n o t s i m p l y b y t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of

the text, b u t by t h e o v e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n

t h e decoding subject.

" e m p l o y m e n t c a t e g o r y w is u s e f u l f o r s i t u a t i n q t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d

ideological predispositions of language u s e r s a t t h e decoding

end o f communication, Dave M o r l e y p o i n t s t o t n e o b v i o u s

s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h i s a u d i e n c e p e r s p e c t i v e i n semiotic s t u d i e s :

This p o s i t i o n c a n n o t b e d e f e n d e d o r s u s t a i n e d . I t is
b a s e d o n a t o o s i n p l l s t i c n o t i o n o f how c l a s s e s a r e
c o n s t i t u t e d , a n d o n t h e a s c r i p t i o n of f i x e d i d e o l o g i e s
t o whole c l a s s e s . T h e r e is no c o n c e p t o f s i g n i f y i n g
p r a c t i c e s , t h e i r r e l 3 t i v e autonomy ana s p e c i f i c
effects.... T h e r e is n o s i a p l e a l i g n m e n t b e t w e e n t h e
economic, t h e i d e o l o g i c a l i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f
classes. Classes d o n o t h a v e f i x e d , a s c r i b e 3 or u n i t a r y
world views, 68

Bernsteinas analysis sugqests boundaries f o r t h e operation

I
of c o d e s f i x e d i n a c r u d e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n m o d e l o f d e c o d i n g a n d
I

language use, i t is d i f f i c u l t t o i n c o r p o r a t e h i s q Q ~ L P ~claints

L 4
of a u d i e n c e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n i n t o a m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h i s c o n c e r n e d B

138
 p r i m a r i l y with s i g n i f y i n q p r 3 c t i c e s and t h e r e l a t i o n s between

a u d i e n c e s and t h e message's meaning.

P a r k i n 1 s "dominant", "negotiated" and "opposi tionall*

i
i
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a u d i e n c e decoding h a s been used by Hall i n
U f o r m u l a t i n g a h y p o t h e t i c a l s e t of d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s f r o m which

m e s s a g e s are d e c o d e d by d i f f e r e n t i a t e d readers. Parkin suggests

t h a t audiences share (dominantly decode), partly share (reading

i s n e g o t i a t e d b e t w e e n d o m i n a n t a n d r e a d e r ' s own d i f f e r e n t c o d e s
o f i n t s r p r e t a t o n ) , o r d o n o t s h a r e ( d e c o d e u s i n g very d i f f e r e n t

o p p o s i t i o n a l c o d e s ) t h o s e c o d e s t h a t the m e s s a g e a n d " d o m i n a n t

d e f i n i t i o n s of s o c i a l r e a l i t y i * p r e f e r . Aqain, these d e c o d i n g

p o s i t i o n s 3re r e l a t e d t h r o u g h a s o c i o l o g i c a l , a E~&QX&

definition of c l a s s position. Similarly, t h i s audiencs

p e r s p e c t i v e c a n be f a u l t e d on " t h e s i m p l e a s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e

p o s i t i o n s to t o classes a s s u c h o r , alternatively, the deduction

of t h e m f r o m s o c i o - e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n s i n some p r i o r manner."69

However, P a r k i n m a k e s a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n i n h i s work

on n e g o t i a t e d c o d e s a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e r e a d e r imposing

h i s own p r e f e r r e d c o d e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d e x t r a t e x t u a l

frames. P a r k i n b r i n g s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e r e

m e a n i n g s y s t e m s o r i g i n a t e a n d o u t of w h i c h d i s c o u r s e s t h e y a r e

d r a w n b y e n c o d e r s a n d decoders, w h o s e s e l e c t i o n o f r e a d i n g codes

may d i f f e r . I n a example of P a r k i n s s * n e g o t i a t i o n of codes,'

H a l l e x p l a i n s how a t e l e v i s i o n n e w s a e s s a g e a b o u t a n I n d u s t r i a l

R e l a t i o n s B i l l c a n be encoded w i t h i n one " s i t u a t e d l o g i c w

p r e f e r r r e d by t h e message, and decoded from t h e d i f f e r e n t

reading c o d e s t h a t e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r s choose:

R t t h e l e v e l of t h e ' n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t ' economic d e b a t e

t h e j e c o d e r may a d o p t t h e h e q s m o n i c d e f i n i t i o n a g r e e i n g
t h a t 'we m u s t a l l p a y o u r s e l v e s l e s s i n o r d e r t o c o m b a t
i n f l a t i o n * . T h i s , h o w e v e r , nay h a v e l i t t l e o r n o
relation t o his/her willingness to go on s t r i k e f o r
better pay and c o n d i t i o n s o r o p p o s e t h e I n d u s t r i a l
R e l a t i o n s B i l l a t t h a l e v e l of t h e s h o p - f l o o r o r u n i o n
organi~ation.~O

T h e t e l e v i s i o n !nessaqe i s e n c o d e d w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t

i d e o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e o f t h e t e l e v i s i o n news m e d i a w h i c h selects

c o d e s t h a t c o n t e x t u a l i z e t h e e v e n t a s ' a s t o r y of n a t i o n a l

significance'. a e a d e r s o f t h e s t o r y come t o i t s v i e w i n g a s a

mass a u d i e n c e c o m p e t e n t i n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o d e s n e c e s s a r y f o r
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t i o n a l n e w s d i s c o u r s e (i.?,:

television, magazine, newspaper, and r a d i o news). However, if

t h e r e a d e r i s a m a c h i n i s t f o r whom t h e message w i l l h a v e

d e f i n i t e s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h 2 r e a d i n g l e v e l s o r h i s common frames

and i n s t i t u t i o n a l worker r e l a t i o n s discourse (the shop f l o o r ) ,

o t h e r non-media r e a d i n g c o d e s may b e o p e r a t i n g i n d e c o d i n g . If ,

t h e v i e w e r is a w h i t e - c o l l a r , corporate executive, for i n s t a n c e ,

t h e r e would be e x p e c t e d no s u c h p r o b l e m a t i c o f t h e d o m i n a n t

m e a n i n g s ( c o d e s ) g o i n g a g a i n s t t h e g r a i n o f t h d~e c o d e r s common

frames and i n s t i t u t i o n a l and social position. P a r k i n refers t o

t h i s t y p e of c o n t r a d i c t o r y d e c o d i n g ( t h a m a c h i n i s t a s news

d e c o d e r ) a s a 2 r o d u c t of ' s p l i t l e v e l s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s 8 a n d

implies, a s d o m i n a t i o n t h e o r i ~ t sw o u l d , t h a t on2 of these levels

is a p r o d u c t o f ' f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ~w h i l e t h e o t h e r l e v e l is
more a r t i c u l a t e d b y a more r e a l a w a r e n e s s o f o n e ' s p o s i t i o n i n

t h e work-a-day world. P a r k i n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n

o f t h e s u b j e c t i s i n f l e x i b l y s e t i n the p r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of

s o c i a l c l a s s and cannot, therefore, consider other extratextual

d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of t h e s u b j e c t / t e x t e n c o u n t e r ; t h a t i s , t h e

s u b j e c t ' s competence i n s e v e r a l d i s c o u r s e s (media o r p r a c t i c a l

social discourses) w h i c h may r e s u l t i n a n o n - h o m o l o g o u s readinq.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , P a r k i n ' s i n d i c a t i o n o f ' s v l i t l e v e l s of

c o n s c i o u s n e s s ~ is, i n f a c t , an indication of the reader

realizing, t h r o u g h h i s c o m p e t e n c e i n two d i s c o u r s e s ( n a t i o n a l

news media a n d s h o p f l o o r n e g o t i a t i o n and p o l i t i c s ) , two

d i f f e r e n t meanings -- o n e i n o r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e m e s s a g e

s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e o t h e r more s e l f - c e n t e r e d , a r i s i n g from t h e

e f f e c t i v i t y o f common f r a m e s o n r e a d i n g .

Horley employs t h e c o n c e p t s o f i n t e r d i s c o u r s e and

i n t e r p e l l a t i o n t o modify t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e of

a u d i e n c e u s e d by P a r k i n . For Horley, a u d i e n c e s and t h e i r

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o m p e t e n c i e s i n r e a d i n g c a n b e d e f i n e d by

s t u d y i n g t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of d i s c o u r s e s a n d by t r a c i n g t h e

c o d e s used i n p a r t i c u l a r media messages back t o t h e i r t h e i r

o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t s w h e r e t h e y a r e l e a r n e d b y a u d i e n c e s ( w h i c h way

be m e d i a d e c o d i n g a c t i v i t y i t s e l f ) . Morley's concept of t h e

s u b j e c t offers a s o c i o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n to W i i l i a m s o n * ~

n o t i o n o f the m e s s a g e a p p e l l i n g t h e a d d r e s s e e i n t o a r e a d y - m a d e

'subject space'. Moffey s u g g e s t s t h a t e a c h a p p e l l a t i o n i s n o t a n

i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a ' s u b j e c t s p a c e * whose p r o c e s s e s

a r e c o n f i n e d t o o n e d i s c o u r s e (i.s., aduork/advertising), but

rather, a p p e l l a t i o n s a r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t some
a u d i e n c e s w i l l e x p e r i e n c e them a n d o t h e r s w i l l n o t . The ' s u b j e c t

space' i s more a r e s u l t of p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e r e a d i n g h a b i t s

and e x p e r i e n c e (what e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r s b r i n g t o t h e r e a d i n g o f a

t e x t a n d how e n c o d e r s c o n c e i v e of t h i s i n terms o f a p a r t i c u l a r

i m a g e o f t h e m o d e l r e a d e r ) t h a n i t i s a r e s u l t of a p a r t i c u l a r

message s t r u c t u r e , o r r u l e s o f a d i s c o u r s e , f o r t h a t matter.
Morley emphasizes t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e ' s u b j e c t space' a

p a r t i c u l a r t e x t prefers i n its d i s c u r s i v e o p e r a t i o n s and t h e

p r o c e s s i n which e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r s , previously interpellated as

* s u b j e c t s s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r h i s t o r i e s f o r a m u l t i p l i c i t y of

d i s c o u r s e s , are i n t e r p e l l a t e d by p a r t i c u l a r texts. Readers do

n o t s i m p l y become s u b j e c t s c o n s t i t u t e d by a s i n q l e t e x t u a l

appellation. I t is t h e p a t t e r n s of d i s c o u r s e u s e - what

d i s c o u r s e s a r e consumed by v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s and what ' s u b j e c t

spaces' t h e s e audience-linked discourses c o n s t r u c t around

habitual reading preferences - t h a t mark o u t w h a t M o r l e y c a l l s

an i n t e r d i s c o u r s e or d i s c u r s i v e formation. Morley e x p l a i n s t h a t

a t t h s ~ o m e n to f d e c o d i n g ,

o t h e r d i s c o u r s e s are a l w a y s i n p l a y b e s i d e s t h o s e o f t h e
p a r t i c u l a r t e x t i n f o c u s -- d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h d e p e n d o n
other discursive formations, brcught i n t o play through
the *subjectsg placing i n other practices - cultural,
educational, institutional.71

I n many r e s p e c t s M o r f e y ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e a d i n g

of t e x t s r e s e m b l e s ECO'S e a l i e r formulation of extratextual

cowpetence. Both s u g g e s t t h e n e c e s s a r y i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between a

text, its d i s c u r s i v e formation and t h e d i s c o u r s e s an audience

w i l l be competent i n and r e f e r t o i n r e a d i n g . Both s u g g e s t t h a t

I
a u d i e n c e s a r e d e f i n e d by c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e r s who c o n s t r u c t
i
m e s s a g e s f o r them a n d b o t h d i s c u s s communication from t h e

pers?ective of an intention31 semantics and a pragmatic concern

w i t h c o n t e x t s o f e n c o d i n g and decoding, Using P a r k i n ' s example

of decoding i n a negotiated cods, Morley a r g u e s t h a t t h e same

* w o r k e r a i s a c o n t r a d i c t o r y s u b j e c t , t r a v e r s e d by d i f f e r e n t

d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s (i.e., n a t i o n a l news s u b j e c t and

class/sectional/ s u b j e c t ). T h i s s u b j e c t is c o n c e i v e d a s a l r e a d y

competently c o n s t i t u t e d i n o t h e r d i s c u r s i v e p r a c t i c e s and s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s which d o n o t relate t o class alone. Morley and o t h e r

n a r x i s t a n a l y s t s o f t h e c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n an? r e c e p t i o n of

m e s s a g e s h a v e come t o r e a l i z e t h a t t h e m a t c h i n g o f a u j i e n c e s and

t h e i r reading codes and encoder concepts of these matchings do

not f a l l i n t o l i n e s o f s o c i a l class d i v i s i o n s and t h e

d e f i n i t i o n s o f model readers a l o n g thest? d i v i s i o n s .

M o r l s y is concerne.3 w i t h t h e m a t c h o f e x t r a t e x t u a l

c o m p e t e n c i e s r e q u i r e d i n d e c o d i n g s by a u d i e n c e s and d i s c u r s i v e

f o r m a t i o n s l i n k e d by common c o d e s i n c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s a n d

mode of a d d r e s s . The meanings o f a t e x t d e p e n d s on t h e

discursive competencies brouqht t o t h e encounter with t h e t e x t

by p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e s . Th? d e l i m i t i n q f a c t o r f o r t h e s e m i o t i c

a n a l y s i s o f r e a d i n g is t h e * ' r e p e r t o i r e o f discoursesis a t t h e

disposal o f d i f f e r e n t audiences. Morley t a k e s up W i i l e m e n * ~

suqgestion that,

i n d i v i d u a l s do have d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s to sets o f
discourses, i n t h a t t h e i r position i n the social
f o r m a t i o n , t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n g i n t h e real, w i l l d e t e r m i n e
which s e t s o f d i s c o u r s e s a q i v e n s u b j e c t is l i k e l y t o
 e n c o u n t e r a n d i n what ways i t w i l l d o so, 72

A l t h o u g h i t is t r u ? t h a t a u d i e n c e s a r e s i t u a t e d e c o n o m i c a l l y ,

politically, a n d i d e o l o g i c a l l y b y v i r t u e of t h e s h a r e d

e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h i n s o c i a l and o f c u l t u r a l formations, t h i s does

n o t c o m p l e t e l y restrict n o r a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t , for t h e purpose

of audience reading analysis, what t e x t s / d i s c o u r s e s a u d i e n c e s

w i l l r e a d a n d how t h e y w i l l r e a d t h e m . F o r t h e s e a n s w e r s we must

l o o k a t a c t u a l t e x t s a n d t h e d i s c o u r s e s known t o be d e c o d e d by

o n e common a u d i e n c e . T e x t u a l a n l y s i s o f msdia messages i n any

c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t w i l l s i m p l y v e r i f y t h a t m e a n i n g syste3s

are n o t p e r f e c t l y c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s
o f class readings, b u t a r e more a c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e d a s

o r i g i n a t i n a o u t of a m u l t i p l i c i t y of d i s c o u r s e s from v a r i o u s

s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s t r a v e r s i n g t h e s e boundaries. S u b j e c t p o s i t i o n

is no l o n g e r t h a t p o s i t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e t s x t / i n d i v i 3 u a l psyche

encounter, b u t a more s t a b l e p o s i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d b y d i f f e r e n t

media a n d n o n - m e d i a d i s c o u r s e s converging on 3 type of reader -- .

d e f i n e d a s a model audience/rtedia m a r k e t by e n c o d l r s a n d t h e

c u l t u r a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f s s e l e c t r e p e r t o i r e of d i s c o u r s e s .

Discursive formations mediate between v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l l o c a t i o n s

of s u b j e c t s p a c e a n d t h e a c t u a l d e c o d i n g p r a c t i c e s o f a u d i e n c e s ,

E y k n o w i n g w h a t d i s c o u r s a s a n d common f r a m e s a g r o u p of readers

a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n it i s p o s s i b l e t o make c u l t u r a l

a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t w h a t m e a n i n g t h i s group is l i k e l y t o t a k e f r o m

a p a r t i c u l a r m e s s a g e a n 3 a l s o w h e r e e n c o d e r s of t h e m e s s a g e h a v e
b o r r o w e d o u t s i d e o f t h e i r own d i s c o u r s e f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

meaning.
 Harley is c o m p e l l e d t o i d e n t i f y ' k e y sites* f o r t h e

l e a r n i n g o f d i s c o u r s e p r e f e r e n c e s and competencies. For Horley,

t h e s e 'key s i t e s 1 a r a t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d a s p e r f o r m i n g t h e

fundamental p r o c e s s e s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n i n s o c i e t y . . Horley
borrows d e r n s t e i n ' s i d e a t h a t two such s i t e s are t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n a l s i t e s o f t h e f a m i l y and t h e s c h o o l . 7 3 As well,

gender and immediate s o c i a l c o n t e x t o r c u l t u r a l milieu influence

w h i c h s p e c i f i c d i s c o u r s e s e n t e r i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of d i s c u r s i v e

repertoires - a discursive space - and e s t a b l i s h a d i s c u r s i v e

range. Most i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e s t u d y o f media producton and

c o n s u m p t i o n i s how t h e p a t t e r n e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e d i s c o u r s e s

o f t h e m e d i a a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f mass c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n c r e a t e

c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t d i s c u r s i v e competencies between audiences.

The r e s e a r c h p r a c t i c e s of a d v e r t i s i n q u s e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e market and about audience

r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o media (i.e., lifestyles, consumption s t y l e s ,

s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f m e d i a u s e by c u l t u r a l g r o u p s ) , a n d i t

is t h e s e p r a c t i c e s w h i c h a r e r e s p o n s i b l e , a s well, f o r t h e

c o h e s i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r d i s c u r s i v e sets t h r o u g h s e g m e n t a t i o n

media m a r k e t i n g and production. These p r a c t i c e s e s t a b l i s h and

define t h e forms of t h e taxt/ r e a d e r r e l a t i o n a t t h e l e v e l of

mode o f a d d r e s s . T h e m a g a z i n e a u d i e n c e is r e n d e r e d a d d r e s s a b l e

and t h e audience's competencies i n a discursive c u l t u r a l

p o s i t i o n is d e f i n e d f o r a u d i e n c e s through media and market

segmentation analysis. This research activity enables

a d v e r t i s e r s t o i s o l a t e n o t o n l y c o n s u m e r p r e f e r s n c e s b u t also a
r a n q e o f d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h c a n b e s e l e c t e d from a n d e m p l o y e d
r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n ad forms and c o n t e n t s t o c u e p a r t i c u l a r

audiences. J h i l e t h e m a r k e t s e g m e n t may b e i n i t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d

c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h r o u g h t h e a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t ( d e f i n e d by m e d i a

u s e and m o s t c o n t r i b u t i n g d i s c o u r s e s f o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
discursive space). The growing s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n segmentation

narketinq and audience/totem g r o u p a d d r e s s i n a d s is l a r g e l y a

f u n c t i o n of t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f m a d i a c o n t e n t s i n s p e c i f i c

c o n t e x t s of e n c o d i n g a n d d e c o d i n g made p o s s i b l e by t h e m e d i a

i n d u s t r i e s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e d by a d v e r t i s i n g f o r s i m i l a r
heterogeneous markets.

D i s c u r s i v e s p a c e , a s an a n a l y t i c c o n c e p t , i s u s e f u l i n t h e
p r a q m a t i c s t u d y o f hou meaning i s c o n s t r u c t e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g --
a s an e m p i r i c a l f a c t of social communication. Discourses and

t e x t s referred t o i n t h e advertising discourse have a material,

d e f i n a b l e e x i s t e n c e a s media a n d o t h e r f o r m s of c u l t u r a l

production; t h a t is, t h e y a r e i n t e n t i o n a l c u l t u r a l a r t i f a c t s . An
a d f o r b e e r t a r g e t e d t o w a r d s a m a r k e t s e g m e n t of 3 0 t o 5 5 y e a r
o l d men r e f e r s t h e a d d r e s s e e t o f a m o u s s p o r t s c e l e b r i t i e s of

yesterday, f a m o u s c o m e d i a n s a n d humor s t y l e s , t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c

c o n t e x t of 3n e x e c u t i v e b o a r d - r o o m , and a c e l e b r i t y "roastm t y p e
presentation of charactars, F o r t h e ad t o be d s c o d e d e f f e c t i v e l y

and meaningfully it r e q u i r e s t h e audience t o be competent u i t h

t h e s e select d i s c o u r s e s . T h e s e m i o t i c method c a n examine t h e s e

d i s c o u r s e s i n a c o s p a r a t i v e a n a l y t i c framework, that not only

r e v e a l s h o g t h e p r o d u c t g a i n s m e a n i n g from t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s of

signification, b u t a l s o what aakes t h e r e f e r r e d - t o discourses i n

t h e a d s u i t a b l e a n d common a s a r e f e r e n c e s e t f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n

t o t h e 30 t o 5 5 y e a r o l d , male, white-collar audiences. In this

example a l l t h e r e f e r e n t i a l d i s c o u r s e s e x h i b i t d e n s i t i e s o f

r e l a t i o n s o f common m o d e s o f a d d r e s s a n d c o m p o s i t e r e l i a n c e o n a

c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n of h a b i t u a l m e d i a c o n s u m p t i o n . Without

d e t a i l e d s o c i o l o g i c a l and p r a g m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e 30 t o 5 5 y e a r o l d , male

a u d i e n c e t o a l l t h e s e r e f e r e n t i a l d i s c o u r s e s , o n e is a b l e t o

suggest t h e type of viewer and h i s socio-cultural

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s (i-e., media h a b i t s ) from t h e o b j e c t i v e material

o f t h e a d message. The performance o f t h e audignce i n viewing

t h e ad is t h e peformance o f t h i s i n t e r d i s c o u r s e . I n what c o u l d

be d e f i n e d i n t h e metacommunicational f u n c t i o n o f segmentation

ads, a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i s c u r s i v e s p a c e of t h e t a r g e t e d

audience t a k e s t h e forms o f both s l o g i c of c u l t u r e s and t h e

e x p r e s s i o n of l i f e s t y l e e m b l e m s o f t h e a u d i e n c e . The r a n g e and

r e p e r t o i r e o f d i s c o u r s e s t h i s a u d i e n c e is c o m p e t e n t i n ,

likewise, precludes a favourable o r accurate reading of t h e

d i s c o u r s e s o f new w a v e p o s t e r a r t , e t h n o g r a p h i c d i s ~ l a y sof p u n k

culture, o r t h e t y p e of c y n i c a l " S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e w h u m o r

referred t o i n youth market beer ads.

The u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d e n s i t i e s o f r e l a t i o n s i n a c o l l e c t i o n

o f r e f e r r e d - t o d i s c o u r s e s of t h e a d p r s s u p p o s e s t h a t t h e

v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l f o r m s a r e m o t i v a t e d by c o n t e x t u a l d e m a n d s o f
 t h e i r u s e by d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a u d i e n c e s . ~t i s t h e c o m p e t e n c i e s of
particular audiences possessing different discursive repertoires

and lockqd i n t o i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t s (ideology i n t h e

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l sense) r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r u s e of p a r t i c u l a r

d i s c o u r s e s t h a t s e t s t h e terms o f c o n t e x t u a l d e m a n d s . Structural

a n a l y s e s which i n c o r p o r a t e t h i s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

systeius o f s t r u c t u r e s o r i n t e r d i s c o u r s e can expect to f i n d

common l i n k s b e t w e e n v a r i o u s s e p a r a t e d i s c o u r s e s a n d m e a n i n g

systems. By c o m p a r i n g t h e d i s c u r s i v e r e f e r e n c e s o f a t e x t w i t h

t h e t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t o f communication o f t h a t d i s c o u r s e

(i.e.,historical, sender/receiver relationship, s o c i a l and

c u l t u r a l contents of t h e discourse, media u s e d ) , i t is p o s s i b l e

- for s e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s t o e x p l a i n r e f e r e n t s y s t e ~ s ,n o t merely a s
* * e m p t i e d w o r a s w i 3 e o l o g i c a l m y t h w a s s u m e d by a n a u d i e n c e a t t h e

level of the structured text, b u t a s s y s t e m s o f e x p r e s s i o n used

by p a r t i c u l a r e n c o d e r s / d e c o d e r s . These systems are ideological

i n t h e sense t h a t they belong t o s p e c i f i c c u l t u r 3 1 c o n t e x t s of

t h e i r u s e by c s r t a i n groups i n s o c i e t y and a r e c u l t u r a l l y

p r o d u c e d w i t h t h e s e g r o u p s i n mind ( i n c l u d i n g s p e c i f i c m a r k e t i n g

motives and s t r a t e g i e s structured i n t o t h e s e messages), As Kress

c o r r e c t l y tells us, such a multilevel analysis

p r o v i d e s n o a n s w e r t o t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n of
p o p u l a r c u l t u r e ; i t d o e s p r o v i d e a working methodology.
S t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s would h a v e t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h i s
methodology: n o t t o c o n f i n e i t s o l f t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f
descrete e n t i t i e s , b u t t o t a k e a s i t s p r o p z r o b j e c t o f
a t t e n t i o n s y s t e m s of s t r u c t u r e s ( w h i c h i s i n f a c t t h e
practice of anthropoloqists) .7*
 T h i s s t r u c t u r a l i s t a p p r o a c h e n c o u r a g e s a more e x t e n s i v e a n d
s o p h i s t i c a t e d c u l t u r a l s t u d y o f how s y s t e m s of s t r u c t u r e s o r
s e p a r a t e d i s c o u r s e s a r e c o n n e c t e d o u t s i d e of t h e d i s c r e t e t e x t
which refers t o a n d t h e r e f o r e u s e s them. For t h e a d message
e n c o d e d w i t h a model r e a d e r i n m i n d , social and c u l t u r a l meaning

i s t r a n s f e r r e d from m e n t i o n e d d i s c o u r s e s t o t h e p r o d u c t , These
d i s c o u r s e s are n o t chosen a r b i t r a r i l y but on t h e basis t h a t t h e y
a r e l i n k e d i n t o a s y s t e m of s t r u c t u r e s ( d i s c u r s i v e f o r s s ) t h a t
a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e model r e a d e r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e u s e d b y
h i m , T h e r e a d e r i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f w i t h t h e m e a n i n g of t h e s e
d i s c o u r s e s and i n v a r i o u s degrees i n t e r p r e t s t h e world through
these discourses. Revealing t h e patterns of discursive
r e p e r t o i r e s of g r o u p s i n s o c i e t y i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a n
e x h a u s t i v l e n c y c l o p e d i a of a g r o u p s ' s o c i o c u l t u r a l l e x i c o n , It
d o e s p r o v i d e a way of l i m i t i n g t h e p o s s i b l e w a y s i n w h i c h a

g r o u p r e a d s a r e f e r e n c e by d e f i n i n g t h e o r i g i n a l s s m a n t i c
s p e c t r u m a n d p r a g m a t i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which t h e g r o u p reads,
I n t h e c a s e of a d v e r t i s i n g , which as a d i s c o u r s o t a l k s t o
t o t e m i c / a u d i e n c e g r o u p s i n terms of t h e i r own p r e d i s p o s e d
d i s c o u r s e s , a s t u d y o f t h e s y s t e m s of s t r u c t u r e s i n a d
c o n i w u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s s h o u l d r e v s a l s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n t i a l
d i s c o u r s e s from a p r e d e t e r m i n e d S i s c u r s i v e r e p e r t o i r e b e l o n g i n g
t o what a d v e r t i s e r s b e l i e v e t o b2 a u d i e n c e / m a r k e t targets.
 T h i s s e c t i o n e x p l a i n s why i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e s t u d y

o f m e a n i n g i n a d v e r t i s e m e n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d p a t t e r n s of

s e l e c t i v i t y i n ad r e f e r e n c e s t h a t have o r i g i n a l l y had meaning

f o r p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l g r o u p s i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s of
communication. The r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s e d i s c o u r s e s as

s e m a n t i c r e f e r e n c e i n a d s i s n o t a p r o c t s s of e m p t y i n g o r i g i n a l

meaning, b u t of r e c a s t i n g i t . O f t e n t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i n a d s a r e

c o n d e n s e d s i g n a l s of m e a n i n g f u l d i s c o u r s e s t h e e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r

r e c o g n i z e s w i t h ease d u e t o h i s c o m p e t e n c a i n t h s e x p a n d e d a n d

e l a b o r a t e u s e of t h e d i s c o u r s e . For instance, t h e d i s c o u r s e of

f a s h i o n w i l l b e m o r e a p p a r e n t i n i t codes, r h e t o r i c

(overcoding), a n d more s u b t l e c u l t u r a l n u a n c e s a s p r a c t i c e d i n

t h e r e a d i n g of v o l u m e s of f a s h i o n m a g a z i n e s , aiscussion with

other fsshion enthusiasts, a n d t h e a t t e n d i n g of f a s h i o n s h o w s ,

than i n a brief reference to fashion i n an advertisemsnt f o r a

perfume. I t is v e r y l i k e l y t h a t t h e p e r f u m e a d a u d i e n c e w i l l

a l s o b e c o m p e t e n t i n t h e f a s h i o n d i s c o u r s e , b u t i t i s o n l y by
comparing t h e ad discourse with t h e fashion d i s c o u r s e t h a t t h e

s e m i o t i c i a n may t e a s e o u t t h e f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e r e f e r e n c e

a n d how e x a c t l y i t g i v e s m e a n i n g t o t h e p r o d u c t .

T h e m e t h o d o l o g y of c o m p a r i n g s y s t e m s of m e a n i n g s n d

s t u d y i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e h a s been

l o o s e l y a p p l i e d i n j o h n B e r g e r g s i m m a n e n t a n a l y s i s i n gays of
-----
Seeing, B e r g e r s p e c i f i c a l l y l o o k s a t how t h e d i s c o u r s e of o i l
p a i n t i n g i s borrowed o r " q u o t e d byM, and a e s t h e t i c a l l y and

functionally similar t o advertising layout presentation. He

compares t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l genre of o i l paintinq, along w i t h

i t s s o c i a l v a l u e c o n n o t a t i o n s , i m a g e r y , and p r a g m a t i c c o n t e x t s

o f i t s u s e a s a medium, with ad messages, some o f w h i c h b o r r o w

from t h e o i l p a i n t i n g d i s c o u r s e . I n h i s s t a t e m e n t of c o m p a r i n g

t h e two media, Berger argues that:

The c o n t i n u i t y , however, between o i l p a i n t i n g and

publicity goes f a r deeper than t h e *quotingg of specific
paintings. P u b l i c i t y relies to a very l a r g e e x t e n t on
t h e l a n g u a g e of o i l p a i n t i n g , I t s p 2 a k s i n t h e s a m e
v o i c e a b o u t t h e same t h i n g s . Sometimes t h e v i s u a l
c o r r s s p o n d e n c e s a r e s o c l o s e t h a t i t is p o s s i b l e t o p l a y
a game o f *Snapw - p u t t i n g almost i d e n t i c a l im3ges o r
d e t a i l s s i d e by s i d e . I t i s n o t , h o w e v e r , j u s t a t t h e
l e v e l of e x a c t p i c t o r a l correspondence t h a t t h e
c o n t i n u i t y i s i m p o r t a n t : i t i s a t t h e l e v e l of s e t s of
s i g n s used.75

The product s i g n e n t e r s i n t o a c o n t i g u o u s r e l a t i o n with t h e

v i s u a l l a y o u t o f t h e ad: t h e p r o d u c t i m a g e i s s u p e r i ~ p o s e do v e r

o r positioned i n the layout, T h e l a y o u t o f t h e ad o p e r a t e s i n a

c o n t i n u o u s o r a n a l o q i c semiotic r e l a t i o n b y r e s e m b l i n g a known

p i e c e of a r t o r g e n r e , Berger's paradigmatic consideration o f

a r t r e f e r e n c e i n t h e ad and t h e discourse of o i l painting i n

more formal s e m i o t i c terms i l e n t i f i e s s i g n i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f

m e t o n y ~ y ( t h e l a y o u t is p a r t o f t h e g e n r e , stylistic rules

connect) and metaphor ( t h e l a y o u t is l i k e a p a r t i c u l a r

painting). The i l i s c o u r s e s of a d v e r t i s i n g and o i l p a i n t i n g assum

a c o m m o n n e s s i n mode o f a d d r e s s -- they speak t o t h e

wspectator-owneru ( o f a p i e c e of a r t ) a n d t h e same a d d r e s s e e a s

w s p e c t a t o r - b u y e r f i ( o f t h e p r o d u c t ) " i n t h e same v o i c e a b o u t t h e
same t h i n g s w . 7 b

T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o

media is, f o r B e r g e r , a t t h e " l e v e l o f t h e s e t s of s i g n s u s e d " .

Berger a r g u e s t h a t t h e a r t d i s c o u r s e a s a media h a s been

*slearnedl* i n d i f f e r e n t social i n s t i t u t i o n a l and c u l t u r a l

c o n t e x t s w i t h i n a s y s t e m of s t r u c t u r e s f a m i l i a r t o c u l t i v a t e d

audiences. Unfortunately, hs d o e s n o t e x p l a i n o n w h a t b a s i s t h e

a r t d i s c o u r s e is p a r t of a c o n t e m p o r a r y d i s c u r s i v e r e p e r t o i r e of
any p a r t i c u l a r audience. Berger only concludes t h a t

a d v e r t i s i n g ' s s e l e c t i o n of i m a g e r y " f o r c e s t h e ~ a j o r i t yt o

d e f i n e t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s a s n a r r o w l y a s p o s s i b l e * * w i t h o u t

e x p l a i n i n g o n what c u l t u r a l r e a d i n g p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s t h i s

d e f i n i t i o n t a k e s place.

T h e r e i s a n o t h e r way of e x p l a i n i n g t h e c o n t i n u o u s

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of o n e d i s c o u r s e t h r o u g h s e m i o t i c a n a l o g y i n

another (i.e., advertisinq). T h e roovemont o f a e a n i n g s t r u c t u r e s

f r o m d i s c o u r s e s o u t s i d e of a d v e r t i s i n q t o r e f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e a d message c a n b e e x p l a i n e d w i t h t h e h e l p of

L e v i S t r s u s s * ~c o n c z p t of n b r i c o l a g e w . W i l l i a m s o n u s e s b r i c o l a g e

i n h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f how a d s b o r r o w ' * o d J s a n d e n d s u f r o m

e x t e r n a l meaning systems i n which t h e s e s i g n s have o r i g i n a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e n o t i o n of t h e t r a n s f e r of m e a n i n g from o t h e r

discourses i n t o t h e ad system . can be thought of, from

#illiamson3s perspectivs, i n t h e same way a s L 2 v i - S t r a u s s

e x p l a i n s h e r e t h a t rites a n ? m y t h s " t a k e t o p i e c e s a n d

r e c o n s t r u c t s e t s of e v e n t s ( o n a 3 h y s i c 3 1 , s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l or
t e c h n i c a l p l a n e ) a n d u s e t h e m a s s o many i n d e s t r u c t i b l e p i e c e s

f o r s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s i n which s e r v e a l t e r n a t i v e l y a s e n d s and
means."?? Williamson tells u s t h a t these " i n d e s t r u c t i b l e piecesM

e x i s t u n c o n s c i o u s f v " i n o u r headsu a n d i t is t h r o u g h u s t h a t
t h e s e s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s " p a r t a k e of h i s t o r i c i t y " . It m u s t be

argued, however, t h a t t h ? s f f e c t i v i t y o f t h i s p r o c e s s of

t r a n s f e r e n c e s h o u l d n o t b e l e f t t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t i c a n d mass
c u l t u r e d e f i n i t i o n s o f s i g n u s e t h a t p l a g u e W i l l i a m s o n ~ ss t u d y .

Culturally indescript subjects-in-general d o n o t borrow m e a n i n g

from o n e d i s c o u r s - f o r a n o t + e r , rather Sricolage requires that

t h e borrowed o b j e c t b e u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t a n 3 n e w c u l t u r a l
c o n t e x t o t h e r t h a n t h e 3na i t o r i g i n a t e s from. B r i c o l a g e is an
a n t h r o p o l o q i c a l c o n c e p t d e s i g n e d t o e x p l a i n t h e movement o f
s t r u c t u r e d meanings from one d i s c u r s i v e c o n t e x t to another i n a
society. T h e c o n c s ? t ha; p r o v e n ta 52 s x t ~ e m z l yu s e f u l i n

e x p l a i n i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n of l i f e s t y l e s o f s u b c u l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n s

v e r y much i n v o l v e d i n w h a t K l i n e e a r l i e r e x p l a i n s a s totemic

group meaning systems. C u l t u r a l anthropologist and s o c i o l o g i s t

J o h n C l a r k e e x p l a i n s t h e s t r u c t u r e d i m p r o v i s a t i o n s of b r i c o l a g e

i n a t h e o r y o f c o m a u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l sectors
(subcultures) :

T o q e t h e r , o b j e c t and m e a n i n g c o n s t i t u t e a s i g n , a n d ,
w i t h i n any one c u l t u r e , such s i g n s are assembled,
r e p e a t e d , i n t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c forms o f d i s c o u r s e .
Yowever, when t h e b r i c o l e u r re-locates t h e s i q n i f i c a n t
object i n a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h a t d i s c o u r s e ,
u s i n g t h e s a m e o v e r a l l r e p e r t o i r e o f s i g n s , o r when t h a t
o b j e c t i s p l a c e d w i t h i n a d i f f e r e n t t o t a l e n s m b l e , a new
d i s c o u r s e is c o n s t i t u t e d , a d i f f e r e n t m e s s a g e
conveyed.78
 T h e u s e o f t h i s c o n c e p t i n e x p l a i n i n g how s i g n s y s t e m s t a k e

o n new 2 e a n i n g when r e l o c a t e d i n a new d i s c o u r s e o r e n s e m b l e may

be u s e d t o e x p l a i n t h e e x c h a n g e o f meaning between s u b c u l t u r e s

defined by their lifestyle interests, conspicious consumption

behaviours and r i t u a l displays. To u s e b r i c o l a g e t o e x p l a i n t h e

p r o c e s s o f a d v s r t i s i n g c r e s t i n g new c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e s f o r

p a r t i c u l a r t o t e m i c g r o u p s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of mzaning i n

t a r g e t e d a d s assumes a n i n c o r r e c t u s a g e of t h e c o n c e p t . If these

t a r g e t a d s a r e t o be s u c c e s s f u l l y decoded by a n a u d i e n c e , t h e n

t h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e r ~ c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o no f t h e b o r r o w e d s i g n s

which t h z a u d i e n c e a l r e a d y u s e t o d e f i n e t h e a s e l v e s w i t h i n a

c o h e r e n t l y i n t e g r a t e d l i f e s t y l e s e t , An a d t a r g e t e d t o y o u t h ,

white-collar executives, or blue-collar s p o r t s f a n a t i c s is n o t

going t o experiment with c u l t u r a l s i q n s and references from

other distinct l i f e s t y l e groups - other discourses that a r e not

already familiar - unless, of c o u r s e , t h e i n t e n t o f t h e message

is h u m o r o u s d i s o r i e n t a t i o n . S r i c o l a g e d o e s n o t o c c u r a t t h e s i g n

l e v e l o f e n c o d e d a n d d e c o d e d messages m e a n i n g s o f s i g n i f i e r s

from what t h e y are i n a d v e r t i s i n g . Advertisers d o n o t w i s h t o

change t h e c u l t u r a l s i q n s from t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n o r i g i n a l

discourses t o 3 r e w o r k e d meaning t h e y bear i n t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n

of g o o d s . I t i s t h e g o o d s t h a t c h a n g e m e a n i n q i n a f l e x i b l e way,

not t h e r e f e r e n t signifi2r.s.

What W i l f i a m s o n a n d o t h e r s h a v e m i s t a k e n f o r b r i c o l a g e i n

a d v e r t i s i n g is i n f a c t t h e p r o c e s s where e n c o d e r s select

c u l t u r a l references t o s i g n i f y a product. This constitutes an

appropriation but does not necessarily change t h e e s s e n t i a l

meaning o f t h e s e c u l t u r a l s i g n s . If, for instance, a reference

i s made t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y v a l u e s o f t h e ~ o o d s t o c k g e n e r a t i o n

i n t h e s e l l i n g o f a home c o m p u t e r , the actual

r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r r e d - t o meanings w i l l have

already taken place i n the co-optation and commercialization

e f f e c t e d i n o t h e r c u l t u r a l a r e n a s (i.e.,the music i n d u s t r y , mass

media) b e f o r e a d v e r t i s e r s w i l l u s e i t . 3y d r a w i n g a n e x t e r n a l

discourse into the advertising discourse, t h e a d v e r t i s e r is

b o r r o w i n g a l r e a d y worked-upon meanings. T h i s may w o r k t o h e l p

maintain a n act of b r i c o l a g e e f f e c t e d o r i g i n a l l y elsewhere, but

t h i s does not c o n s t i t u t e a n a c t of bricolage.

Williamson c o r r e c t l y e x p l a i n s t h a t a d v e r t i s i n g u s e s I q i t s

own f o r m a s a r e f e r e n t s y s t e m ; a n d i t r e l i e s o n o u r r e c o g n i z i n g
t h a t f o r m g s . 7 9 T h e f a d a n d f a s h i o n t r e n d s of c o n p e t e t i v e

marketing set d e f i n i t i o n s f o r such p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m a t s as

wlifestylen ads i n the technical, a r t i s t i c and r h e t o r i c a l codes

employed. Encoders assuae t h a t t h e a d v e r t i s i n g discourse is a

r e c o g n i z a b l e s y s t e m w i t h c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s deemed more

appropriate than others i ~ pi t i r t i c u i a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f

communication to audiences. The encoder borrows p r e s e n t a t i o n a l

s t y l e s o f o t h ~ ra d t e x t s c n d sometimes w h o l e s e m a n t i c a n d

syntactic structures ars referred to. A soap ad format m3y b e

utilized ( f o r humourous a f f e c t s ) t o sell t e l e v i s i o n sets i n a

t y p e of a d v e r t i s i n g self-parody. P e p s i a d s m i r r o r Coke a d s a n d

vice versa. Ads i n m a g a z i n e s w i l l b e c o n d e n s a t i o n s o f t h e i r more

elaborats television counterparts. Ads w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r

p r o d u c t c a m p a i g n c a n d e v e l o p a l o n g a s t r u c t u r e d t h e m e of

a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o m i s s i o n s of m a t e r i a l t h a t h a s b e e n

s e e n i n i t s p r e v i o u s a d s ( ' C h a n e l g a d s f i n a l l y omit D e n e u v e ' s

face l e a v i n g o n l y t h e b o t t l e ) . These self-contained omissions

s n d b o r r o u i n g o f m a t e r i a l s a r e a l l b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n of

t h e a u d i e n c e ' s h a b i t u a l media h a b i t s .

Similarly, m a k e t e r s a n a l y z e t h e s u c c e s s e s a n d f a i l u r e s of

t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d r e c e p t i o n of c o n c e p t s a n d i m a g e r y i n o t h e r

a r e a s o f mass c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d access t h e i r v a l u e f o r
favourable product association. S t a r Yars i m a g e r y a n d t h e m e s a r e

s e l e c t e d f o r a d s s e l l i n g r a z o r s , t e l e v i s o n s e t s , a n d cars. What

K l i n e a n d L e i s s d e s c r i b e a s t h e N f l u i d i t y m of p r o d u c t

a s s o c i a t i o n s i s , i n e s p e c i a l l y s e g m e n t a t i o n c o n t e x t s of

c o m m u n i c a t i o n , g u i d e d b y e n c o d e r e v a l u a t i o n s of a u d i e n c e

h a b i t u a l media use.

S e g n e n t a t i o n l i f e s t y l e a d v e r t i s e m e n t e n c o d i n g b o r r o w s less

from p r e - e x i s t i n g marketing s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e ad d i s c o u r s e and

more from t h e m e d i a i m a j e r y f o u n d i n c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s

peculiar to t h e targeted audi*nceas habitual reading experience.

P e r h a p s t h i s may b e d u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h i s t o r y a n d

l i m i t e d v o l u m e of a p p e a l s t o p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t s e g m e n t s . In

o t h e r words, w i t h i n t h e a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e i t s e l f t h s r e Ray

n o t be many a d s t h a t h a v e i n t e r p e l l e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r d e s i r e d

group, t h u s c r e a t i n g a p r e c z f i e n t f o r c u e i n g t h e % i n terms of

t h e i r own p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . I t is w i t h t h i s n o t i o n i n m i n d t h a t
i t seems c r e d i b l e t o p o s i t t h a t 2 n c o d e r s b o r r o w i m 3 y i s t i c

styles, references, a n d m o d e s o f a d d r e s s from o t h e r m e d i a

p r o d u c t i o n d i s c o u r s e s t h a t h a v e been consumed f o r a l o n g e r

p e r i o d and w i t h proven i n t e r e s t (market s u c c e s s ) by s p e c i f i c

sudience/narket segmlnts. I n an e x a m p l e from t h e a n a l y s i s of

beer a d v e r t i s e m e n t s w h i c h f o l l o w s , ads t a r y e t s d t o youth market

a u d i e n c e s borrow t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t y l e s , references , and

maketing s t r a t e g i e s evidsnc2d i n t h e d i s c o u r s e s of t h e record

album c o v e r and p o s t e r a r t f o r t h e same b a s i c market.

I n t h e c h a p t e r s u h i c h follow t h i s a e t h o d o f o g i c a l

discussion, t h e n o t i o n s of open and c l o s e d t s x t s an3 t h e

s o c i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r a l i s t c o n c e p t of i n t e r d i s c o u r s e a n d

d i s c u r s i v e r e p e r t o i r e s s h a l l be a p p l i e d t o t h e communication

processes evidenced i n advertisement presentational forms

d i r e c t e d t o mass a n d s e g m e n t e d a u d i e n c e s / m a r k e t s . Eany o f t h a

semiotic concepts provided i n Barthes' and Williamson's analysis

of t h e s y n t a g m a t i c s t r u c t u r a o f t h e a d w i l l b e r e t a i n e d w i t h i n a

more p r a g m a t i c p e r s p e c t i v e o f e n c o d e r i n t e n t i o n a l i t y i n s i g n

s e l e c t i o n and s a l e c t i o n of d i s c u r s i v e r o f e r e n c s s .
Kline and Leiss, "Advertising, Needs and 'commodity
Fetishism'," p. 1 3 .

William L e i s s , "Icons of t h e Harketplace," ( paper

p r e s e n t e d a t t h e R e s e a r c h Symposiua, **Consumers* I n f l u e n c e
o n P u b l i c a n d P r i v a t e C o n s u m e r policy,^^ S m y g e h u s , S w e d e n ,
Sept., 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 1 5 .

Esrthes, -----
Music I Tgxi,

E l i s e o Veron, '*fdeoloqy and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s : A

C o m m u n i c a t i o n a l ~ ~ ~ r s a Sc f h• ÷, i ~g f~i ~ aIII.
, i. ( 1 9 7 1 ) . p.
61.

S t u 3 r t H a l l a r g u e s t h a t L e v i - S t r a u s s ' n o t i o n o f 'myth,'
S a r t h s s * 'code,' an3 A l t h u s s e r ' s t h e o r y o f i d e o l o g y
( W i l l i a m s o n uses t h i s w i d e l y ) a l l f a l l i n t o a v a g u e
c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e ' s u b j e c t l . see S t u a r t H a l l ,
"Recent developments i n t h e o r i e s of language and ideology:
a c r i t i c a l n o t e , " i n g y l t g y g , p d i q , Lagggpqe, e 3 . s S t u a r t
H a l l , D o r o t h y H o b s o n , A n d r e w Lowe a n d P a u l Willis
(London:Huchinson U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1381).

P e i r c e from t h e s e m i o t i c p o i n t o f v i e w i n l o g i s t i c s
b e l i e v e d t h a t * a s i g n ' is s n y t h i n g which d e t e r m i n e s
something elsa - t o refer t o an o b j e c t t o which i t s e l f
r e f e r s ( i t s o b j s c t ) - i n t h e same way th; i n t e r p r e t a n t
( s i g n i f e d i n S a u s s u r e a n t e r m s ) becomes i n t u r n a s i g n and
s o on a d infiniturn. The d i f f e r e n c e bstween t h e s e two
c o n c e p t s of o b j e c t s a n d r e s u l t a n t c o n c e p t s i s i n S a u s s u r e ' s
r e l i a n c e o n p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e human r e c e i v e r .

U m b e r t o F c o , gheggy gf g z g & o t i c s ( 3 l o o m i n g t o n , Indiana:

I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 6 1 , pp. 61-62.

Hall, " R e c e n t d e v e l ~ p m e n t s , p.
~ 160.

T h i s approach is c o n t r a r y t o Hall's p e r s p e c t i v e of
' h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m 1 which r e q u i r e s t h e examination o f
differences asong 'real' subjects i n different social
f o r m a t i o n s -- d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i n d i f f e r e n t
s o c i e t i e s a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n time. I n many w a y s H a l l ' s
p e r s p e c t i v e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of E w e n ' s , s a v e f o r E w e n s s
c l a i m of 'Mass C u l t u r e ' .

Kress, N S t r u c t u r a l i s n a n d P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , l l p. 89.

U m b e r t o Eco, l l T o w a r d s a S e m i o t i c I n q u i r y i n t o t h e
T e l e v i s i o n 3 e ~ s a g e , (~p a p e r g i v e n a t ' T h e S t u d y G r o u p f o r
t h e s e t t i n g - u p o f a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h model o n
t h e t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e r e l a t i ~ n s h i p , P~ e r u q a , I t a l y ,
U n i v e r s i t y of P a r u y i a , O c t . , 1 9 6 5 ) , p. 104. .

Kline, " I m a g e s of W e l l - b e i n g , " p, 31.

Ibid.. p. 29.

J a n i c e Winship, w ' H a n d l i n g S e x * i n A d v e r t i s i n q , * * i n MpdLp,

C u l t u r e ---
------- a n d ------
Society, 111, i , ( 1 9 d l ) , p. 23.

Veron, "Ideology and S o c i a l Sciences," p. 68.

R i c h a r d P o l l a y , "American Plagazines, A d v e r t i s i n g an3

C o n s u m e r C u l t u r e , " ( u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , F a c u l t y of Commerce
and B u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a , 1 9 8 0 ) , p. 27.

Ibid., p. 128.

Ibid., p. 128.

Ibid., p. 129,

Ibid., p. 134.

S t u a r t Hall, **Encoding a n d D e c o d i n g t h e T e l e v i s i o n
D i s c o u r ~ e , (~p a p e r for the C o u n c i l of E u r o p e C o l l o q u y o n
" T r a i n i n g i n t h e C r i t i c a l R e a d i n g of T e l e v i s i o n L a n g u a g e , "
U n i v e r s i t y of L e i c e s t e r , S e p t . , 1 3 7 3 1 , p. 9.

Hall, wEncoding/Decoding," p. 135.

Schudson, " C r i t i c i z i n g t h e C r i t i c s of A d v e r t i s i n g , " p. 135.

Tony S c h w a r t z , j " ~ f g s ~ q q s i v eChp~iJ (New Y o r k : Anchor
P r e s s , l 9 7 3 ) , p. 6 9 - 7 0 .

T. 5 . E l i o t , "Hamlet," i n SJecteg Essay, ondo don: Faber

a n d F a b e r , 1 9 3 2 , p. 1 4 5 .

Eco, l"Powards a S e m i o t i c I n q u i r y i n t o t h e T e l e v i s i o n
H e s s a g e , " p p . 5-6.

K l i n e a n d L e i s s , ' * A d v e r t i s i n g , Meeds, a n d 'Commodity

F e t i ~ h i s r n ~p ,. ~ 1 8 .

Ibid., p. 18.

K l i n e "Images of #ell-being," p. 12.

Ibid., p. 1.

Ben e n i s a n d K e i t h C o x , tlagkgtjnq C i a _ s & _ s , (Boston: A l l y n

and Bacon, Inc., 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 265. o n , I n c . , 1 9 7 7 ) , p. 255.

Ibid., p. 253.

P h i l i p K o t l e r , R a r k e t i n q Ilplgqeegq& (New J e r s a y : Prentice

H a l l , 1 9 7 6 ) , p. 1 4 4 .

Ibid., p. 147.

R i c h a r d P o l l a y , '*American Y a g a z i n e s , A d v s r t i s i n g and t h e
Consumer C u l t u r e , " ( w o r k i n g p a p e r #R31, F a c u l t y o f C o m e r c e
a n d a u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r ? i t i o n , U n i v e ~ s i t yo f R r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a , V a n c o u v e r ) , p. 15.

Kline, "Images o f Well-being,11 p. 30.

Leiss, " I c o n s o f t h e f i a r k e t ~ l a c e , p.
~ ~ 21.

Pope, Thg M a k i n g pf Mpdegq A d v e r t L s L q q , p. 295.

Kline, ''Images of W e l l - b e i n g , 1 * D. 11.

Ibid., p 25.
 lr-3 10
Ir *la 7r;
In, rlo ro
rtlP 01
1% 010 m
I0
Ir
In,
lr
lo * lro
lo IW lir,
la In, IUl
Irt Irt K I3 td
13- IS * Ir- lo
In, In, lo Is
u Ir IUI
lo Ir.
W I
.
:
-r K I@
W
. Ic)
T
i IT
I1Y
0
4 IQ
C *
7Y
. .
Hall, " ~ n c o d i n q / 3 e c o d i n g , " p. 137.

Morley, nTexts, readers, subjects," p. 163.

P a u l Willemen, wSubjectivity under seige," Screen, X V I I I I ,

i, ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n I b i d . ,p. 167.

Morley, #*Texts, r e a d e r s , s u b j e c t s u , p. 173.

Kress, f * S t r u c t u r a l i s a a n d P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , * # p p , 9 3 - 9 4 ,
Hays of
John iierger,
p. 135. . Seeing (Hammondsworth, Penguin, 1972),

Ibid., p. 135.

L e v i - S t r a u s s , Thg Sqyqqg fliqd ( L o n d o n : W e i d e n f i e l d and

N i c h o l s o n , l 9 6 6 ) , D. 3 3 .

John Clarke, "Style," i n R e s i i s t p n c g Thrpgqh Ri?gq&l, and

T o n y J e f f e r s o n , eds., ( L o n d o n : H u t c h i n s o n , l 9 7 6 ) , p . 104.
111. A S a m p l e D e f i n e d : nedia a n d P r o d u c t H a r k e t C o n t e x t s of

Communication

T h e semiotic m e t h o d o l o g y f o r t h e s t u d y o f reference i n

segmentation advertisement t e x t s requires elaboration i n a

s e l e c t e d sample. Thz g e n e r a l assumption o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n and

s p e c i f i c i t y of referent s i g n i f i e r s i n a d s targeted to p a r t i c u l a r

a u d i e n c s s / m a r k e t s n e e d s v e r i f i c a t i o n of a m o r e e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e

b a s e d i n a c t u a l a n a l y s i s o f g a t e r i a l t g x t s i n r e a l c o n t e x t s of

a d v e r t i s i n g encoding and deco*ding r e l a t i o n s . This chapter

i n t r o d u c e s t h e s 3 m p l e and t h e p r a q m a t i c c i r c u m s t 3 n c e s o f its

c o m m u n i c ~ t i o n ( t h e s e n d e r and receiver r e l a t i o n s o f e n c o d i n g a n d

d e c o d i n g ) ss f i r s t s t e p s i n s u c h v e r i f i c a t i o n .

The importance of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e audience/market contsxt

i n t h e s t u d y o f a d v e r t i s e m e n t s d i r e c t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r groups of

c o n s u m e r s is a v i t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e .

S e m i o t i c a n a l y s e s ,of a d v e r t i s i n q t e n d t o o m i t s u c h

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t a l l a d s a r e b e l i e v e d to share

common r u l e s , s y n t a c t i c combination and semantic s e l e c t i o n . In

c o n t r a s t t o such assumptions o f uncontrolled s a ~ p l i n g ,t h i s

a n a l y s i s depends t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e d e t a i l e d e x p l i c a t i o n

o f who s e n d s t h e m e s s a g e ( w h i c h p r o d u c t , marketing strategy,

m e d i a u s e d ) a n d who r e c e i v e s t h e message ( m e d i a / m a r k e t

preferences, p r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g and c u l t u r a l codes of

interpretation). I f a d v a n c e s a r e t o b e made t o w a r d s a wore

pragmatic, c u l t u r a l semiotics of advertising, such aujience

marketing and audience d t f i n i t i o n s i n sampling procedure are

i n v a l u a b l e f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g s

come t o be u s e d i n ads.

I n t h e s e a r c h f o r a sample which e x e m p l i f i e s a s u i t a b l y

extreme c a s e of segmentation marketing s t r a t e g y , and i n o r d e r t o

o b s e r v e how t h i s s t r a t e g y h a s a f f e c t e d a d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l forms,

I have found it n e c e s s a r y t o refer t o magazine a d v e r t i s e m e n t s i n

t h e United States. Advertisement encoders i n t h i s c o u n t r y have

considzrably l a r g e r budjots than i n other English speaking

c o u n t r i e s and a s a r e s u l t h a v e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e s e a r c h

3ethods s n i i n s t i t u t i o n s a t t h e i r disposal, Ad a g e n c i e s i n t h e

United S t a t e s have a g r e a t v a r i e t y and d e f i n i t i o n i n t h e

e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t s f r o m u h i c h t h e y may c h o o s ? a p u b l i c a t i o n a s a

media v e h i c l e -- more a n d v a r i e d w a y s o f r e a c h i n g s p e c i f i c
markets, As I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , m a g a z i n e s a r e more

s u i t a b l e f o r s e g m e n t a t i o n advertising b e c a u s e t h e y t e n d t o

a t t r a c t a u d i e n c e s w i t h s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t s i n common a n d
t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e a d v e r t i s e r s with more d e f i n e d llreachN d a t a

t h a n i s p o s s i b l e f o r e i t h e r t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d i o media.

The primary m e t h o d o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n c h o o s i n g t o

f o c u s o n t h e p r i n t medium i s b a s e d o n w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e

a n a l y s i s of each a d f o r a sample o f any c o n s i d e r a b l e size.

L e y m o r e i n h e r d i s c u s s i o n of s t a t i c ( p r i n t ) a n d d y n a m i c

( t e l e v i s i o n a n 8 r a d i o ) nd m e s s a g e s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t u d y o f

dynamic a d v e r t i s i n g is a f a r more complex and e x h a u s t i v e

~ r o c e d u r ef o r t h e a n 3 l y s t b e c a u s e " o f t h e g r e a t e r c o m ~ l e x i t yo f

dynamic a d v e r t i s e m e n t s and t h e l a r g e r amount of information they

convey, a s well a s t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d e l a b o r a t e d w a y s i n
which t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r , the

d e c i p h e r i n g p r o c e s s i s more i n v o l v e d . " t In addition to the

d i f f i c u l t y o f a n a l y s i s , t h e s e m i o t i c t r e a t m e n t s o f dynamic

media, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e a r a a of advertising, are still

s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e p e r p l e x i n 7 c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f time a n d

space (i.e,, movement, changing signs, a e m o r y o f w h a t was s e e n

i n the l a s t shot, etc,), F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s d y n a ~ i ca d v e r t i s i n g

forms w i l l n o t be s t u d i e d ,

Yet a b i a s i n t h e s a m p l e s e l e c t i o n of s t a t i c a d v e r t i s i n g

n e e d s t o be mentioned. D i f f e r e n c e s i n media s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e

w i l l be d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n i n ads, Leymore a r g u e s

that,

T h e medium exercises a d e t e r m i n i n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
u t i l i z a t i o n o f codes, t h e form t h e image t a k e s and t h e
means t h r o u g h which it i s t r a n s m i t t e d . It d o e s n o t ,
howevpr, c o n t r o l t h e m e s s a g e i t s e l f , which i s a c c i d e n t a l
t o t h e f o r m , t h e p e r t i n e n t a s p e c t o f t h e medium, T h u s ,
w h i l e t h e medium d e t e r m i n e s t h e f o r m a n d w h i l e t h e
s u b s t a n c e is, a s i t were, e x t e r n a l t o i t , t h e f i n a l
m e s s a g e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
medium, t h e c o n t e n t a n d t h e r e c i p i e n t , 2

f o r t h o s e a d s which a r e more i n f o r m a t i v e and s t r s i g h t

content-oriented ( t h a t is, a d s i n w h i c h a s u b s t a n t i a l s p o k e n

t e x t a c c o m p a n i e s a * 4 s i m p l e " p h o t o g r a p h o r s e r i e s o f use r e l a t e d

s h o t s of a p r o d u c t w i t h m i n i m a l c o n n o t a t i v e c o d i n g ) , the final

message t o t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d b e t h e same f o r e i t h e r p r i n t or

t e l e v i s i o n media, Many a d v e r t i s e r s i n f a c t u s e t h e same s i g n

e l e m s n t s ( v i s u a l and l i n g u i s t ) i n two d i f f e r e n t medis f o r t h e
same i n t e n d e d f i n a l message. However, f o r t h o s e w e s s s g e s t h a t
p l a y more o n form - a d s w h i c h h a v e s p o k e n o r w r i t t e n t e x t , t h e
v i s u a l i m a g e s a r e ambiguous or r s f e r t h e r e c i p i e n t t o c o d e s
instead of s t r u c t u r e d contents, and t h e photographic technical
c o d e s a r e u s e d i n a v e r y c o n n o t a t i v e way - c o d e s may b e u s e d
d i f f e r e n t l y t o effect d i f f s r e n t messages. T h i s is e x t r e m e l y
p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s t u d y of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s a n d d i s c o u r s e s

used i n advertising to get a Bessage across t o an audience,

I n form-oriented m a g a z i n e a d s f o r t h e y o u t h market, f o r
example, a l b u m c o v e r l a y o u t c o n v e n t i o n s a r e m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r ad
encoders i n cueing particular entertainment, l i f e s t y l e
a s s o c i a t i o n s with a product. Album c o v e r s a r e a s t a t i c medium
a n d are l i k e l y t o be b e t t e r r e c o g n i z e d i n p r i n t t h a n o n
television, C o n v e r s e l y , m o v i e s a r e a d y n a m i c m e d i u ~a n d a r e more
u s e f u l for c u e i n g young a u d i e n c e s ' habitual reading codes i n
t e l e v i s i o n a d v e r t i s i n g . Some o f t h e m o r e s u b t l e s t y l i s t i c a n d
t e c h n i c a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n 30 n o t t r a n s l a t e
well t o s t a t i c m e d i a , i f t h e o r i g i n a l mode of t r a n s m i s s i o n i s

dynamic, and v i c e versa. B o t h m o v i e s a n d L P c o v e r s a r e p a r t of

t h e y o u n g a u d i e n c e ' s r e p e r t o i r e o f n e d i a d i s c o u r s e s , b u t e a c h is
more l i k e l y t o be u s e d i n d i f f e r a n t m e d i a , c u e i n g s p e c i f i c

cultural references. Even t h o u g h t h i s b i a s is real, i t does n o t

change t h e value of t h e p r i n t sample i n uncovering t h e
s p e c i f i c i t y of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s taken from t h e d i s c u r s i v e
r e p e r t o i r e of t h e p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t .
 T h e s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y i s m o t i v a t e d by

K l i n e g s and L e i s s g a n a l y s i s of t h e i n c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c i t y i n

a d v e r t i s i n g m o d e s of a d d r e s s f o r p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t t y p e s a n d =

market segments, T h e i r sainple i s h i s t o r i c a l a n d i s d e s i g n e d f o r

t h e a n a l y s i s o f changing r e l a t i o n s h i p s between people and

p r o d u c t s from 1900 t o 1980 i n Canadian magazine a d v e r t i s i n g .

T h e y s a m p l e a t o t a l o f 1 3 0 0 a d v e r t i s e m s n t s f r o m Plg&epqL~ a n d

----------
Chatelaine m a g a z i n e s t h u s p r o v i d i n g b o t h a r e l i a b l e and v a l i d

sample volume f o r t h e i r c r o s s - r e f e r e n t i a l content analysis.

T h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t two d i s t i n c t r t a r k e t / a u d i e n c e

segments - flgc&?aqls r e a d e r s h i p is 7 0 % m a l e a n d C h a t e l a i n e h a s a

f e m a l e r e a d e r s h i p o f 80% - which a a k e s v e r i f i a b l e t h e d e d u c t i o n

t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s ' a d s i n mode o f

address a r e due i n l a r g e p a r t to d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d v e r t i s e r s

c u e i n g m a l e o r female i n t e r p r e t i v e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . Kline

explains further that

,.. because t h e a u d i e n c e f o r t h a t magazine d e f i n e s t h e

m a r k e t s e q m e n t t h a t is a d d r e s s a b l e b y a d v e r t i s e r s ,
different product typos a r e advertised i n different
magazines and p o s s i b l y w i t h d i f f e r e n t form an3 c o n t e n t .
W e w i s h e d t o c o n t r o l f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s a s we t r a c k e d
b r o a d e r h i s t o r i c a l c h a n g e s . I t i s o n l y i n t h i s way t h a t
we c o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n c h a n g e s i n t h e m a g a z i n e
mark2t, and t h s u s e o f a a g a z i n e s a s v e h i c l e s by s p e c i f i c
p r o d u c t t y p e a d v e r t i s e r s , 3nd c h a n g z s i n t h e a c t u a l
presentation itself. 3

While t h e i r primary samoling o b j e c t i v e s are w i t h t h e

b r o a d e r h i s t o r i c a l c h a n g e s i n 2d p e s e n t a t i o n , Kline and Leiss

i d e n t i f y t h e i m p o r t a n c e of m a r k e t / a u d i e n c e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e

f o r m s an? c o n t e n t s o f a d s , sspecially in the last historical

phase of l i f e s t y l e advertising. Any s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e

a n a l y s i s o f a d s should r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e market segment,

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p a r t i c u l a r c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o u r s ( p r o d u c t b r a n d

and t y p e p r e f e r e n c e s ) , c a n o n l y be r e a c h e d t h r o u g h t h e a u d i e n c e

segment ( s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l composition o f r e a d e r s h i p ) . Kline

and L e i s s sample a d s i n a limited set of product t y p e s t h a t are

a d v e r t i s e d i n t h e two magazines. This a s s u r e s t h a t c h a n g e s i n a d

p r e s e n t a t i o n are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by c h a n g e s i n

product t y p e s e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e two inarkets o v e r t h e i r

histories. Because d i f f e r e n t product t y p e s r e s o n a t e on d i f f e r e n t

r e l a t i o n a l r e g i s t e r s (some by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r ' u s e *

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are b e s t a s s o c i a t e d with s o c i a l emulation v a l u e s

w h i l e o t h e r s are wore s u i t a b l y a d v e r t i s e d for t h e i r performance

qualities), s a m p l e r e s t r i c t i o n s o n p r o d u c t type a s s u r e s t h a t a n

i n f l u x of liquor ads, for instance , w i l l not skew t h e sample's

r e p r o d u c t i o n of s o c i a l c o m p a r i s o n a n d g r o u p - i d e n t i f i e d v a l u e s

i n ad pressntation.

T h e s a m p l i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s I s e l e c t resemble some of t h o s e

u s e d by K a i n e a n d L e i s s a n d a r e , a s well, a r e s u l t o f s o m e o f

t h e f i n d i n g s of t h e i r s t u d y . I n contrast to their historical

sample, t h e sample developed h e r e is s y n c h r o n i c in its f o c u s o n

t h e l a s t phase of l i f e s t y l e advertising, L i f e s t y l e a d s are t h e

most t y p i c a l f o r a a r k e t s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s ; t h a t i s , t h i s
a d t y p e t e n d s t o be u s e r - c e n t e r e d and l o c a t e s t h e addressee i n

t h e n e x u s of p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s . Because l i f e s t y l e a d s

are most n o t a b l e i n a l c o h o l and c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g , and

because d i f f e r e n t product c a t e g o r i e s do resonate on d i f f e r e n t
relational registers, I w i l l r e s t r i c t t h e p r o d u c t t y p e t o beer,

w h i c h seems t o u s e p e r h a p s t h e most d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of

p a r t i c u l a r group v a l u e s and s o c i a l membership in product

associations,

Due t o t h e s y n c h r o n i c a n d s m a l l s a m p l e f o c u s of t h e s t u d y

( a p r o x i m a t e l y 20 a d v e r t i s e m e n t s s p a n n i n g two y e a r s ) , and due t o

t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of c o m p a r i n g m a s s m a r k e t i n g w i t h

s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , I i n c l u d e a s a m p l i n g c o n t r o l which

Kline and Leiss do not include i n t h e i r study. T h e s e l e c t i o n of

t h e a d v e r t i s i n g agency and brand f o r t h e sample w i l l be

singular.

Agencies u s e defensive s t r a t e g i e s of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n t h e

c r e a t i o n o f o p p o s i t i o n s between images of b r a n d s i n a

c o m p e t i t i v e p r o d u c t s e t . As well, t h e i * i i o s y n c r a s i e s o f t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between a n a d v e r t i s e r c l i e n t and a n agency's

m a r k e t i n g a n d c r e a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s i n e n c o d i n g may p r e f e r c e r t a i n

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l a d f o r m s t y p i c a l o f more o r l e s s s e g m e n t a t i o n .

T h e s e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s seest m o r e a m p l i f i e d s i n c e t h e r e may n o t b e

many c o m p e t i t o r s i n s m a l l s r s e g m e n t e d m a r k e t s a n d s i n c e

s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y new a n d n o t f u l l y

p r o v e n t o some a d v e r t i s e r s a n d / o r a g e n c i e s ,

Those less conservative marketers, s u c h a s t h e Hiller

B r e w i n g Company, h a v e b e e n u s i n g s e g m e n t a t i o n since 1 9 7 2 , w h i l e

t h e more c o n s e r v a t i v e b r e w i n g g i a n t , A n h e u s e r - B u s c h , h a s more

f u l l y entered i n t o t h i s s t r a t e g y i n t h e last f i v e years. As

Sommers p o i n t s o u t , " t h e c h a n g e s i n marketing t h i n k i n g effect

a d v e r t i s i n g most r e a d i l y when t h e r e a r e s o p h i s t i c t e d ' a c t o r s '

involvedvf. 4 T h o s e a g e n c i e s a n d a d v e r t i s e r s which a r e less

s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n marketing research and c r e a t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s

t e n d more t o w a r d s a f a d a n d f a s h i o n , follow-the-leader

orientation. More s o p h i s t i c a t e d e n c o d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l n e t w o r k s
with b e t t e r market research apparatuses and l a r g e budgets t h a t

p e r m i t c o v e r a g e o f b o t h mass a n d s e l e c t m a r k e t s e g m e n t s , are
t o d a y t h o s e most f u l l y e v o l v e d i n t o s e g m e n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s i n g f o r

beer. T h e r e l a t i v e l y new a d v e n t o f s e g m e n t a t i o n m e d i a a n d m a r k e t

s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s h a s m e a n t t h a t l e s s i n f o r n a t i o n i s known

a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e s a n d how t o r e a c h thes i n c o m p a r i s o n

w i t h l o n g s t a n d i n g mass a d v e r t i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s . O n l y t h e few

sophisticated beer marketers can afford to advertise t o

well-defined n a t i o n a l market segments. T h i s means t h a t

c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n b r a n d s may b e f a r a n d f e w b e t w e e n a n d u i l l

r e f l e c t a g r e a t e r degree of o r i g i n a l c r e a t i v e s t r a t e g y i n ad

p r e s e n t a t i o n t o n a t i o n a l markets. B e a r i n g t h e s e f a c t o r s i n mind,

t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d most p r o d u c t i v e b e e r a d v e r t i s e r is

selected f o r t h e sample. I t is b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c h a n e n c o d e r

engages i n t h e most e x t e n s i v e market r e s e a r c h and t h e r e f o r e t h e

m o s t e f f e c t i v e c u e i n g of t h e d e s i r e d m a r k e t s e g m e n t .

Finally, t h e l a s t s a m p l i n g c r i t e r i o n , a n d t h e most

i m p o r t a n t , i s t h a t which p r o v i d e s a comparative dimension f o r

s t u d y i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t forms a n d c o n t e n t s o f a d s p r e s e n t e d t o

two d i f f e r e n t m a r k e t a u d i e n c e s . T h e t o t a l s a m p l e c o n s i s t s o f two

subsamples of ads, e a c h d i s t r i b u t e d to d e f i n a b l e media a u d i e n c e s

through l i f e s t y l e magazines -- one of t h e subsamples reaching a
mass m a r k e t / a u d i e n c e and t h e o t h e r r e a c h i n g a m a r k e t / a u d i e n ~ e
s e g m e n t , T h i s p e r m i t s t h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e two s u b s a m p l e s f o r
o p e n a n d more r e s t r i c t e d r e a d i n g codes a n d t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f
connected connoted c u l t u r a l reference systems and d i s c o u r s e s i n
ads d i r e c t e d a t e a c h market. Segmented ad p r e s e n t a t i o n s s h o u l d
employ o b s e r v a b l y select c o n n o t a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s closed w i t h i n
o n e a u d i e n c e i n t e r d i s c u r s i v e s e t , w h i l e mass a d s s h o u l d b e more
o p e n l y coded, T h i s c o m p a r a t i v e sampling framework facilitates
t h e examination of d i f f e r e n t encodings of messages d i r e c t e d a t
e i t h e r s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e s o r more g e n e r a l o n e s . I t a l s o p e r m i t s

t h e examination of d i s c u r s i v e r e p e r t o i r e s by p u b l i c a t i o n and t h e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a u d i e n c e h a b i t u a l media i n v o l v e m e n t s u i t h i n
s t r u c t u r e d media segment d e f i n i t i o n s . T h i s l a s t a s p e c t is
b e l i e v e d t o b e k e y f o r t h e way a d v e r t i s e r s a p p r o a c h a p a r t i c u l a r

audience with c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s and for e x p l a i n i n g i n a n a l y s i s

o f a d s t h e o r i g i n s of r e f e r r e d - t o c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e s . Thus t h e
s a m p l e w i l l be f u r t h e r i d e n t i f i e d a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y
publication, .

---
3.1 ---
T h e ---
Sa@~&e

Beer a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f i t t h e l i f e s t y l e a d f o r f a a t b y

i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p r o d u c t u s e r i n a s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t of
group r e l a t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s , A c c o r d i n g t o Ceqg&gg= & E Q ~

magazine, t h i s f o r n a t i n b e e r a d v e r t i s i n g a p p e a r e d w h e n i n 1970
P h i l i p Morris, t h e c i g a r e t t e maker ( a n o t h e r l i f e s t y l e format

related product), p u r c h a s e d t h e Miller B r e w i n g c o m p a n y :

B e f o r e P h i l i p Horris e n t e r e d t h e b r e w i n g b u s i n e s s , m o s t
b e e r a d v e r t i s i n g t r a d e d o n h u m o r a n d s t r e s s e d how g o o d
t h e b e e r t a s t e d . P h i l i p fiorris' a d v e r t i s i n g f o r n i l l e r
t a g g e d o n a n a d d i t i o n a l m e s s a g e : t h a t b e e r was t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e r e w a r d f o r a h a r d d a y ' s work.5

K l i n e t s a n d L e i s s s h i s t o r i c a l p h a s e s of a d p r e s e n t a t i o n

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t b e e r a d v e r t i s i n g i n t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s comes o u t o f t h e

d a r k a g e s of a d v e r t i s i n g (product q u a l i t y a s s o c i a t i o n s ) to t h e

most r e c e n t p h a s e o f l i f e s t y l e a d v e r t i s i n g ( u s e r - c e n t e r e d , group

leisure activity associations). I n t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 ' s l i f e s t y l e and

c o n s u s e r b e h a v i o u r r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t b e e r d r i n k i n g is

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h men f i n i s h i n g w o r k a n d g o i n g t o a t a v e r n . Miller

a d s s h o w g r o u p s of b l u e - c o l l a r workers i n real-life bar scenes

rewarding themselves f o r a hard day's work. "If you've got the

time, w e ' v e g o t t h e b e e r w is t h e s l o g a n w h i c h c o n n e c t s t h e
products with these scenes. gp;zgggg B g ~ ~ fs tta t e s t h a t t h i s new

a d f o r m a t " m a r k e d t h e f i r s t time t h a t b e e r d r i n k e r s , rather than

beer i t s e l f , became t h e s u b j e c t of an ad ~ a r n p a i g n , " ~

Anheuser-Busch l e a d s b r e w e r i e s i n t h e United States i n

s a l e s a n d t h e i r B u d w e i s e r b r a n d i s t h e most c o n s u m e d . Before t h e

m i d 1 9 7 0 ' s B u d w e i s e r was p r o m o t e d b y t h e p r o d u c t e m b l e m o f t h e

C l y d e s d a l e h o r s e s a n d t h e claim "we know of n o b r a n d p r o d u c e ? by

a n y o t h e r b r e w e r y w h i c h c o s t s s o much t o t o b r e w a n d a g e . * * I n

t h e 1970's t h e c o m p a n y moved f r o m t h e p r o m o t i o n t h e m e o f g o o d

b e e r t o i n t r o d u c e a Hiller t y p e c o m m e r c i a l o f " T h i s B u d ' s for

You; f o r a l l you do, t h e k i n g o f b e e r s is c o m i n g t h r o u g h n , as
well, s t r e s s i n g t h e w o r k - r e w a r d theme,

B a s e d o n t h e s a m p l i n g c r i t e r i o n of a d v e r t i s i n g

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and e x p e n d i t u r e on a d v e r t i s i n g , t h e sample f o r

t h i s s t u d y is drawn from Budweiser brand b e e r a d v e r t i s e m e n t s

found i n American magazines. A review of t h e tremendous v a r i e t y

of beer advertising presentations i n high c i r c u l a t i o n national

p u b l i c a t i o n s r e v e a l s t h a t Anheuser-Busch h a s s u r p a s s e d Hiller i n

t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f its s e g m e n t a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . This

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n is based i n t h e Anheuser-Busch product

segmentation and development o f d i f f e r e n t brands f o r d i f f e r e n t

l i f e s t y l e consumer groups. The superpremium g i c h e l o b is t a r g e t e d

t o upwardly mobile l i f e s t y l e groups, B u d w e i s e r l i g h t is a i m e d a t

t h e middle-aged and female d r i n k e r , and n i c h e l o b L i g h t is aimed

a t a cross-section of t h e s e two markets. Most i m p o r t a n t l y ,

Budweiser brand, t h e l a r g e s t s e l l e r , is s o l d t o t h e mass m a r k e t

and t o smaller market s e g m e n t s w i t h g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s t h a n is e v i d e n c e d i n Miller's

main p r o d u c t s e g m e n t a t i o n ads. B u d w e i s e r b r a n d beer a d s a r e

t h e r e f o r e more s u i t a b l e f o r c o m p a r i n g mass m a r k e t a d f o r m s a n d

t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e i r r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s t o s e g m e n t a t i o n a d f o r m s

a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f more s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s d e f i n e d by

t h e market/audience segment.

I n o r d e r t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e f u l l i m p a c t of t h e g r o w i n g

s p e c i f i c i t y of t h e B u d w e i s e r a d v e r t i s i n g mode o f a d d r e s s a n d

c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e set f o r i d e n t i f i a b l e m a r k e t s e g m e n t s , t h e

s a m p l e o f a d s is r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e p e r i o d 1981 - 1982, This

restriction also permits for an all-inclusive s a m p l e of

Budweiser p r i n t a d s i n l a r g e c i r c u l a t i o n n a t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s

for t h a t period. A s e r i e s of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s w i t h D g A r c y - Mac

Manus a n d M a s i u s Ltd., t h e agency h a n d l i n g t h e Rudweiser account

f o r U,S. national advertising , has provided t h e s t u d y w i t h t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n l i s t s a n d b a s i c s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e i r 1981 - 1982

print advertising. This assures the all-inclusiveness of t h e

sample and a general statement of encoding i n t e n t i o n a l i t y , A

c o m p l e t e list o f p u b l i c a t i o n s used f o r t h e two t a r g e t m a r k e t s o f

"Young A d u l t Male 18 - 24" ( t a k e n a s t h e m a r k e t s e g m e n t i n t h i s

s t u d y ) a n d " H e a v y M a l e Beer D r i n k e r 18 - 49" (taken a s t h e mass

market) i s s u p p l i e d by D I A r c y M a c n a n u s a n d f l a s i u s L t d , (the ad

agency involved), By m a i n t a i n i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e by

publication, i t is p o s s i b l e t o u s e m e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n

i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a u d i e n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by p u b l i c a t i o n t o

f u r t h e r e x a m i n e t h e e n c o d e r g s m a t c h i n g of d e s i r e d m a r k e t

s e g m e n t s w i t h a u d i e n c e segments ( m e d i a d i s c o u r s e s ) . F r e d Wolter

o f DsArcy - Mac M a n u s a n 3 Masius L t d , c o m m e n t s o n t h e s e

strategies:

As t h e l i s t s a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g r a t i o n a l e s t a t e m e n t
s u g g e s t s , a g e g r o u p d e l i v e r y is t h e primary criteria
t h a t determines t h e market segment c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a
given publication, f u r t h e r , t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s are t h e
most e f f i c i e n t , i n terms o f s t a n d a r d m e d i a p l a n n i n g
c r i t e r i a , among a l l p u b l i c a t i o n s i n r e a c h i n g t h e i r
respective t a r g e t audiences,
I n a d d i t i o n t o o b j e c t i v e , or q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s , t h e
p u b l i c a t i o n s r e f l e c t a s u b j e c t i v e j u d g e m e n t a s well. T h e
s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n i n c l u d e s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , a
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n ' s
e d i t o r i a l s t a n c e a s it relates t o t h e b r a n d ' s o v e r a l l
marketing o b j e c t i v e s , and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e
p u b l i c a t i o n a s a forum f o r Anheuser-Busch Inc.
 communication with t h e g e n e r a l public.7

It a p p e a r s t h a t age g r o u p d e l i v e r y is t h e e s s e n t i a l

c r i t e r i o n f o r f i l l i n g t h e market r e q u i r e m e n t s of a d d r e s s t o t h e

t w o m a r k e t s (Y.A.H. 18-24, a n d H.M.B.D. 18-49). T h e two m a r k e t s

a r e m a l e a n d o n e i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e f i n e d and a s u b g r o u p w i t h i n

t h e o t h e r mass m a r k e t . Further, Wolter p o i n t s o u t t h a t a p a r t

from o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e media, subjective evaluations

c o n d u c t e d b y t h e a g e n c y a n d c l i e n t i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n of

publications. E d i t o r i a l s t a n c e s ( e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t i n t e r e s t s of

t h e magazine) are matched w i t h o v e r a l l m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s and

t h e "appropriatenesso of p a r t i c u l a r m a g a z i n e s i s d e d u c e d i n

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e b r a n d ' s e s t a b l i s h e d image and p r e s e n t

communication r e l a t i o n s h i p s with v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s

(metacommunication o f s o c i a l and a a r k e t i n g i ? e o l o g i e s ) .

I n a f u n d a m e n t a l way t h e l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t s a n d i m a g e s o f

t h e s e l e c t e d p u b l i c a t i o n s * e d i t o r i a l material must be c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o u r s a n d i n t e r e s t s of t h e d e s i r e d b e e r

markets -- t h e r e must be an o v e r l a p i n t h e c u l t u r a l and

c o n s u m i n g h a b i t s o f t h e d e s i r e d m a r k e t a n d t h e wedia s u d i e n c e o f

considere.13. p u b l i c a t i o n s . Beer, i n t h e way i t is e n j o y e d i n

l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t y a n 3 i n t h s way i t i s p r o m o t e d by

marketers, is a s s o c i a t e d with s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s , music-related

events, a n d men's l i f e s t y l e a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t . Print aedia

s e l e c t i o n o f s u c h p u b l i c a t i o n s a s s p o r t s I l l ~ s t g s & g g, E?n?uig

-----
Stone a n d glpybpy m a g a z i n e s c l e a r l y s a t i s f y t h i s e l e m e n t a r y

c r i t e r i o n of a u d i e n c e b a s e d o n l i f e s t y l e . What i s l e s s a p p a r e n t

a n d of g r e a t c o n c e r n f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of m e a n i n g i n a d s , is t h e
e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r s of s e l e c t e d p u b l i c 3 t i o n s

i n f l u e n c e t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s of t h e ~ u d w e i s s ra d s . On

t h e one hand, a s L e i s s p o i n t s o u t , g e n r a l i z a t i o n s made i n a d

p r e s e n t a t i o n s (broad r e f e r e n c e s open t o any i n t e r p r e t i v e

s u p p o s i t i o n s ) c o m m u n i c a t e d t o m e d i a s e g m e n t s '*may b e r i s k y w

g i v e n t h a t t h e y 30 n o t m e t a c o m ~ u n i c a t e s n y c l o s e d , s h a r e d

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e cueing of audience i n t e r e s t s . On t h e o t h e r

hand, e n c o d e r s must be c a r e f u l n o t t o undo o r c o n t r a d i c t p r o d u c t

n e s s a g e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e i r wider market a p p e a l s which t h e

a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t may b e f a m i l i a r w i t h a s well. Subjective

evaluations, t h a t Molter a e n t i o n s a b o v e , w e i g h t h e a d v a n t a g e s of

s p e c i f i c market a c c e s s with t h e p o t e n t i a l l y p e r i l o u s product

a s s o c i a t i o n s 03, f o r i n s t a n c e : s p o r t s and alcoholism; rock

concerts, countercultural involvements and t h e deviant use of

booze and drugs; and b e e r and t h e sexist male r e f e r e n c e system

of g i r l i e m a g a z i n e s a n d p o r n o g r a p h y . These metaco~wunications

t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c m i g h t p i c k u p on p r o v i d e a c o m p l e x

p r o b l e m a t i c t h a t e x e r t s r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t

presentational practices, The c r e a t i v e p e r s o n n e l , in their

s e l e c t i o n of a d c o n t e n t s a n d m o d e s o f a d d r e s s , are c a u g h t

b s t w e e n t h i s t e n s i o n of c u e i n g r e a d e r s h i p s i n terms o f t h o s e

r e s d e r s h i p s l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s and o f m a i n t a i n i n g a f a v o r a b l e

product/company image f o r t h e g e n e r a l public. Because of t h i s

i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n between doreinant and subdowinant r e a d i n g /

c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s (between t h o g e n e r a l p u b l i c and select

audiences), i t i s f u r t h e r n e c e s s a r y t o s n a b l e t h e s a m p l e t o be
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by p u b l i c a t i o n s i n which B u d w e i s e r a d s a p p e a r .

Some p u b l i c a t i o n s a l l o w f o r a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r i n g o f p r e f e r e n c e

a n d s p e c i f i c i t y i n p o l y s e m i c r e p e r t o i r e s of r e a d i n g c o d e s (i.e.,

y o u t h m a r k e t p u b l i c a t i o n s ) t h a n m o r e mass m a r k e t p u b l i c a t i o n s

t h a t p r e f e r a polysemic ordering i n dominant, normative

definitons of s o c i a l experience. These tendencies toward c e r t a i n

c o d e o r d e r i n g s o r i e n t both e d i t o r i a l and a d v e r t i s e m e n t

production and presentation,

D8Arcy - MacRanus a n d 3 a s i u s L t d e l s s t r a t e g y o f media

selection for the larger, mass m a r k e t o f t h e " H e a v y M a l e Beer

D r i n k e r 13-49" i s r a t h e r s i m p l e , R a s e d o n t h e c r i t e r i a of
product a s s o c i a t i o n with s p o r t s and n e n q s l i f e s t y l e and

e n t e r t a i n m e n t , t h e a g e n c y selects t h e h i g h e s t c i r c u l a t i o n

publications i n thsse lifestyle interest areas (i.e.,Smrr~

-----------
Illustrated, F?L?y&by). S i m p l y p u t , t h e i r o b j e c t i v e h e r e is t o

r e a c h a s many m e m b e r s o f t h e l l H e a v y Male S e e r D r i n k e r n m a r k e t a s

is p o s s i b l e p e r published ad, while a l s o d i s p l a y i n g a n

a s s o c i a t i o n with t h o s e p u b l i c a t i o n s which lea3 t h e f i e l d s of

men's e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d s p o r t s j o u r n a l i s m . For t h i s market p r i n t

a d v e r t i s i n g o p e r a t e s a s a s e c o n d a r y s u p p o r t medium f o r

f3udw+iser8s c e n t r a l a d v e r t i s i n g t h r u s t i n t o network t e l e v i s i o n

s p o r t s programming. The thematic r e l a t i o n s and s i ~ i l a r i t i e s

between t h e s p o r t s t e l e v i s i o n a d v e r t i s i n g and t h e a d s which

a p p e a r i n p r i n t i n P?py&qy a n d Sppr&s y~q~nrpggd m a g a z i n e s a r e

dense. B u d w e i s e r a d v e r t i s i n g t o t h e "Young ~ d u l tM a l e 1 8 - 2 4 "

depends, however, t o a f a r lesser e x t e n t o n t e l v i s i o n and more

o n p r i n t a s a n e f f e c t i v e r e a c h medium.

Beer p r o d u c e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e y o u t h m a r k e t

d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t 6 4 % of a l l d o m e s t i c b e e r i s c o n s u m e d by 18

- to - 34 - year - olds. The major consumers i n t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l

g r o u p a r e 1 8 t o 24. a T h e most a t t r a c t i v e p a r t o f t h e y o u t h

m a r k e t f o r e f f e c t i v e m e d i a a c c e s s is t h e c o l l e g e s e g m e n t .

A c c o r d i n a t o A d v e g t & g i q q Aqg , t h e c o l l e g e s e g m e n t is e s t i m a t e d

a t 1 2 m i l l i o n s t u d e n t s w i t h a n a v e r a g e d i s p o s a b l s i n c o m e e a c h of
$2,200 a y e a r , is r e l a t i v e l y $ * r e c e s s i o n p r o o f (based on p a r e n t a l

support), and h e a v i l y consumes h i - f i e q u i p m e n t , c e r t a i n media

and entertainment, a i r l i n e t i c k e t s , and beer.9 Breweries a n d

producers of t h e s e o t h e r goods and s e r v i c e s for t h e c o l l e g e

market r e a l i z e t h e importance of e s t a b l i s h i n g brand l o y a l t i e s i n

t h e c o l l e g e y e a r s (18-24) a n d , a s t h e d i r e c t o r of n a t i o n a l

advertising for a string of college publications states:

They a r e b u y i n g p r o d u c t s , e s t a b l i s h i n g b r a n d
p r e f e r e n c e s , a n d i n % a n y cases a r ? e s t a b l i s h i n g b u y i n g
h a b i t s t h a t w i l l l a s t f o r a l o n g time. T h e r e a r e many
p e o p l e t o d a y who b u y p r o d u c t s b e c a u s e o f p e ? r p r e s s u r e
t h e y had i n college.lo

As well, t h o s e 18 - 2 4 y o u n q a d u l t s who a r e n o t i n c o l l e g e

n u m b e r a b o u t 21.3 m i l l i o n p e o p l e 3nd have a n e s t i m a t e d $92

b i l l i o n i n d i s c r e t i o n a r y i n c o m e ($4,300 e a c h a n n u a l l y ) . Hedia

b u y e r s a n d m a r k e t e r s s e e k s t r a t 2 g i . e ~f o r a d v e r t i s i c g t o t h e

c o l l e g e amd n o n - c o l l e g e sectors of t h e y o u t h m a r k e t a n d a s a
s p o k e s m a n f o r D g A r c y - M a c M a n u s a n d M a s i u s ~ t d .e x p l a i n s , i t is

" v e r y e a s y t o t u r n o f f t h e p e o p l e we're trying to reach, who

r a n g e i n a g e f r o m 17 t o 2 4 a n d c o u l d b e a n y t h i n g from h i g h

s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s n o t i n c o l l e g e t o medical students.I1"

Mediamark Research Inc., s p e c i a l i s t s i n researching t h e youth

market, have observed v a r i o u s p o i n t s a l o n g which c o l l e g i a t e and

non-collegiate y o u t h sectors d i s p l a y similar consumer b e h a v i o u r s

: $ * B e e r a n d f a s t f o o d c o n s u m p t i o n h a b i t s of c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s were

similar [ t o t h e non-college group], a s were s t a t i s t i c s s h o w i n g

automobile ownership, p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n photography, g o i n g to

movies, and reading books and r n a g a ~ i n e s , ~ ~ l 2

T h e s e c t o r s of t h e y o u t h m a r k e t o v e r l a p i n c e r t a i n h a b i t s

i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of g o o d s a n d media. M a r k e t e r s u s e siriiilar

a d v e r t i s i n g v e h i c l e s i n o r d e r t o r e a c h t h e two g r o u p s w h i c h

c o u l d be b e s t s u m m a r i z e d a s based i n a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h a young

person's lifestyle. Both Anheuser-Busch a n d 3 i l l e r beer

producers have used a t h l e t i c events, movies and music-related

events as promotional vehicles. Reaching youth through t h e I

I

I
c o n v e n t i o n a l u s e o f mass m e d i a p r o v e s more p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n for
I
r e a c h i n g b e e r mass m a r k e t s , J a y C o l e m a n , a leader i n youth
m a r k e t i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , e x p l a i n s nhy:

T h e r e ' s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e media h a b i t s of t h a t a u d i e n c e
are d i f f e r e n t . They watch t h e least t v b e c a u s e t h e y are
t h e most a c t i v e . T h e y d o l i s t e n t o r a d i o , b u t t h a t ' s n o t
e n o u g h f o r most a d v e r t i s e r s . F o r ? a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t s ,
they have to look a t promotional programs t h a t can be
i n t e g r a t e d i n t o v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e i r l i f e s t y l e . 1 3

Y o u t h m a r k e t media h a b i t s c r e a t e m a n y p r o b l e m s f o r m e d i a

buyers. Several market research i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l t h a t

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s watch about a t h i r d of t h e t e l e v i s i o n t h a t t h e

g e n e r a l p u b l i c w a t c h e s w h i c h p u t s t h e m i n t h e lowest q u i n t i l e o f

t e l e v i s i o n viewing audiences. Marketers e x p e c t t h i s u n f a v o u r a b l e

p a t t e r n i n media h a b i t s t o worsen i n l i g h t of t h e youth market's

growing i n t e r e s t i n s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e media a s pay t e l e v i s i o n ' s

n.T.V., v i d e o r o c k a n d take-home movies, a n d v i d e o games. As

well, t h e y o u t h ~ a r k e ta s a w h o l e d i s p l a y s e r r s t i c media

c o n s u m p t i o n p a t t e r n s i n t h e news m a g a z i n e s , newspapers, and

consumer p u b l i c a t i o n s t h e y read. These media c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

y o u t h l e a v e m e d i a b u y e r s w i t h l i t t l e room f o r e r r o r i n s e l e c t i n g

s p e c i f i c me3ia f o r t h e i r a d v e r t i s i n g messages. As a n e x a m p l e ,

A m e r i c a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l P i c t u r s s h a v e a d v e r t i s e d t o t h e 16-24

year o l d market with t e l e v i s i o n a d s surrounding "Saturday Night

L i v e t g , t h e m i d n i g h t r o c k s h o w s , "Hashw, "Mark a n d M i n d y M , " T h e

Rockford Files1*, re-runs o f wflaverickqla n d " S t a r TrekH and a few

others.14 A spokesman f o r American I n t e r n a t i o n a l P i c t u r e s

comments t h a t :

I f y o u d o n ' t c l u s t e r a r o u n d t h o s e s h o w s , y o u c a n miss
y o u r a u d i e n c e b y a mile. T h a t ' s l i k e t h r o w i n g m o n e y t o
t h e winds. You h a v e t o h e c a r e f u l . 1 5

Similarly, D'Arcy-PlacManus and Hasius Ltd, have placed

a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r t h e i r l a r g s A i r Force and Budweiser youth

market accounts i n "Saturday N i g h t Live1' a n d t h e m i d n i g h t r o c k

s h o w time s l o t s , T h i s t y p e o f s e l e c t i v i t y i n m e d i a p u r c h a s e is

e v e n more e x t r e m e i n t h e p r i n t media which, a s 1 have mentioned,

is b e t t e r s u i t e d t o w a r d a u d i e n c e / m a r k e t segmentation, B e c a u s e of

t h e m o r e d e f i n a b l e a n d d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ~ d i t o r i s lc o n t e n t s o f
publications, and becausz p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e less

" g a t e k e p t W( s u b j e c t t o b r o a d e r c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f n a t i o n a l

a d v s r t i s e r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e mass m a r k e t : dominant d e f i n i t i o n s of

a p p r o p r i a t e media c o n t e n t s ) , a c l o s e look a t the e d i t o r i a l

c o n t e n t s o f R u d u e i s e r l s p r i n t m e d i a u s e f o r y o u t h m a r k e t i n g is

warranted.

---
Playbsy a n d s ~ g g tI l ~l u g $ y g t g d h a v e b r o s i i d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y

c o n s t i t u t e d a u d i e n c e s w h i c h a r e p r e d o w i n a n t l y male a n d c o v e r a

w i d e r a n g e of a g e a n d s o c i a l g r o u p s . These p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e
w i d e l y r e a d by c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , t h e off-campus youth, and

businessmen alike. For a l l i n t e n t s and purposes o f t h e

advertising encoding s t r u c t u r e these publications compositely

r e a c h t h e 'mass* market f o r Budweiser.

DSArcy-MacManus a n d M a s i u s L t d . i n 1981-1332 advertises

B u d w e i s e r i n R o l l i n g S t o n e , @ptjgqgJ Lamgoon, h ~ g g g a n d , a n d gpt

---
Rod magazines a s youth market s e g m e n t a t i o n medias. E a c h of t h e s e

p u b l i c a t i o n s have d i f f e r e n t e d i t o r i a l contents, layout formats,

and demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of reach w i t h i n t h e youth

market. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s i q n i f i c a n t for t h e understanding

of how e C i t o r i a l c o n t e n t a n 3 a u d i e n c e i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n

and combination of layout designs and c u l t u r a l c o n t e n t s o f

Bu3weiser a d s i n e a c h pub1ica t i o n .
a) Aapersand

T h e l a r g e s t o f t h e y o u t h p u b l i c a t i o n s u s e d f o r B u d w e i s e r is

--
A m ------
~ e r s a n d ("The Music, Art a n d E n t e r t a i n m e n t M a g a z i n e f o r
C o l l e g e Newspapers") w h i c h h a s a c i r c u l a t i o n o f close t o a

m i l l i o n e a c h month. Alan Weston P u b l i s h i n g h a v e p u b l i s h e d t h e

m a g a z i n e s i n c e 1977 a n d h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h e i r r e a d e r s h i p t o D e

64% n a l e a n d 3 5 % f e m a l e , c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , a n d 18-26 y e a r s o l d .

A t o t a l o f 74 c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s have t h e p u b l i c a t i o n

a d d e d t o t h e campus n e u s p 3 p e r e a c h month. According t o t h e

publishers, " A ~ p z r s a n d is t h e o n l y m o n t h l y c o l l e g e m a g a z i n e

geared t o t h e c o l l e 3 e s t u d e n t ' s e n t e r t a i n m e n t and c u l t u r a l

interests."16 T h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t m a t e r i a l o f A m w ~ s p q dc o n t a i n s

c u r r e n t e n t e r t a i n m e n t news and g o s s i p , f e a t u r e s a n d p e r s o n a l i t y

interviews, record, ~ u s i c ,f i l m a n d book r e v i s u s , and h i - f i

equipment reviews. Major a d v e r t i s e r s i n c l u d e t h e product

categories of hi-fi, movies, records, tapes, magazines, personal

care, books, m u s i c a l i n s t r u a e n t s and b e e r . A d v e r t i s i n g v o l u m e is

e s t i m a t e d a t o v e r $1,500,000 a y e a r f o r t h e 1981-1982 p e r i o d .
T h e e d i t o r i a l p r e s e n t a t i o n a l format r e s e ~ b l e st h a t f o u n d i n

------
R o l l i n g -----
Stone magazine. U n l i k e Fm?&iqq S t o n e , a r o c k * n * r o l l

review publication, B Q ~ ~ S E c Qo n~c e n t r a t e s more o n

lifestyle-orientsd features, motion p i c t u r e s , and annual s p e c i a l

s e c t i o n s on travel, sound system innovation, and photography. It

appears t h a t the editorial focus of t h e publication covers only

some a r e a s o f l i f e s t y l e w h i c h a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e of g r e a t e s t

c o l l e c t i v e i n t e r e s t t o the c o l l e g e audience. Yet t h e s e l i f e s t y l e

i n t e r e s t s a r e varied an3 a s t h s magaziners marketing departmsnt

coinments:

T h e mass c o l l e g e a u d i e n c e i s much more d i v e r s e t h a n i t

o n c e was - t h e y ' r e o l d e r and t h e i r p u r p o s e f o r b e i n g i n
c o l l e g e is t o b e b e t t e r p r e p a r e d f o r l i f e . T h e r e i s a
s t r o n g e m p h a s i s on b 3 i n g sn i n d i v i d u a l . ~ u s i cis s t i l l
v e r y much a p a r t o f t h e i r l i f e s t y l e , b u t i t s n o t a s
i m p o r t a n t a s i t o n c e was. F o r A m p e r s a n d , a c o v e r w i t h a
major music a r t i s t is n o t yoinq t o g e t picked up a s f a s t
a s 3 c o v e r w i t h a major c o m e d i a n o r a major f i l m s t a r o n
it, 17
o u t o f t h e f o u r youth p u b l i c a t i o n s which Budweiser a d s are

e x t r a c t e d f r o m , A q x g ~ g ~is
d t h e most committed t o t h e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e d i s c o u r s e s of c o l l e g i a t e l e i s u r e

activities. C o l l e g e l i f e is u n d e r s t o o d by a d v e r t i s e r s a s o n e

submarket/culture w i t h i n t h e youth market, Publishers of

A i n ------
-- gersand claim t o a d v e r t i s e r s t h a t t h e y , l i k e no o t h e r

publication, reach t h e "areas o f dominant influence i n t h e

countrya 18 ; t h a t is, t h e y a r e t a r g e t i n g t o w a r d t h e m o r e

educated (those bettered positioned f o r jobs) and p o t 2 n t i a l l g

more a f f l u e n t s e c t o r of t h e y o u t h m a r k e t , Aqgsggaqd:s entry into

I
t h e y o u t h media m a r k e t t a k e s p l a c e a f t e r t h e e r a of r a d i c a l
I
s t u d e n t u n r e s t o n campus. I n u a y s d i f f e r e n t from Eat&onn& !
I

I
--- ---
Lamgoon a n d j@&&&nqSrgpf m a g a z i n e s , i t s e d i t o r i a l s t a n c e is

free o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , t h o u g h f a d i n g , a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t

H a t i o n a l ---
-------- L a m g---
oon a n d RqlLjnq Stgge m a g a z i n e s h a v e h a d t o

maintain with counter-cultural and c r i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s on

dominant American l i f e s t y l e ,

W RolLing Sime
 ------
R o l l i n g -----,
S t o n e e s t a ~ l i s h e di n 1967, p u b l i s h e s twice a m o n t h

with a r e a d e r s h i p s i m i l a r i n size (per a d d i t i o n ) t o t h a t of

A n g------
-- ersand f o r t h e 1951-1952 p e r i o d . Its r e a d e r s h i p i s 66% m a l e

a n d 34% f e m a l e w i t h a a v e r a g e a g e of 23.9 years old. Its

e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t s i n c l u d e coveraqe of music, movie and a u d i o

news i n a d d i t i o n t o f e a t u r e s t o r i e s from a l l a r e a s o f

contemporary culture. Advertising c a t e g o r i e s c o n s i s t of

audio/tape, records, liquor, cigarettes, musical instruments,

automotive, movies and corporate. Its e s t a b l i s h e d a d v e r t i s i n g

v o l u ~ eis o v e r $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a y e a r f o r 1981-1982. As o n e

representative f o r the publication explains, Eol&j&qStpng i s

"read b y t h e l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b o t h 18 t o 2 4 a n d 1 8 t o

34-year-olds of a n y p u b l i c a t i o n m e a s u r e d b y a n y s y n d i c a t e d

research."l* T h i s s t a t i s t i c r e f l e c t s t o some e x t e n t t h e

p h e n o m e n o n o f m e d i a c o n s u m p t i o n l o y a l t i e s o f t h e i3~&2&nq Sfggg

audience. It s u g g e s t s t h a t 34-ye3r-old r e a d e r s of t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n may h a v e c o n s u m e d t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c e 1 9 5 7 when

t h e s e r e a d e r s would h a v e f a l l e n i n t o t h e 20-21 year o l d

demographic c o r e of t h a g e n e r a l youth market audience. The

p u b l i c a t i o n h a s c h a n g e d w i t h new d e f i n i t i o n s o f y o u t h l i f e s t y l e

a n d w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g l i f a s t y l e i n t e r e s t s o f i t s now a o r e

affluent 18-34 gear old audience, some o f whom h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l y

more b u y i n g power t h a n t h e 18-24 y e a r o l d y o u t h m a r k e t . These

c h a n g e s a r e e v i d e n c e d i n t h 2 e v o l u t i o n o f &?llinq Stgng's

e d i t o r i a l f o c u s 3nd a s s o c i o l o g i s t Simon F r i t h n o t e s :

R o l l i n g S t o n e % d e v e l o p e df r o m a m a g a z i n e i n which t h ?
l e i s u r e v a l u e s o f r o c k ' n ' r o l l were t h e s o u r c e o f a
 critical commentary on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of p o l i t i c s and
p r o d u c t i o n i n t o a m a g a z i n e i n w h i c h m u s i c is u n d e r s t o o d
o n l y a s a n e n j o y a b l e form of c o n s u m p t i o n . Ellling SrQgg,
l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h s m u s i c p r e s s , i s now a c o n s u m e r
g u i d e , a n e x a m p l s of t h e way i n w h i c h commercial
e n t r e p r e n e u r s work t o make l e i s u r e a n d p l e a s u r e o r d e r l y .
20

S i m i l a r l y , Frank Kofsky, writer f o r J g z ~qgd gqg c h a r g e s

that, w i ? o l l i n q S t o n e is t h e i d e a l v e h i c l e f o r c o r p o r a t e - l i b e r a l

ideology.,. b e c a u s e i t i s s t r i v i n g m a n f u l l y t o r e d u c e the

r e v o l u t i o n i n y o u t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o n o t h i n g more t h a n a h a n d f u l

of n o v e l c o n s u m e r t a s t e s . " 21 While s o c i o l o g i s t s and social

critics view t h i s p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e a s c o - o p t a t i o n , repression,

a n d c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n of y o u t h c u l t u r e o c c u r r i n q i n t h e

seventies, m a r k e t e r s t o t h e y o u t h a u d i e n c e see t h i s p r o c e s s a s

t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a new m a r k e t a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n e w

r a p p o r t t h a t a l l o w s y o u t h t o more f u l l y i n d u l g e i n i t s l i f e s t y l e

i n t e r e s t s (i.e., music). On? y o u t h m a r k e t i n g s p e c i a l i s t

comments:

M u s i c i s t h e most i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a y o u n g a d u l t s
l i f e s t y l e today.,,, Rock n u s i c a n d m u s i c p o p u l a r w i t h
y o u n g p e o p l e i s n o l o n g e r c o u n t e r c u l t u r e l i k e i t was i n
t h e 1 9 6 O 9 s , A d v e r t i s e r s were a f r a i d of b e i n g a s s o c i a t e ?
w i t h r o c k m u s i c , b u t t h 2 y S r e c o m i n g t o r e a l i z e it i s a n
e s t a b l i s h e d p a r t of t h e c u l t u r e , I t ' s t o o i m p o r t a n t t o
ignore, 22

Music-related marketing, s u c h a s FigliLqq Stong, i s b e l i s v e d

t o b e t h e most e f f e c t i v e w a y o f r e a c h i n g t h e n o n - c o l l e g e group

because music provides, what m a r k e t e r s call, 3 "central tie-in

activityu. T h e s t r a t e g i c a s s o c i a t i o n of p r o d u c t s w i t h m u s i c is

today utilized not only f o r music-relatod products such as

records, hi-fi equipment, musical i n s t r u m e n t s and tapes, but

also f o r cigarettes, beer, and o t h e r non-music-related

commodities. T h e s t r a t e g y u o r k s a t two e n c o d i n g l e v e l s ; m u s i c

p r e s s s e l e c t i o n i n media buying and product a s s o c i a t i o n with

music a s a l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t i n ad presentations. T h i s second

e n c o d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n shall b e r e t u r n e d t o i n t h e a c t u a l

a n a l y s i s which f o l l o w s i n c h a p t e r four. T h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e

music p r 2 s s f o r 3 d v e r t i s i n q communication opens up t h e range of

p r o d u c t s t h a t may b e t a r q e t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y u n r e c e p t i v e a n d

problematic reading preferences of t h s youth audience. As Doug

aernstein, a m e m b e r o f itg&&iqq S t ~ q g L gp u b l i s h i n g d e p a r t m e n t and

former a d v e r t i s i n g d i r e c t o r f o r J?qJLpnpl L p m p ~ n ,s t a t e s : "who

e v e r t h o u g h t back i n t h e 60's t h a t R o l l i n g S t o n e would b e

c a r r y i n g a d s for s o m e t h i n g l i k e S a s s o n jeans." 23 Music

marketing a n d media p r o v i d e ready-made lifestyle associations

and marketing communication avenues f o r t h o s e marketers seeking

t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e an3 d i r e c t m a a n i n q f o r t h e y o u t h a u d i e n c e .
M u s i c m a r k e t i n g is a n e s t a b l i s h e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m t h a t

t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s h a s f o r g e d i t s way t o a s t a t u s of a c c e p t a n c e

w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r s l f o r m a t i o n s o f youth. It h a s set p r e c e d e n t s

for t h e f a d and fashion-oriented advertising industry both at

t h e d e c i s i o n levels of w h i c h p u b l i c a t i o n s t o c h o o s e a n d , aost

importantly, w h i c h r e f e r e n c e s a n d m o d e s of a d d r e s s t o u s e i n a d

p r e s e n t a t i o n s to youth.

C) Ma&&nal Lante_oon
B u d w e i s e r a d v e r t i s e ~ e n t sa p p e a r i n Nqtigqpk t p g m g n

m a g a z i n e w h i c h h a s b e e n i n p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c e 1970 a n d has 8 0 4

male r e a d e r s h i p , a g e d 18 t o 34 y e a r s old. T o t a l c i r c u l a t i o n
numbers o v e r 700,000 f o r t h i s monthly p u b l i c a t i o n . Ths e d i t o r i a l

f o r m a t is b a s e d o n p a r o d y and b l a c k humour, e a c h month f o c u s i n g

o n a p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e of i n t e r e s t f o r y o u t h a u d i e n c e s ( i . t , ,

" B a c k T o c o l l e g e H , wSummer S e x 9 ' , " T h e n o v i e I n d u s t r y w ) , P r o d u c t s

advertised include hi-fi equipment, liquor, cigarettes, cameras,

records, tapes, and movies, b d v e r t i s i n g v o l u m e i s close t o t h r e e

m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a y e a r f o r t h e 1981-1982 p e r i o d . The publication

is a n o f f - s h o o t of t h e c o l l e g i a t e p u b l i c a t i o n gqgqpgd &q,g=n,

a n d many o f & p & i o n a l l..~zppn:s e d i t o r i a l s t a f f h a v e o v e r l a p p e d

w i t h t h e writers a n d a c t o r s of " S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e " , a standard

t e l e v i s i o n m e d i a buy f o r y o u t h m a r k e t i n g .

B a r b a r a S a b s t i n o , o f f i c e m a n a g e r f o r Mpi&gpq& L q g g p ~ q ,

d e s c r i b e s i t s r e a d e r s a s b e i n g i n t h e middle t o u p p e r m i d d l e

income b r a c k e t , a n a v e r a g e of 2 4 y e a r s o l d , a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y
students. The u n d e r g r o u n d p r e s s and c o m i c s o f t h e m i d d l e class

y o u t h c u l t u r e i n tho 6 0 ' s h a s p r o v i d e d aqt&gqpJ i,pm~pcmq w i t h a n

e d i t o r i a l t o n e a n d a n u m b e r of v i s u a l l a y o u t c o n v e n t i o n s

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l media a u d i e n c ~(i,e., readers

of B ~ x o f dBead, 3 5 ~
#3tusl).
As i s t h e c a s e w i t h l ? o / ~ h q q S t p q g , dq$&pgpl L q m ~ p g ~ l g

c r i t i c a l commentary on American l i f e s t y l e , values and p o l i t i c s

h a s l o s t i t s c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l f o c u s s o t o d a y t h e p u b l i s h e r s make

t h e c l a i m t h a t " t h e magazine p l a y s no f a v o i t e s H i n its somewhat

n i h i l i s t c r i t i q u e o f America.

d) Hot Rod
 DIArcy-PlacManus a n d 3 a s i u s L t d . u s e Hqh god m a g a z i n e t o
t a r g e t B u d u e i s e r a d s a t t h a t p a r t o f t h e youth market which is

t h e most d i f f i c u l t t o r s a c h , t h e non-collegiate. &p&gpa,

e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 9 4 8 , h a s a d e f i n z d r e a d e r s h i p of I S t o 34 y e a r s

o l d a n d p r e l o m i n a n t l y male. 3 t i s w r i t t e n f o r men w i t h a n

i n t e r e s t i n a u t o m o t i v a machinery and its prime e d i t o r i a l f o c u s

is on c a r m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o improve performance and t h e

appearance o f vehicles. Its c i r c u l a t i o n a n d a d volume s u r p a s s e s

t h a t of R o l l i n g Stpqg,

W h i l e many o f t h e a d s i n R q t gpd u s e t h e s t a n d a r d y o u t h

t h e m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a u s i c a s a p a r t of a y o u n g a d u l t ' s

lifestyle, t h e e d i t o r i a l f o r m a t o f a car o w n e r ' s c o n s u m e r g u i d e

seems t o e x e r t more i n f l u e n c e o n a d v e r t i s i n g m o d e s o f a d d r e s s .

Budweiser a d s a t t e m p t t o r e a c h young a d u l t males through t h i s

m e d i a s e g m e n t a u d i e n c e who p e r h a p s c a n n o t b e r e a c h e d t h r o u g h t h e

youth c u l t u r e e n t e r t a i n m e n t and music p u b l i c a t i o n s , T h i s

p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g y of segmentation t o youth r e s u l t s i n ad

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l forms t h a t r a d i c a l l y ciiffer from t h o s e found i n

-------- L a m g-o- - ov n --
S a t i o n a l --- A m g------
ersand a n d ggtlinn Sggyg. yo$ R o h l ~

e d i t o r i a l m a t e r i a l s r e f e r t o no o t h e r youth l i f e s t y l e d i s c o u r s e

t h a n an i n t s r e s t i n c a r s . The t h r e e o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , from

t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e d i s c o u r s e s t h a t d e f i n e a young

person's lifestyle, m a k e few i f a n y d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e

d i s c o u r s e o f cars. I t is i n t e r e s t i n q t o n o t e t h a t B u d w e i s e r a d s

in Hot god use r e f e r e n c e s t o t h 3 discourse of high performance

r a c i n g w i t h n o r e f e r s n c e t o more common y o u t h d i s c o u r s e s , while

o t h e r a d v e r t i s e r s i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n m a k e t h e more s t a n d a r d

y o u t h l i f e s t y l e r e f e r e n c l s (i.e., music). T h i s i s due m o s t l y t o

!3udweiser9s commitment i n s 2 o n s o r s h i p of b o a t and car r a c i n g a s

event-oriented " t i e - i n w promotions o f t h e brand. As well,

because of t h e o l d e r d e m o g r a p h i c m a k e u p of Hit gqml:~ audience,

and t h a t a u d i e n c e ' s l i f e s t y l e involvements with d i s c o u r s e s n o t

r e s t r i c t e d t o y o u t h e n t s r t a i m e n t a n d media c o n s u m p t i o n ,

Anheuser-Busch way b e a t t e m p t i n g t o a c h i e v e a redundancy e f f z c t

or r e s o n 3 n c e w i t h its o t h e r a d v e r t i s i n g programs i n Spgg&~

-----------
Illustrated and its e x t e n s i v e t e l e v i s i o n a d v e r t i s i n g d u r i n g

s p o r t s coverage.

T h i s s e c t i o n on t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s employed by t h e

a d v e r t i s s r s of Rudweiser, l i k e t h e s e c t i o n on m a r k e t

s e g m e n t a t i o n i n c h a p t e r two, is a n a t t e m p t t o o u t l i n e t h e a d

message e n c o d e r g s i n t e n s i o n s and p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s toward t h e

decoding audiences/markets. It is b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e

i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a r k e t i n g and media p r a c t i c e s of s e l e c t i n g forutns

o f communication (magazines) an3 a u d i e n c e s r e q u i r e a l s o s u i t a b l e

modes o f a d d r e s s i n a d p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n 1973 a m a r k e t i n g s n a l y s t

observed t h a t marketars t o youth hold

... an u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i s n e i t h e r t r u e n o r d o e s i t
r e p r e s e n t t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e w o r l d o f t h e
audience,...too o f t e n t h e r e ' s l i t t l e i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e
t r u t h of t h e r e a l i t y o f t h s audience....**

T o d a y a d v e r t i s e m e n t s n c o c l e r s a r e 3ware t h a t t h e y o u t h m a r k e t

"does n o t respond i n a h i g h l y p o s i t i v e f 3 s h i o n to t r a 3 i t i o n a l ad

m e s s a g e s i n t r a d i t i o n a l rnedia.***s A d v e r t i s e r s r e s p o n d t o t h i s

p r o b l e z by m e t a c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o y o u t h a u d i e n c e s t h a t t h e i r
v a l u e s a r e t r u l y u n d e r s t o o d w h i c h may i n c l u d e t h e v a l u e o f

c y n i c i s m or s u s p i c i o n o f a d v e r t i s i n g itself. BY a d v e r t i s i n g t o

y o u t h i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s i t r e a d s a n d i n a n o d e of a d d r e s s

which is p a r t o f t h e way y o u t h c o m m u n i c a t e s - through the

d i s c o u r s e s of m u s i c , film, e n t e r t 3 i n m e n t and c u l t u r a l s y m b o l s of

it l i f e s t y l e p r e f e r e n c e s - e n c o d e r s select m e a n i n g s f o r t h e i r

p r o d u c t s t h a t i n t h e mass m a r k e t m i g h t p r o v e i n e f f e c t i v e . The

a n a l y s i s w h i c h f o l l o w s e m p l o y s d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e s a m p l e b y

p u b l i c a t i o n t o a l l o w f o r t h e c o m p a r i s o n of how t h e a d v e r t i s e r s

o f Budweiser c o n c e p t u a l i z e and d i r e c t meaning t o t h e youth

a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t a s o p p o s e d t o t h e mass a u d i e n c e ( 1 5 - 4 9 year-old

men).
Leymore, Myit, p . 60.

Ibid., p. 60.

Kline, " I m a g e s of W e l l - b e i n g , " p. 19.

Find

"Beer a d v e r t i s i n g : Corning t h r o u g h f o r y o u , " ~ q g ~ g g g h

h~pgms, J u l y , 1 9 8 3 , p. 3 4 8 .

Ibid., D. 348.

L e t t e r from D ' A r c y 3 a c M a n u s d n a s i u s L t d , , F r e d Wolter t o

Cam L a n d e l l ,
H a r c h 17, 1963.

T h e o d o r e Gage, " P r o s p e c t i n g i n t h e o f f - c a m p u s g o l d mine,"

A d v e r t i s i n g Age, Aug. 2 , 1 9 8 2 , p. w-19,
----------
B. G. Y o v o v i c h , " P l a y i n g H i d e a n d S e e k , " fiivertrglng Age,
hug. 2 , 1 9 8 2 , p . m-6,

B. ~ u l i n - s a l k i n , " M e d i a c o o l - b u t n o t t o c o l l e g e c r o w d , I q
----------
A dvertising Aug. 2 , 1 9 3 2 , p. m-12.

Ibid., p. m-19-

n a r c Kirkeby, "Tracking t h e off-campus crowd," Alvertisigq .

Age, A p r i l 28, 1 9 8 0 , p. s - 1 3 .
J o y c e S u n i l a , "?lovie an3 l p a d s d o b e s t on r a d i o , tv,"
A d v e r t i s i n g Aqg , A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 8 0 , p. s-18.
----------
" y o u t h media n a r k e t d i v e r s e , " M y g r t i g j n q Agg, A p r i l 2 8 ,
1933, p. s-2.

Hulin-Salkin, "Hedia c o o l , " p. m-7,

Hulin-Salkin, nRedia cool," p. m-7.

"Youth media ? i v e r s e , * ' p. s-22.

"Youth media d i v e r s s , " p. s-22.

S i n o n F r i t h , Sound g f f g c t ~( M e w York: P a n t h e o n Books,

1 3 8 1 ) , p. 2 7 0 ,
22. Gage, ' f P r o s p e c t i n g , " p. m-20.

23. Mary H c C a b e E n g l i s h , " C o n s e r v a t i v e c o n s u m e r t y p i f i e s naw

g e n e r a t i o n , " &gy2r&tsinq Aqg, A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 8 0 , p . s-1.

24. 19Crbative, r e s e a r c h m u s t g e t t o g e t h e r t o r e a c h youth,"

----------
Advertising Aqg , A p r i l 9, 1 9 7 3 , p. 63.

25. Gage, "Prospectin$," pp. a-18 - m-19.

IV. The S e m i o t i c A n a l y s i s

I n t h i s c h s p t 2 r a c t u a l a d v e r t i s e m e n t s w i l l be s e m i o t i c a l l y

deconstructed, e a c h i n terms o f t h e i r i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s o f

adwork. In particular, the analysis studies the structural

p r o c e s s o f m e a n i n g t r a n s f e r from r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s i n t h e a d

to t h e product -sign Budweiser brand beer, T h e e x p l a n a t i o n of

t h i s p r o c e s s c e n t e r s o n t h e s y n t a g m a t i c a r r a n g e a e n t o f t h e ad

t e x t i n which t h e p r o 4 u c t s i g n is s t u c t u r e d i n t o a c o n t i g u o u s

p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s e n c l o s e d i n t h e message a s

a m e a n i n g f u l whole. A t t h i s l e v e l t h e ad message o p e r a t e s on t h e

b a s i s of c o m b i n a t o r y s i g n i f y i n g c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s i t

as a recognizable c u l t u r a l system - a s a d i s c o u r s e of
ready-ma..le, r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s a n d m o d e s of a d d r e s s f o r t h e

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f product meaning . T h e sample i s a n a l y z e d a t t h i s

l e v e l w i t h a s p s c i a l i n t e r e s t i n a d w o r k e n c o d i n g o f w h a t Eco

terms e i t h e r o p n o r c l o s e d t e x t s .
Open t e x t s a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e t h e r e a d e r i n t h e i r

reproduction: t h e r e a d e r 3 o e s n o t use t h e ad s t r u c t u r e s a s h e

w a n t s ( t h e r e a d e r c a n n o t u s e h i s o w n p r e f e r r e d a s s o c i a t i o n of

referent s i g n i f i e r s to the product sign), but only i n t h e

s i n g u l a r s e t of a s s o c i a t i o n s t h e ad s t r u c t u r l s p e r m i t . I n such
ad t e x t s , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f more s u b t l s s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t s w i t h

t h e product s i g n ewploys adwork s t r u c t u r e s s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l l y

c o m m o n i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f mass m a r k e t i n g a d v e r t i s i n g -- they
c o n n e c t meaningful e l e m e n t s i n a manner most a u d i e n c e s have

e n c o u n t e r e d i n p r e v i o u s d e c o d i n q s of a d s p r e s e n t e d i n o t h e r mass

media. These a d s leave very littls to t h e reader's e x t r a t e x t u a l

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r meaning. Closed

ad t e x t s , on t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e n d to evoke a l i n i t e d and

predetermined response f o r defined, more or less p r e c i s e

empirical readers. T h s s e c l o s e d a d t e x t s a r e i m m o d e r a t e l y "openw

t o v ~ r i o u sd i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e i r r i g i d

internal plan (signifier's i n t e r r e l a t i o n s with each o t h e r ) and

t h e i r limited textual semantic use of intentional signs

( s i g n i f i e r s whoso m e a n i n g i s o r d e r e d i n c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s o u t s i d e

of a d w o r k ) r e q u i r e of t h e r e a d e r a n e x p r e n t i a l c o m p e t e n c e i n

p a r t i c u l a r media and r i t u a l a c t i v i t i e s . 1 Clostd texts a r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c o n f i g u r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s a n d

f i x e d s e m a n t i c meanings t o t h e s e e l e m e n t s t h a t are n o t c l e a r l y

o r f u l l y c o m m u n i c a t e d by t h e ad. Closed ad t e x t s depend on

s p e c i f i c p r e f e r e n c e s and t t x t u a l r e a d i n g l i t e t a c i e s t h a t c u e

e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r s J common a n d i n t e r t e x t u a l frames. These t e x t s

are encoded with a p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e empirical r e a d e r s

i n m i n d 2 n d a r e l?ss ~ ~ t o2 w 2h a t e v e r a d r e a d e r o n t h e basis of

that reader's g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l knowledgs and f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h

mass q a t t 9 t i n g a x l 2 s aE a d d r e s s a l o n e . T h e s e c l o s e d a d t e x t s
s h o u l d b e m o s t e v i d e n t i n t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e s a m p l e i d e n t i f i e d

i n C h a p t l r T h r e e a s t h e s e g m e n t e d y o u t h a d s p r e s e n t e d i n 42%

Bod, Natiscmnl Lsn~ana, Ag~eyg%g?, a n d j?p&llng S t o n e m a g a z i n e s -

From t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a p r a g m a t i c s e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s of t h e
text, which assumes t h e e x t r a t e x t u a l decoding p o s i t i o n of t h e

m o d e l r e a d e r t h e t e x t is e n c o \ 3 2 J f o r , i t may a p p e a r t h a t e v e n

t h e segm2ntation a d s a r e opsnly structured. The p o i n t t h a t must

be r e c a l l e d throughout t h s r e a d i n g of t h e a n a l y s i s is, however,

t h a t t h a s e t e x t s a r e n o t open t o "subjects-in-general" or t h e

mass a u d i e n c s , a s W i l l i a m s o n claims a l l a d s a r e ( p s y c h o l o g i s t i c

l a n g u a g e m o d e l f o r e x p l s i n i n q a d v e r t i s i n g mode of a d d r e s s ) . An
e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r f o r whom t h e a d t e x t i s n o t i n t e n t i o n a l l y

e n c o d e d f o r i n i t s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e d i r e c t i o n of

m e a n i n g (mode o f a d d r e s s f o r a m a r k e t s e g m e n t b a s e d i n encoding

operations o f s e l e c t i o n and combination), may n o t t a k a t h e

c o r r e c t m e a n i n g o r a n y m e a n i n g , f o r t h a t a a t t e r , f r o m t h e a d , On
t h e o t h e r hand, a n e m p i r i c a l r e a d e r with a p a r t i c u l a r

e x t r a t e x t u a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n i n common f r a m e s a n d i n t e r t e x t u a l

c o m p e t e n c i e s i s a b l e t o t a k e t h e a o r e o p e n mass m a r k e t a d

p r e s o n t a t i o n meaning e v e n i f t h i s r e a d e r is n o t t h e model

reader.

The a n a l y s i s of t h e sample concerns i t s e l f with another

i n t e r s s t i n the c u l t u r a l a n d t o t e m i c a s s o c i a t i o n s o f r e f e r e n t

s y s t e m s p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e a d , a n d t h e d e n s i t i e s of

r e l a t i o n s between r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s u s e d i n o n e ad, The a n a l y s i s

i d e n t i f i e s t h e r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s within each ad t e x t , traces

t h e o r i g i n of t h e s e s y m b o l s o r i d e a s b a c k t o e x t e r n a l

d i s c o u r s e s , a n d a x p l a i n s why a n d how t h e s e d i s c o u r s e s a r e

m e a n i n g f u l f o r r e a d e r s i d e n t i f i e d by a m a r k e t / a u d i e n c e segment,

The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s e x e r c i s e is n o t to d e v e l o p a c o m p l e t e
i n v e n t o r y of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s o r r e f e r r e d - t o discourses that

a d v e r t i s e r s c a n c h o o s e from i n c u e i n g p a r t i c u l a r

markets/audiences. Rather, t h e o b j e c t i v e h e r e is t o o b s e r v e

w h e t h e r t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s c o a l e s c e a l o n g l i n e s of i n t e r e s t o f

(1) t h e p a r t i c u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n a s a media s e g m e n t ( r e f e r e n t i a l

c o d e s c o n n e c t e d t o e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t s a n d mode o f a d d r e s s o f t h e

publication alone), ( 2 ) a d v e r t i s i n q a s a mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n

d i s c o u r s e ( p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s of ad form and c o n t e n t

u s u a l l y r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o a s t r u c t u r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

a d v e r t i s i n g s y s t e m ) , or ( 3 ) a c o n s i s t e n t set o r r e p e r t o i r e of

discourses (discursive space) unified i n t h e i r association to a

c u l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n o u t s i d e o f a d v e r t i s i n g and t h e e d i t o r i a l

f o c u s of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n .

T h i s p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s i s a t t e m p t s to accomplish two

things. First, b y m o v i n g f r o m w h a t i s a c t u a l l y i n t h e ad m e s s a g e

to a terminal point i n external discursive significance, ads,

g r o u p e d b y t a r g e t m a r k e t ( H e a v y Male Beer D r i n k e r o r Young A d u l t

Male), are examined f o r t h e i r r e f e r e n c e t o s i m i l a r d i s c o u r s e s o r

discourses connected within a repertoire of c u l t u r a l group

b e h a v i o u r s ( e s p e c i a l l y media consumption), Secoadly, c l u s t e r i n j s

of r e f e r r e d - t o d i s c o u r s e s a r e c o m p a r e d b y p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t
c a r r y t h e ads. A l l t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a 3 p e a r i n g i n &mtgggeaq@ ,
--------
N a t i o n a l --- ---
Lamgoon, an? R o l l i n g zigng u s e t h e same l a y o u t o n a
r o t a t i o n b a s i s a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e s a m e d i s c o u r s e sets. A l l the

a d s t h a t a p p e a r i n PLapbby ( a t o t a l o f 3 ) a p p e a r i n S g z t S

----------
Illustated a s w e l l , w h i l s t h e l a t t e r p u b l i c a t i o n h a s many more
Budweiser a d s f o r t h e sample p e r i o d (a t o t a l of 10). T h i s is d u e

t o A n h ~ u s e rB u s c h ' s s t r a t e g y o f a d v e r t i s i n g its more e x p e n s i v e ,

s u p e r p r e m i u m M i c h e l o b b r a n d i n Ehpybqy, c o n s i d e r e d a m a g a z i n e

r e a c h i n g t h e more a f f l u e n t male d r i n k e r . Hq& gqd c o n t a i n s

completely d i f f e r e n t ad copy (3 a d s i n a l l ) . T h e ad

p r e s e n t a t i ~ n a lf o r m s o f t h e l a t t s r t h r e e p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e m o r e

s i m i l a r a n d r e f e r t o common c o n v e n t i o n s o f a d w o r k f o u n d i n m a s s

market magazine advertising.

T h e s e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s is n o t d e s i g n e d t o r e p r e s e n t a l l

a d v e r t i s i n g f o r m a t s i n a d e t a i l e d e x p l i c a t i o n of t h e e x h a u s t i v e

r u l e s of ad grammar a n d p o s s i b l e r e a l m s o f t o x t u a l s e x t a n t i c s i n

advertising. I t i s m e r e l y i l l u s t r a t i v e of some o f t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l models o f encoding and decoding communication

r e l a t i o n s t h a t h s v e been e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e p r a g m a t i c p r o j e c t o f

defining ad significance f o r identified empirical audiences

(model r e a d e r s ) . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e method t o t h e s a m p l e

s h o u l d b e t h o u g h t o f a s t h e t e s t i n g o f a new s e m i o t i c a u d i e n c e

p e r s p e c t i v e f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of e n c o d i n g s e l e c t i o n a n d

c o m b i n a t i o n of r e f e r e n c e i n a d v e r t i s i n g .
 Eight d i f f e r e n t a d s f o r 3udweiser brand beer appear i n

-S ~----
o r t s-----------
I l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e s a m p l e p e r i o d o f 1981-1982, This

a n a l y s i s b e g i n s w i t h a series of f i v e a d s which t y p i f y , in

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e rest of t h e s a m p l e , what K l i n e and L e i s s

c a l l i v l i f e s t y l a a d v e r t i s i n g modes of p r s s e n t a t i o n f l . I n t h e s e ads

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between persons, products and s e t t i n g s s i g n i f y

s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a r e f o r t h e a u d i e n c e s u p p o s e d l y ' e m b l e ~ a t i c of a

p a r t i c u l a r way o f l i f e , O n l y o n e o f t h e s e a d s w i l l b e

deconstructed i n d e t a i l since a l l f i v e possess similar layout

and w r i t t e n t e x t u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . While t h e

s y n t a g m a t i c p r o c e s s e s o f a d w o r k way b e t h e sanz f o r a l l f i v e ,

t h e ads* paradigmatic connections to external r e f e r e n t s y s t e s s

demands i n d e p e n d e n t e x p l a n a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e knowledge t h e

audience must ' f i l l i n * f o r t h e p r e f e r r e d decoding.

T h e f o l l o w i n g a d a n a l y s e s a r e o r d e r e d i n g r o u p s d e f i n e d by

t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y i n modes of a d d r e s s . T h e naming o f t h e a d s is

done q u i t e a r b i t r a r i l y a n 3 is i n t e n d e d t o f a c i l i t a t e

cross-reference i n semiotic c o m p s r i s o n s , Apart from t h e grouping

by p u b l i c a t i o n a u d i e n c e s , t h e r e i s no p u r p o s e f u l c h r o n o l o g y . As

w e l l , a l l t h e s a m p l e r s ads a n d c o m p a r i s o n i l l u s t r a t i o n s a r e

i d e n t i f i e d n u m e r i c a l l y (i.e,, figure I., f i g u r a 2., etc.).

a) 'boxingf, 'farminq' , 'logqinqf , ( r a n c h i n g ' and ' s t e a l w o r k e r s *

The f i v e a d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d here a r e * b o x i n g 1 , ' f a r m i n g ' ,

'logginq', 'ranching' and ' s t e e l w o r k e r s 1 . The s y n t a q m a t i c

deconstruction o f 'boxing' should s u f f i c e i n representing t h e

similar adwork s t r u c t u r e s of a l l f i v e . Throughout t h e e n t i r e

a n a l y s i s each ad w i l l be deconstructed i n t h e preliminary

s e p a r a t i o n of d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s b y f u n c t i o n a l d i v i s i o n s of t h e

photographic image, the written text, and t h e l a y o u t d e s i g n ,

T h i s is n o t t o s u g g e s t a n y o r d e r i n g o f w h a t o c c u r s f i r s t o r l a s t

t o the reader, but does analytically f a c i l i t a t e a reconstruction

o f t h e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f weaning ( c o n s t i t u t e 3 by d i f f e r e n t

signifiers) in the reader's movement t o t h e f i n a l m e s s a a e o f t h e

ad, A t t h e l e v e l of d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s ( c o n n o t a t i v e signifiers)

different m e a n i n g s a r e s o c o n t a i n e d by t h e i r m a t e r i a l

d i f f e r e n c e s i n a p p e a r a n c e or a p p a r e n t f u n c t i o n o n l y t o b e

r e u n i t e d a t t h e l e v e l of connotation i n s i g n i f i c a t i o n - open t o

one unmistakeable f i n a l meaning - around t h e product image,

A t t h e l e v e l o f d e n o t a t i o n i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h of 'boxinq*

t h e r e a d e r is p r o v i d e d w i t h s e v e r a l non-coded or literal iconic

signs. T h e c e n t e r o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h is t a k e n u p b y a p e r s o n who

is a b o x ~ r , O n each s i d e o f him s t a n d h i s t r a i n e r s / r n a n a g e r s . In

t h e b a c k g r o u n d i s a n o t h s r boxzr who u n d o u b t e d l y i s t h e s p a r r i n g

partner. T h e s e p e o p l e compose, what anyone f a m i l i a r w i t h boxing

r e c o g n i z e s a s , a c o m p l e t e b o x e r t r a i n i n 2 team. The p e o p l e and

gym s e t t i n g , as signifiers, require limited preliminary cultural

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s p o r t of b o x i n g b e f o r e o n e c a n c o m F e t e n t l y

g r a s p m e a n i n g a t t h e l e v e l of c o n n o t a t i o n . The product

a s s o c i s t i o n s t h a t a r e d e r i v e d a t t h e l e v e l s of c o n n o t a t i o n d o

n o t e v e n r e q u i r e of t h e reader t h a t h e h a s c l o s e l y s t u d i e d t h e

in-depth a r t i c l e s t h a t o c c u r i n S g q g t s L&&g~gtqgtq i t s e l f , t h u s

c a l l i n g u p some i n t e r t e x t u a l r e f , ? r e n c e s b a s e d o n t h e b o x i n g

sports discourse.

Host s i g n i f i e r s i n t h e s y n t a g m a t i c a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e

photograph are t h e symbolic and indexical. T h e towel a r o u n d t h e

boxer's neck, t h e s t o p w a t c h p o s i t i o n e d f o r u s t o see a n d t h e

p o s t u r e s a n d g e s t u r e s o f s l l t h e p e o p l e i n the a d o p e r a t e a s

i n d e x i c a l r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s of t h e b o x i n g a c t i v i t y . A l l these

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s o p e r a t e a s a condensation o f t h e a c t i v i t y which

h a s preceeded. T h e u p r a i s e d arm o f t h g b o x e r , the jubilant

s m i l e s of t h e b o x e r a n d t r a i n e r s , and t h e e x h i b i t e d stop-watch

a l s o s i q n i f y t h e e v e n t w h i c h i s y e t t o come - the victorious

k n o c k o u t i n r e c o r d time. T h e s e s i g n i f i e r s d o n o t s o much c u e t h e

r e a d e r ' s i n t e r t e x t u a l f r a m e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e b e a u t y a n d a r t of

boxing, b u t r a t h e r p r o v i 3 e a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y d i r e c t i o n f o r the

c u e i n g o f a more l i t e r a l m e s s a q e cf w o r k reward. A l l these

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s c o n n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f y a f u n d a m e n t a l B e s s a g e of

' h a r d w o r k a n d t h e p r o m i s e d rewards of w o r k i n g h a r d * . The boxer

i s n o t a n y o n e r e c o g n i z a b l e from t h e s p o r t s s c e n e , b u t i s
a p p a r e n t l y a n u p a n d c o m i n g f i g h t e r who, as the s e t t i n g and

people s u g g e s t , works o u t to a c h i e v e a reward.

 The product image, t h e f i n a l p o i n t to which a l l connotative

meaning i n t h e ad is d i r e c t e d , i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e u p h e l d

Budweiser c u p and its f r o t h i n g contents, t h e w o r d gsBudt* i n t h e

w r i t t e n t e x t a n d t h e Olympic amblem i n t h e l o n e r l e f t hand

corner of t h e layout. T h e p r o d u c t l a b e l o n t h e c u p is e a s i l y

r e c o g n i z e d a n d a p p e a r s i n m o s t of B u d w e i s e r g s p r i n t a d v e r t i s i n g ,

T h e u p h e l d c u p seems t o come i n t o t h e p i c t u r e frame from o u t s i d e

i n t h e p o s t u r e o f a s a l u t e or a n o f f e r i n g g e s t u r e . The d o u b l e

s u g g e s t i o n of b o t h a s a l u t e a n d a n o f f e r i n g b o t h i n d i c a t e a mode

of a d d r e s s a i m i l 3 r t o a s h a r e d p r a i s e o r t h e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t of

a n accomplishment. T h i s is r e a f f i r m e d by t h e t e x t , a s we s h a l l

see s h o r t l y .
The CUP is t h 2 p i v o t a l s i g n around which a c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e

c o n n e c t s t h e ad. T h e c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e is u s e d t o s y n t 3 q m a t i c a l l y

connect t h e red, w h i t e a n d b l u s u n i f o r m o f t h e b o x e r and r i n g

w i t h t h e l a b e l c o l o u r s o f t h e superimposed cup, Seyond s t a n d i n g

for t h s n a t i o n a l c o l o u r s o f t h e United S t a t e s , the colours

c o n n e c t t h e p r o d u c t w i t h t h z s c e n e t h a t c o n n o t e s work-reward.

T h e w r i t t e n t e x t of t h i s a d p e r f o r a s a s y n t a g n a t i c l i n k i n g

o f t h e p r o d u c t s i g n a n d the c o n t e n t s of t h e p h o t o g r a p h . The

w r i t t e n t e x t p o s i t i o n s t h e r e a d e r i n a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t of

t h e m e s s a g e ' s o p e n n e s s a n d o v e r r i d e s the r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s p o r t s

discourse of boxing -- knowledye assumed by t h e * s u b j e c t g , The

w o r d i n g of t h e c a p t i o n , ' # F o r S v e r y o n e Who's Got T h e Fieart And

C o u r a g e To G o T h e D i ~ t a n c e . . . ~ ' , o p e r a t i o n a l i z e s a c o n a t i v e

f u n c t i o n i n w h i c h t h s g e n e r a l i z e d " E v e r y o n e 1 * , a s t h e o b j e c t of
t h e phrase, d i r e c t s a t t e n t i o n n o t j u s t t o t h e boxer, but to a l l

p e o p l e t h a t h a v e s u c h "H2art a n d courage^^. T h i s c a p t i o n r e f e r s

t o t h e boxer, but also remains open t o any o t h e r examples of

"heart a n d c o u r a g e t t t h e r e a d e r m i g h t associate w i t h (s.g*, the

r e a d e r is i n v i t e d t o r e f e r t o h i s own w o r k - a - d a y world

experiences, bs he an executive, dock worker, or mailman),

However, t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n from good work/workout connotation of

t h e photograph and c a p t i o n can, a s well, i n v i t e t h e r e a d e r t o

i n s e r t a s s o c i a t i o n s t o h i s own r e f e r e n c e t o e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e

l e i s u r e a c t i v i t y of r e c r e a t i o n a l s p o r t s ( e . g , , training and

c o n s e q u e n t v i c t o r i e s of t h e w e e k e n d t e n n i s h e r o o r c o m p a n y

soft-ball p l a y a r w h i c h t y p i f i e s t h e common frame e x p e r i e n c e of

many of g m r t s fllusgl.ptga:q r e a d e r s ) . T h i s c a p t i o n s i g n i f i e s
and c o n t e x t u a l i z e s t h e maaning t h e r e a d e r is t o g a i n from t h e

photograph, T h i s m e a n i n g is t h a t t h e b o x e r h a s w h a t i t takes t o

"Go T h e Distance1', which, t r a n s l a t e d from s p o r t s c o m m e n t a r y

jargon, means t o f i n i s h t h e f i g h t ( t h e work). The u p h s l d c u p

e n t e r s i n t o t h e m e a n i n g of t h e w r i t t e n t e x t a s t h e r e a d e r moves

o n t o t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e c a p t i o n t o i n t e r p r e t t h e "Youst i n

" T h i s B u d ' s F o r Youw, A d u a l m e a n i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d i n w h i c h t h e

c u p is b e i n g o f f e r e d , s i g n i f i e d b y t h e g e s t u r e of h a n d i n q i t , t o

t h e b o x e r or t h e r e a d e r . While t h e c u p appears t o be

s u p e r i m p o s e d i n t h e f o r e g r o u n d of t h e s p a t i a l l a y o u t - a s coming

o u t of t h e a d t o w a r d s t h e r e a d e r - i t is p r e s e n t e d u p w a r d s

towards t h e boxer. However, t h e f i n a l s i g n i f i e d of t h e p r o d u c t

s i g n ( t h e ? C U D ) iz c o m p l e t e d b y t h e g e n e r a l i z e d s ' y o u w of t h e
 c a p t i o n a n d by t h e p h a t i c f u n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d by t h e eye c o n t a c t

o f t h e p e o p l e i n t h e p h o t o q r a p h l o o k i n g o u t of t h e a d t o t h e

reader ( t h i s e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n t a c t between t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e

ad a n d t h e r e a d e r ) . The r e u 3 r 4 o f h a r d work, s i q n i f i e d by t h e

handed cup, is o f f e r e d t o t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r ,

A t h i r d c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t s i g n meaning i s

i d e n t i f i a b l e i n t h e a c t u a l product image s i g n s e l e c t e d , t h e

s p o r t s journalism code of t h e photograph and t h e s p o r t s jargon

e m p l o y e d i n t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e c a p t i o n , T h e c u p s e l e c t e d for

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t is o f t h e type i n w h i c h b e e r i s

issued a t l i v e sporting events. T h e b e e r company s p o n s o r i n g t h e

e v e n t a n d s u p p l y i n g d r a u g h t b e e r a t t h e e v e n t w i l l sometimes
-
have t h e pro3uct l a b e l appearing on t h e dispensatory cups. This

- cues t h e readersg experience of l i v e s p o r t s spectating. The

p h o t o g r a p h of t h e p o s e d t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n o f t h e b o x e r is n o t

u n l i k e t h o s e a p p e a r i n g i n t h e e d i t o r i a l p a g e s o f Sgegrg

-----------
Illustrated and a g a i n p l a c e s t h e r e a d e r i n a r e f e r e n t systam o f

s p o r t s ' s p e c t a t o r s h i p or coverage. T h e p h r a s e s "Heart And

CourageM a n d "Go The D i s t a n c e w are s p o r t s commentary c l i c h e s

w h i c h a s s u a e f o r t h e r e a d e r a c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t of s p o r t s

media c o v e r a g e e x p e r i e n c e d i n r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n decoding.

T h e s e s i j n i f i e r s a l l a s s o c i a t e t h e p r o d u c t n i t h t h e common

l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t i n s p o r t s c o v e r a g e or n e w s w h i c h is w h a t

draws t h e readership of Sjmrts &&&gU.gyg&gd t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n a s

a definable audience. Thus, o n t h e one h a n d , sudweiser is t h e

beer t h a t a c t i v e champions d r i n k and t h e reader p o s i t i v e l y

r e g a r d s such select r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e product. On t h o o t h e r

hand, t h o s e who e n j o y t h e s ? e c t a c l e of b o x i n g a n 3 s p e c t a t o r

s p o r t s i n g e n e r a l a r ? t h e m s e l v e s a d d r e s s e d by t h e a ? a s a

totemic l i f e s t y l e g r o u p whoze c o n s u m e r b e h a v i o u r s i n c l u d e b e s r

d r i n k i n g a n d t h e r e a d i n g o f S m y t s I l l u s t r a t s g ( b a s e d on m a r k e t

d e f i n i t i o n s o f " R a a v y Male Beer D r i n k e r J * l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t s a n d

media s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s ) . T h i s r e f e r e n t system of s p o r t s

s p e c t a t i n g safely r e m a i n s w i t h i n a f o r m a t o f o p e n n e s s , g i v e n t h e

n a t i o n a l mass a u d i e n c e i n t e r e s t i n s p o r t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

Taken a s a p a r t i c u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n a l f o r m a t w i t h i n t h e

systsm o f magazine a d v e r t i s i n g l a y o u t designs, t h i s cd i s o n e o f

a series o f f i v e a d s with similar s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s of

a d v o r k p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t S u d w e i s e r beer i n t h o s a m p l e

period. The o n l y s i g n i f i e r s t h a t change throughout t h i s series

a r e those i n t h e photograph and t h e f i r s t halves of t h e written

texts. I n ' f a r m i n g 1 t h e r e a d e r is p r o v i d e d w i t h the p h o t o g r a p h

o f t w o q r a i n f a r m e r s who h a v e f i n i s h e d w o r k o n t h e f i e l d s , a n d

the caption reads, " f o r E v e r y o n e Who B r i n g s I n T h e B a r v e s t . . . " .

Tho ad t e x t ' l o g g i n g ' c o n t a i n s a p h o t o g r a p h of f o u r l o g g e r s w i t h

a l l t h e i r e q u i p m e n t t a k i n g a b r e a k f r o m work and r e a d s , " F o r

E v e r y o n e Who C u t s T h e B i g J o b s Down T o S i z e . . . " , 'Ranching'

b e g i n s w i t h t h e p h r a s e " F o r E v e r y o n e Who S t a n d s H i s G r o u n d F r o m

S u n u p T o Sundown..." a n d i s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a p h o t o g r a p h o f two

cowboys a n d a h o r s e a t t h e e n d o f a d a y ' s work, 'Steelworkers*

p r e s e n t s a p h o t o g r a p h o f t w o s t e e l w o r k e r s s t a n d i n g beside a

l o a d e d c r a n o hook on a h i g h r i s e b e i n g b u i l t a n d t h e w r i t t e n t e x t
runs, " F o r E v e r y o n e Who's ? l o v i n g U s Up I n T h e World...". I n ?ach

o f t h e s e a d s i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e g e n e r a l i z e d r e a d e r would

h a v e a n y d i f r i c u l t y i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e work s c e n e s . Similarly,

t h e captions d i r e c t an unproblematic, general contextualization

o f t h e s e wr3ndomu s n a p s h o t s of t h e a m e r i c a n i n d u s t r i a l h e a r t l a n d

and its workars a s unsung h2roes. 3 n th2 basis o f a r e a d i n g

c o m p e t e n c e b u i l t u p o n i n t e r t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e t o a l l five a d s i n

t h e series, t h e s p o r t s r e f e r e n t s y s t e m o f ' b o x i n g 9 may v e r y well

h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y t h a t of a f i r e m a n ' s w o r k (a r e f e r e n c e m a d e

i n a Miller b e e r t e l e v i s i o n c o m ~ e r c i a lb a s e d o n s i i n i l a r ,

'real-life' d e p i c t i o n s o f t h e American work-reward thsme), The

c o l l e c t i v e a n d f i n a l m e s s a g e of t h e a d p h o t o g r a p h s is t h a t o f a

generalized tribute t o the blue-collar worker. I n each c a s e , t h e

p h o t o g r a p h is l i n k e d t o t h e p r o d u c t b y t h e f i n a l " T h i s 3ud*s For

Youw c a p t i o n a n d t h e h a n d e d o r t o a s t i n g b o t t l e o r c u p

superimposed over t h e photograph, which c e n t e r s t h e c o n n o t a t ~ d

s i g n i f i e d s ( r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e d s ) o n t o t h e product, In a l l th2

a d s of t h i s s e r i e s t h e c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e i s e m p l o y e d i n t h e

matching of t h e brown b o t t l e or c o l o u r e d l a b e l w i t h t h e c o l o u r

t o n e s of t h e photographic s i g n i f i e r s (usually t h e people).

A t t h e l e v e l of p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s t o media systems

outside of t h e advertising discourse, t h e s e a d s commonly r e f s r ,

through a photographic code, to a form o f j o u r n s l i s t i c

p h o t o g r a p h y t h a t i s Bore e t h n o g r a p h i c i n n a t u r e t h a n s e n s a t i o n a l

i n its d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f American l i f e . T h i s g ~ a t t e r - o f - f a c t ' or

'real-life' photographic d i s c o u r s e c a n be found i n such

p u b l i c 3 t i o n s a s Npg~4gsk o r Lkfg. The d i s c o u r s e / r e f e r e n t system

of American l i f e r e v i e w j o u r n a l i s m , as opposed t o standard

a d v e r t i s i n g photographs i n v o l v i n g models, sets, a n d t h e u s u a l

fantastic situations, connotes both a u t h o r i t a t i v e comaentary and

a u t h e n t i c social c o n t e x t s d e p i c t e d . T h e s e t t i n g s a r e a c t u a l work

e n v i r o n m e n t s and t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d are, i n f a c t , boxers,

ranchers, farmers, l o g g e r s a n d s t e e l w o r k e r s who, for one reason

or another, deserve o u r a t t e n t i o n f o r t h e i r r o l e i n s o c i e t y .
These p r o f e s s i o n l l s do not display t h e product, b u t r a t h e r are

i n t h e p r o c e s s o f j u s t f i n i s h i n g work. The photograph d o e s n o t

o f f e r t h e scenes o f w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e w o r k . The visual

representation of t h 2 a c t i v i t y deoicted suggests merely t h a t

these a r e c e r t a i n t y p e s o f w o r k e r s who a r e i n w o r k e n v i r o n m e n t s .

These people, a s t h e o b j e c t s of t h e p h o t o g r a p h s , sre t o be t a k e n

a s s y m b o l s o f work i t s e l f , i n p e r h a p s its most e x h a u s t i n g forms,

T h u s t h i s p h o t o - j o u r n a l i s t i c c o d a o p e r a t i o n a l i z e s t h e mode o f

a d d r e s s o f t h e msssage i n which t h e s i g n i f y i n g photograph

d e s e r v s s a t t e n t i o n o r r e s p e c t by t h e r e a d e r , based on

i n t e r t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r news media c o d e s , but does not

refer t o a n y s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t s t h a t r e p o r t o r t a l l a s t o r y a b o u t

real s o c i a l events.
T h e s t r u c t u r a l o p e n n e s s o f t h e s e ad t e x t s f o r t h e

g e n e r a l i z e d r e a d e r i s founded, a s well, by i n t e r t e x t u a l

r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r a d v e r t i s i n g t e x t s w i t h similar work-reward

themes (almost a l l being used i n t h e s e l l i n g of beer). In

magazine, r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n a d v e r t i s i n g messages, both
r
f

Anheuser-Pusch a n d Miller h a v e p r e s e n t e d t h e i r s t a n d a r d b e e r

p r o d u c t s ( M i l l e r a n d Budweiser) i n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l adwork

s t r u c t u r e s with paradigmatic references to every imaginable

s c e n e o f A m e r i c a n work l i f e ( f r o m f a c t o r y w o r k e r s , to s k i
patrolmen, t o t h e musicians producinq t h e advertising jingles).

As w e l l , tne m e d i a v e h i c l e s c a r r y i n g t h i s t y p e o f a d h a v e r a n g e d

f r o m 'Monday Night Football', t o F.M. r a d i o proqramming, to

----
Ebony magazine. I n many c a s e s , t h e r e f e r e n c e 3 t o w o r k s i t u a t i o n s

i n t h e s e a d s are n o t based on audience i n t e r e s t s defined through

m e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s ( w h i c h c o u l d b e said o f 'boxing'),

b u t r e l y u p o n t h e g e n e r a l t h e m e o f work i n i t s r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d

v a r i o u s examples. The redundancy o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e x t u a l

s t r u c t u r e and its u s u a l r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s , communicated t o t h e

mass m a r k e t t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s e g m e n t s a n 3 m e d i a , h a s
i n almost eight years, a s s u r e d a n o p e n , u n p r o b l e m a t i c r e a d i n g of

its meaning. Host r e a d e r s w i l l h a v e a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c e d t h i s

a d w o r k s t r u c t u r e b e f o r e h a v i n g d g c o d e d i t i n S ~ q r t gh l l g g t r p t e d

during t h e sample period.

T h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e c o n t e n t a n d f o r m o f a d s i n t h i s

series w i t h a d s f o r s u p e r p r e m i u m b e e r s ( M i c h e l o b and Lowenbrau)

do suggest a d i f f e r e n c e i n l i f e s t y l e referencds connected with

t h e t a r g e t i n g t o more o r l e s s a f f l u e n t g r o u p s i n t h e " H e a v y Hale

Eeer D r i n k e r n m a r k a t . It c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t 3 u d w e i s e r a d s e m p l o y

olue-collar o r i e n t e d work-reward references while qichelob ads

u s e more s p e c i f i c l i f e s t y l e r e f e r e n c e s i n c u e i n g t h e m i d d l e t o

upper income groups. The p o i n t is, however, that within t h e

encoder's definition of t h e massive lower t o middl2 income b e e r

market, t h e a d s u s e d d e n y a n y s u b s t a n t i a l s p e c i f i c i t y i n t h e way

t h e a d v 2 r t i s e r c o n c e p t u a l i z e s an3 d i r e c t s meaning t o t h i s market

through t h e d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e segments. The images of

hard-working A m e r i c a n p e o p l l c a n b e a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e blue

-collar and w h i t e - c o l l a r readers alike. A s well, se~mt~

gllgs&gated, a s a m e d i a s s q m s n t , h a s n e v e r b e e n t h o u g h t of a s a

blue-collar publication.

T h e a d w o r k s t r u c t u r e of t h i s a d v e r t i s e m e n t i s m o r e

s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y complex i n its a s s o c i a t i o n s t o t h e product

B u d w e i s e r t h a n w h a t t h e r e a d e r e n c o u n t e r s i n t h e p r e v i o u s &mc~&g

-----------
Illustrated ads. Yet, its semantic v a l u e s remain a t t h e l e v e l of

surfaca generalities. T h e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s of a c t o r / r a c i n g c a r

d r i v e r P a u l Newman, racers Bobby a n d A 1 U n s e r , a n d t h s t h r e e

p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e r a c i n g c a r s o p e r a t e a s c o n n o t a t i v e

signifiers. The product image ( t h e t e r m i n a l p o i n t o f t h e f i n a l

c o n n o t a t i v e meaning o f t h e message) a p p e a r s on t h e s e d e n o t a t i v e

s i g n i f i e r s i n s t e a d of b e i n g g r a p h i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d . The r e a d e r

d o e s n o t see t h e a c t u a l p r o d u c t b u t o n l y t h e c r o s t e d l a b e l o n

t h e r a c e r s f j a c k e t s a n d t h e name o n t h e c a r s . T h e f i n e l e t t e r e d

w r i t t e n t e x t p r o v i d e s a l i t e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e "Newman

Can-Am T e a m ' s n w i n n i n g r e c o r d f o r 1 9 8 1 a n d o p e r a t e s w i t h t h e

racers a n d c a r s a s c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s .
 T h e c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s of t h e r a c e r s , t h e c a r s and

t h e i r t r a c k s t a t i s t i c s a r e s i g n i f i e d by t h e t e x t , "Here's To T h e

Newman Can-Am Teamw. T h e c o l l o q u i a l p h r a s e v v h e r e ' s t o w i s

u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e E n g l i s h l a n q u a q e t o be t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a

t o a s t o r n e s s a g e of p r a i s e t o s o m e o n e o r s o m e t h i n g . In the
c o n t e x t o f t h i s a 3 w o r k t h e r e n d e r i s d i r e c t e d t~ s h a r e i n t h e

praise o r t o a s t of t h e cars, d r i v e r s a n d w i n n i n g r e c o r d of t h e

Can-Am Taam. "Here's t o q v s t a t e s an a c c o m p l i s h m e n t t h a t i s

r e n d e r e d e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e f o r t h e r e a d e r s of SggrLg

-----------
Illustrated who may n o t know a n y t h i n g a b o u t c a r r a c i n g

specifically, The w r i t t e n t e x t l i t e r a l l y i n f o r m s t h e r e a d e r of

t h e s p o r t s news m s a n i n g of t h e c o n n o t e d s i g n i f i e r s .

To t h e s p o r t s r e a d e r , t h e B u d w e i s e r name on t h e j a c k e t s o f

t h e d r i v e r s and t h e c a r s , and t h e list o f t h e t e a m ' s

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n f o u r r a c e s a r e i n d e x i c a l s i g n i f i e r s of t h e s i g n

'money s p e n t by 3 u d w e i s e r i n t h e s p o r t o f c a r r a c i n g ' , The

s e l e c t i o n o f Newman, A 1 a n d Bobby U n s e r f u r t h e r s i g n i f y t h e

n o t i o n t h a t S u d w e i s e r h a v e e n l i s t e d t h e s p o r t ' s most g l a m o r o u s

a n d f a m o u s c e l e b r i t y r a c e r s f o r i t s cars. T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e

phrase - " t h i s buds' f o r youv*- s i g n i f i e s t h a t b o t h t h e cars, t h e

d r i v e r s and t h e i r s t a t e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and t h e product

B u d w e i s e r a r e f o r the r e a d e r s * / s p e c t a t o r s ' consumption. A l l the

c o m p o n e n t p a r t s of t h t team ( d r i v e r s a n d c a r s ) a r e l a b e l l e d w i t h

t h e b r a n d name, thereby suggesting an analogic o r continuous

t r a n s f e r o f t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t s a m t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e brand.
b which t h e fragmented c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s are s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y
tT.
c o n n e c t e d by t h e o v e r a l l c o l o u r c o d i n g o f t h e message. T h e b l u e

h o r i z o n a n d g r o u n d c o n t a i n w i t h i n t h e s p a c e b e t w e e n them t h e r e d

and whits c l a d d r i v e r s , the white written text, and t h e red and

white racing cars. Red, white and b l u e a r e t h e Budweiser product

l a b e l c o l o u r s and t h e s e objects , so c o l o u r e d i n t h e l a y o u t ,

c o l l e c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e p r o d u c t emblems.

As w e l l , t h e c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e s e t s t h e c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r of

Newman a p a r t f r o m t h e o t h e r d r i v e r s i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n of s o m e

t y p e of opposition. For t h e general reader, Newman i s p e h a p s t h e

wost e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d p e r s o n a l i t y among t h e three d r i v e r s a n d

h a s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Hollywood g l a m o u r t h a t t h e o t h e r two

d r i v e r s d o n o t convey. The w r i t t e n t e x t r e f e r s t o t h e Budweiser

r a c i n g t e a % a s t h e "Newman Can-Am Teamw, T h e r e a d e r s d r a w n to

-S ~----
o r t s-----------
Illustrated a r e g e n e r a l i z e d s p o r t s e n t h u s i a s t s who, as a
c o l l e c t i v e audience, are perhaps not as knowledgeable i n t h e
3 i s c o u r s e o f car r a c i n g a s t h e r e a d e r s o f , f o r i n s t a n c e , gig god
o r Cgg pnd Q r i v e g a r e . T h e p r e s t i g e i m a g e o f Hewman a s a
r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r a l l o w s f o r a more o p e n a n d u n m i s t a k a b l e

c o n n o t a t i o n of t h e f i n a l product sign. Eis c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e

a c t u a l s u c c e s s e s o f t h e r a c i n g team a r e p r o b a b l y n o w h e r e a s

g r e a t a s t h o s e of B o b b y a n d A 1 U n s e r , but, as a symbol t h a t h a s

v a l u e i n t n e i n t e r d i s c o u r s e between s p o r t s and popular media, h e

provides an e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d and r e c a l l e d aszociation for t h e

product sign. I n t h i s way, t h e advertisement encoder p l a n s for

maximum i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c e l e b r i t i e s , not

j u s t i n t h e system of c a r racing, b u t i n t h e d i s c o u r s e of

n a t i o n a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s s u c h a s t h o s e d e p i c t e d i n L3g32Lg

magazine. T h e s p e c i f i c i t y o f t h a r a c i n g d i s c o u r s e g i v e s way t o

t h e more o p e n c o d i n g o f t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f famous p e o p l e a n d

products.

I n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e a d i n terms o f i t s i n t e r t e x t u a l

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s y s t e m of p r o d u c t p r o m o t i o n s , it is w o r t h

n o t i n g t h a t b r a n d s p o n s o r s h i p o f s p o r t i n g e v e n t s is c o n t i n u a l l y

growing, The s p o r t s s p e c t a t o r 2 n c o u n t e r s p r o d u c t promotions n o t

s i m p l y i n commercial i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f programming o r i n award

presentations, b u t o n t h e c l o t h e s a t h e l z t e s wear a n d o n t h e

vehicles they drive, T h e t y p e of p r o d u c t a s s o c i a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s

p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d are commonplace i n t h e s d i t o r i a l m a t e r i a l s

of s p o r t s c o v e r a g e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s

-S e----
o r t s -----------
Illustrated a n d ?port m a g a z i n e s h a v e d i s c u s s e d s p o r t f r o a

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f s p o n s o r s h i p by b r a n d p r o m o t i o n . I n t h i s way,

t h e m a s s s p o r t s a u d i e n c e i s b e c o m i n g f a m i l i a r w i t h a new

i n t e r d i s c u r s i v e formation based on p r o d u c t s and s p o r t s

competitors.

* B u d V s a t h e l e t e s w is a l i t e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e ? r o d u c t 9 s

a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e 3 i s c o u r s e o f s p o r t s progra%ming and s p o r t s

media a u 4 i e n c e segments. I n t h i s m e s s a g e t h e r e a d e r is i n f o r m e d
of the brand's s p o n s o r s h i ? o f t h e U.S. O l y m p i c Team, t h e 1 9 8 4

L o s A n g e l e s O l y m p i c G a m e s a n d c o v e r a g e of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l

Amateur A t h e l e t i c F e d e r a t i o n ' s W o r l d Cup C h a m p i o n s h i p s o n t h 9

E n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d Sport"5 Programming Network c a b l e t e l e v i s i o n

channels i n t h e United States. A l l t h e s e f a c t s are c o n t a i n e d

w i t h i n t h e w r i t t e n t e x t i n s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d English and, as

denotative signs, s i g n i f y t h e product image of t h e Budweissr

b o t t l e and accompanying s l o g a n "This Bud's F o r Y o u w . H o t o n l y is

t h e product signified, but the a c t i v i t y of sponsorship itself.

T h i s m e s s a g e is what a d v e r t i s e r s refer t o a s l l p r e - p r o m o t i o n w --
a d v e r t i s i n g a m e d i a c o v e r a g e o r l i v e e v e n t d u r i n g w h i c h t h e main

t h r u s t o f product promotion t a k e s place. Such a d s n o t o n l y

inform t h e a u d i e n c e o f t h e s e coming e v e n t s , but a l s o wrepare t h e

audience f o r t h e a d v e r t i s i n g and sponsorship messages t h a t they

w i l l receive i n viewing t h e s e events.

The w r i t t e n t e x t performs a c o n a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f a d i r e c t

imperative -- " w a t c h N t h e a t h e l e t e s c o m p e t e a n d "be s u r e t o t u n e

t o ESPNw. T h e r e f s r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s
l e a v e l i t t l e r o o a f o r s u g g e s t i o n or for t h e r e a d e r t o f i l l i n

meaning. T h e rea3er i s e v e n t o l d w h e r e a n d when t h e s p o r t s

e v e n t s t a k e p l a c e by t h e p a s s a g e , * * T e l e v i s e d L i v e F r o m Rome,

I t a l y S e p t e m b e r 4, 5 a n d 6 o n ESPN (Check y o u r l o c a l l i s t i n g s

for times)". T h e s e s i g n s r e c o n t e x t u a l i z e t h e manner i n which

"Budweiser s a l u t e s t h e world's greatest atheletes". The g e s t u r e

of a s a l u t e o r t r i b u t e is d i s ~ l a y e db y t h e h a n d h o l d i n g t h e

product sign of t h e bottle. Yet, through t h e written t e x t t h e

"Salutew becomes n o t a g e s t u r e o f a person h o l d i n g a drink, but

a g e s t u r e of c o m m e r c i a l s p o n s o r s h i p by a c o m p a n y d e f i n e d f o r t h e
r e a d e r as t h e means t h r o u g h which t h e s e e v e n t s and t h e c o u n t r y a s

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n them, a n d t h e i r c o v e r a g e by t h e m e d i a a r e made

possible. The written t e x t suggests an interdiscourse of actual

sporting events, m 3 d i a c o v e r a g e of t h e s e e v e n t s ( s y s t e m o f

s p o r t s media products) and t h e s p o n s o r s h i p involvements of

c o m p a n i e s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e p r e v i o u s two. I n 3n open w r i t t e n

t e x t u a l format, 'bud's a t h e l e t e s * is c o n c e p t u a l i z e d w i t h i n

s p o r t s m e d i a m a r k e t d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e a u d i e n c e -- m u c h t h e same

d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e o n w h i c h Sgomts f&lqstrpapg s e l l s

itself to advertisers. From t h i s s p e c i f i c i t y o f s e l e c t e d

referent systeas identified, i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s a d , n o r e so

t h a n a n y o t h e r i n t h e pmcxtg z & & g ~ t ~ p i g pAo r t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e ,

is e n c o d s d b y t h e m a r k e t i n g a n d a d v e r t i s i n g s t r u c t u r e w i t h a

s t r o n g media s*gmentation a p p r o a c h ( d e f i n i t i o n of s p o r t s

audience) i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t o t h e : @ H e a v y M a l e 'Ieer D r i n k e r H

market

The e a s i l y recognized slogan, " T h i s B u C a s For Y o u w , d o e s

n o t r e f e r s i m p l y t o t h e b o t t l e a s if i t i s f o r a n y o n e . Through

the written text, a n d p r e v i o u s p a r a d i g m a t i c and l i t e r a l

references, t*Rudu m e a n s s p o n s o r s h i p o f s p o r t s m e d i a a n d e v e n t s .

T h i s i s w h a t i s q t f o r * st h e r e a d e r , who i s most d e f i n i t e l y a

s p o r t s fan. A s well, t h e s l o g a n p e r f o r m s t h e f u n c t i o n of

r e c a l l i n ? p r e v i o u s commercial c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d a s s o c i a t i o n s

m a d e i n o t h e r d u j w 3 i s e r a d s of a l e s s s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e . Thus
t h e slogan b r i n g s 'bud's atheletesg i n l i n e with the brand's

o v e r a l l a d v e r t i s i n g e f f o r t s t o t h e "Heavy Hale B e e r D r i n k e r u

market.

d) 'the pitcher1

T h i s ad r e p r e s e n t s a t y p i c a l adwork s t r u c t u r e e m p l o y e d i n

t h e a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s f o r b e e r i n mass m a r k e t i n g c o n t e x t s ,

T h e s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s of t h e a d a r e few. The d e n o t a t i v e

s i g n s of t h e a d i n c l u d e t h e c a p t i o n * * t h i s b u d s g f o r y o u w , t h e

p r o d u c t emblem o n t h e p i t c h e r , t h e pitcher of beer, and t h e b a r

s e t t i n g (especially t h e beer tap). T h e p r o d u c t s i g n of t h e

p i t c h e r of beer l a b e l l e d M B u d w e i s e r w i s s i g n i f i e ? b y t h e c a p t i o n

w h i c h a d d r e s s e s t h e reader, once again, a s s g e n e r a l i z e d "youw,

T h i s c a p t i o n is s i g n i f i e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e rest o f t h e a d -
i t is s e t a p a r t s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y a s a d i s t i n c t s i g n i f y i n g e l e m e n t .
- b y t h e c o n t r a s t o f i t s b r i g h t w h i t e l e t t e r i n g from t h e s o f t ,

dominating, b r o w n i s h h u s of t h e r e m a i n i n g p h o t o g r a p h . The

c a p t i o n is i n t e n d e d t o r e s o n a t e f o r t h e r e a d e r w i t h p r e v i o u s l y

e n c o u n t e r e d c o n t e x t s of s l o g a n o p e r a t i o n s of m e a n i n g t r a n s f e r

and a d d r e s s s p e c i f i c s t i o n s of d e f i n i n g t h e " y o u w t h e b e e r is

" f o r n , I n t h i s a d t h e r e i s n o d u a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e w y o u f a

representing, for instance , e i t h e r a s t e 2 l w o r k s r or t h e

generalized reader. 'The pitcher' is a m b i g u o u s i n its

s i g n i f i c s n c e a n d makes no s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s t o knowledge t h e

a u d i e n c e m u s t s u p p l y i n decoding,
i
T h i s o p e n n e s s i s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e

barroom s c e n e a s a c o n n o t a t i v e s i ~ n i f i e r ,t h a t is o u t o f

photographic/visual focus. T h i s lack of definition of the sczne

p e r m i t s t h e r e a d e r t o insert whatevsr b a r s e t t i n g and p e o p l e h e

p r e f e r s f o r backqround l i f e s t y l e c o n t e n t s of t h e ad. It i s t h e
flowing beer tap, as t h e only part of t h e bar t h a t is c l e a r l y i n

focus, t h a t l i t e r a l l y and s y m b o l i c a l l y l i n k t h e b a r s e t t i n g w i t h

t h e beer. T h e s t r e a ~o f b e e r f r o m t h e t a p t o t h e J s B u d w e i s e r n

pitcher physically connect the tap, a s p a r t of t h e bar, with t h e

product sign. The c o l o u r c o d i n g t e c h n i q u e a s s o c i a t e s t h e r e d

handle of the tap, w i t h t h e p r o d u c t emblem o n t h e p i t c h e r , Brown

a n d g o l d e n c o l o u r h u e s make t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n t e n t s

of t h e p i t c h e r and t h e t a p and t h e rest o f t h e background bar.

T h i s technique-based v i s u a l c o d e e s t a b l i s h s a u n i t y o r harmony

among t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h t h r o u g h a n a e s t h e t i c

function. Taken a s a meaningful whole, t h e p h o t o g r a p h is

p l e a s i n g t o t h e e y e and n o t c o n 3 u s i v e t o e l e m e n t a l o r component

decoding by t h e r e a d e r . Thus, t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e ad i s l e s s

r e f e r e n t i a l t h a n it is a f f e c t i v e . Whether t h e photograph w i t h

its b l u r r e d background is i n t e n d e d t o s u g g e s t a dream-like frame

i n t o w h i c h t h e r e a d e r c a n ' f i l l i n 1 t h e a p p r o p r i 3 t e bar- roo^

friends an3 setting, or whother t h e photograph is s i s p l y t o b e

t a k e n a s a p l e a s i n g accompaniment t o t h e f a m i l i a r s l o g a n t h a t

resonates with already learned product associations, t h i s visual I

s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e ad is r e f e r e n t i a l l y n o n - s p e c i f i c and

performs most o f product a s s o c i a t i o n s i n syntagmatic sdvork

t r a n s f s r s p r o v i d e d b y t h e t o x t ( i . e., colour technique).

A l l t h r e e of t h e a d v e r t i s e m s n t s t h a t a p p e a r i n prpybqy f o r

t h e s a m p l e p e r i o d 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 8 2 a p p e a r a s well i n Spomrs
-----------
Illustrated. They a r e a n a l y z e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e o t h e r wHe3vy

Hale Beer D r i n k e r f a m a r k e t a d s i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e i f m e d i a

segment d e f i n i t i o n of t h e publication has guided t h e s e l e c t i o n

o f a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e n t a n d forai o f t h e a d s -- why t h e s e a n d n o t

o t h e r a d s a p p e a r i n g i n S g g t ~f l l u s t r a t e q h a v a b e e n c h o s e n t o

a p p e a r i n Plapbby. T h e f i r s t t w o a d s a n a l y z e i f a l l i n t o t h e

a d v e r t i s i n g c a t e g o r y o f g e n e r a l i ~ a g ea d v a r t i s i n g . Tho t h i r d a d

analysed performs a seasonal, traditional greeting

communication. I t s p r e s e n t a t i o n is, h o w e v e r , more t i e d t o a

d i r e c t b r a n d p r o m o t i o n message t h a n i s e v i d e n c e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s

two a d s .
The m a r k e t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between Anheuser-Busch and

l?J?ybby , d e f i n e d as a media segment, must be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e

encoding process of matching various brand markets with t h a

publication's readinq audience. Rnheuser-Buschls !fichelob and

nichelob Light brands a r e particularly prevalent i n the

a d v e r t i s i n g p a g e s of g l a y b o y i n e a c h e d i t i o n f o r t h e 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2

period, w h i l e o n l y a t o t a l o f f i v e Sudwt?iser b r a n d i n s e r t s c a n

be located. Anheuser-3usch1s reluctance t o advertise their

Budweiser brand i n prqybgy s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y d o n o t b e l i e v e t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n r e a c h s t h e c o r e demographic t a r q e t s of 3uAweiser's

market ( t h o s e less a i i l u e n t l o w e r -middle t o middle income

groups of 18-49 year o l d males). I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t

Anheuszr-3usch relies h e a v i l y on l i f e s t y l e f o r m a t a d v e r t i s i n q i n

c u e i n g a u d i e n c e 2 f o r t h o Michelob and Michelob L i g h t brands. The

Budweiser Olympic s p o n s o r s h i p a d v s r t i s e m e n t s t h a t appear i n

---
Playboy are primarily placed i n t h e publication i n order t o
a d d r e s s a n d e l i c i t f u n d s from t h e m o r e a f f l u e n t w h i t e - c o l l a r ,

audience while not conflicting with t h e successful l i f e s t y l e

a d v e r t i s i n g c a m p a i g n of n i c h e l o b . T h e company d o e s n o t w i s h t o

confuse t h i s well-defined a n d s u i t a b l e m a r k e t f o r R i c h e l o b by

i n t r o d u c i n g a n o t h e r b r a n d to them t h a t would i n e v i t a b l y c o m p e t e

a g a i n s t Michelob. Similarly, the Christmas greeting

advertisement employs t h e Clydesdale horses i n a non-lifestyle

f o r m a t t h a t s y m b o l i z e s more t h e Anheuser-Busch t r a d i t i o n than

a c t u a l l y s i g n i f y i n g a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e B u d v e i s e r b r a n d o r its

drinkers. I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e s e g&gy&py B u d w e i s e r 3 d s , the

M i c h e l o b a d s d o f o c u s on more s p e c i f i c l i f e s t y l e , user-centered

i m a g e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e m i d d l e t o u p p e r i n c o m e g r o u p s (see

f i g u r e 9, 'the riders*).

a) ' h o c k e y s r t ' a n d ' j a s k e t b a l l a r t *

' H o c k e y a r t 4 i s one o f a s e r i e s o f b r a n d s p o n s o r s h i p

m e s s a g e s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n an i n d i r e c t p r o m o t i o n o f t h e

3 u ? w c i s z r ? r o d u c t image. Most of t h e s y n t a g m a t i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e
w r i t t e n t e x t i n t e r n a l l y refer t o t h e d e n o t a t i v e s i q n - p h r a s e ,

' s e n d y o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o s u p p o r t o u r U.S. Olympic a t h e l e t e s l .

T h e b o d y o f t h e w r i t t e n t e x t on t h e l e f t h a n d s i d e o f t h e l a y o u t

d o m i n a t e s t h e a d a n d d i r ~ c t st h e m e a n i n g of t h e v i s u a l

p h o t o g r a p h i c s i g n o n t h e r i ~ h ts i d e o f t h e l a y o u t . The

denot3tive signs/connotative signifiers of the ad include the

p h o t o q r a ~ ho f t h e p a i n t i n q a n d h o c k e y p l a y e r E r u z i o n e , t h e

s t a t e m e n t of h i s a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , t h e B u d w e i s e r O l y m p i c emblem

a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t of t h e s p o n s o r s h i p p r o p o s i t i o n . These

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s are p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o r e f e r e n t

systems ext2rnal to t h e internal ad structure. The t e r m i n a l

p o i n t o f t h e s e s i g n s 1 c o n n o t a t i v e m e a n i n g i s i n t h e a d s i g n of

t h e B u d w e i s e r O l y m p i c emblem a n d t h e U. S. O l y m p i c Committee

emblem, whose c o n t i g u o u s v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n (one s i t u a t e d

b e s i d e t h e o t h e r w i t h m 8 u d w e i s e r n b e s i d e E r u z i o n e and h i s a r t

product) a r e t o be t a k e n a s o n e .

The c o n n o t a t i o n a l s i g n i f i e d s which s t r u c t u r e t h i s f i n a l

meaning i n c l u d e Eruzione8s f a c i a l expression and posture, his

p a i n t c o v e r e d s t i c k a n d skates, a n d t h e c o n c e p t s of t * a r t i s t r y l s

an3 ' v i c t o r y o v e r t h e Russians1, and Eruzionegs words quoted i n

the written text.

Eruzionels stance i n front of the paintinq refers the

r e a d e r t o the d i s c o u r s e of c o n t e m p o r a r y a r t a n d a r t i s t i c

i n t e n t i o n a n d is i n d e x i c a l of t h e w o r k t h e a r t i s t h a s u n d e r g o n e

i n t h e s k i l l f u l p l a n of t h e p a i n t i n g . The p a i n t i n g i t s e l f

r e p r e s e n t s a n example of a b s t r a c t expressionism, i n opposition

t o other artistic stylez, which e q u i p s t h e creator u i t h a

p e c u l i a r t y p e of a r t i s t i c l i c e n s e t h a t l e a d s t o i t s d i s t i n c t i v e

form. H. H. Arnason, 3n art historian, provides us with a

convenient definition of t h i s technique:

These paintings, g e n e r a l l y executed on a l a r g e canvas

l a i d o u t o n t h e f l o o r , a r e t h 2 w o r k s most p o p u l a r l y
a s s o c i a t e d u i t h t h e p h r a s e , a c t i o n p a i n t i n g . I t was
never t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h o critic Harold Hosenberg, i n
c o i n i n g t h e p h r a s e , t o i m p l y t h a t a c t i o n p a i n t i n g was a
k i n d o f a t h e l 2 t i c e x s r c i s e . Nor i s i t t r u e t h a t t h e
f u r i o u s a n d s e e m i n g l y h a p h a z a r d s c a t t e r i n g of p a i n t
involved a c o m p l s t e l y uncontrolled, i n t u i t i v e act. There
is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t , i n t h e p a i n t i n g s o f P o l l o c k a n d
many o f t h e o t h e r a b s t r a c t e x p r e s s i o n i s t s , t h e e l e m e n t
of i n t u i t i o n o r t h e a c c i d e n t a l p l a y s a l a r g e a n d
d e l i b e r a t e p a r t ; t h i s i s o n e of t h e p r i n c i p l e
c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f a b s t r a c t e x p r e s s i o n i s m . However,
nothing t h a t an experienced and accomplishel a r t i s t does
can be completely accidental.2

T h e f o l l o w i n g ad ' b a s k e t b a l l a r t y a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e s

photoqraphs of t h e production of a p a i n t i n g which a d h e r e s to t h e

a c t i o n p a i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e ( s e e f i g u r e 11, 'action art*). I n

'hockey a r t * t h i s is s i g n i f i e d by t h e p a i n t o n t h e s t i c k a n d

s k a t e s a n d by t h ? w r i t t e n a f f i r m a t i o n o f E r u z i o n e a s a r t i s t . T o

t h e general reader, t h i s p a i n t i n ? may b e t h o u g h t of a s t h e

haphazard s c a t t e r i n g o f p a i n t i n a n 'anything goes' art style.

S u c h a n u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d ( i n t e r n s o f a r t a p p r a i s a l ) d e c o d i n g of

t h e a r t p r o c e s s is s u g g e s t e d b y Z r u z i o n e l s s m i r k i n g e x p r e s s i o n

a n d b i z a r r e s e l e c t i o n of a r t i s t i c t o o l s ( i . e . , s k a t e s and

stick). As well, E r u z i o n e l s heavy-handed statement of a r t i s t i c

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , " P i c a s s o m a d e many p a i n t i n g s , but there's only

o n e E r u z i o n e w , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e ad i s n o t o f c o u r s e , addressing
1

t h e au,li?nce as s e r i o u s a r t enthusiasts. The ad s i g n i f i e s t h e

p a i n t i n g and its c r e a t i o n i n a g r o s s l y p o p u l a r i z e d v e r s i o n o f

what Arnsson h a s d e s c r i b e d , but t h e concept of t h e p a i n t i n q a s a

legitimate . 'valuable' s y m b o l i c o b j e c t is r e t a i n e d b y t h e

m e t a p h o r i c p a r a l l e l i s m t h e ad p r o d u c e s o f 'hockey

artistry/painting artistry*,

T h e s o c i a l value of t h e p a i n t i n g and its p r o d u c t i o n is

t a k e n o u t o f the d i s c o u r s e o f a r t and is r e s i g n i f i e d , through

aduork, within t h e d i s c o u r s e s of s p o r t and n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y i n

competition, T h e r e a d e r i s i m p e l l e d t o p u r c h a s e t h e p a i n t i n g by

t h e ad's reference to t h e discourse of n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y i n

sports, T h e U.S, g o l d m e t a l i n h o c k e y is d e s c r i b e d b y i t s

victory over t h e Russians, t h e U.S.*s most f o r m i d a b l e p o l i t i c a l

and s p o r t s opponents i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l competition. Reference t o

these discourses further re-contextualizes t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of

t h e photograph and p a i n t e r , and accomplishes t h e f i n a l meanings

of B u d w e i s e r ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o O l y m p i c s p o n s o r s h i p , The

l i t h o g r a p h s or p o s t e r s become e m b l e m a t i c of B u d w e i s e r ' s

e n t e r t a i n i n g approach to t h e brand*s/consumer's support of

American Olympic a t h e l e t e s .

T h e ' b a s k e t b a l l a r t * ad o p e r a t e s t h r o u g h a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l

s y n t a g m a t i c an3 p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s , one difference concerns

t h e d i s c o u r s e o f p a s t Olympic v i c t o r i e s which i d e n t i f i e s a i l 1

R u s s e l l a s a r e f e r e n t symbol. Here, t h e a d e n c o d e r h a 3 c h o s e n a

r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f s p o r t s e v e n t s t h a t d a t e s back

t o t h e o l y m p i c s of 1 9 5 6 , Yet, a s i n t h e ' h o c k e y a r t * a d , t h e
r e a d e r d o e s n o t h a v e t o d o t h e * w o r k w of s u p p l y i n g knowledge
a b o u t wh3t a c t u a l l y took p l a c e -- the written t2xt quite

l i t e r a l l y r e p r o d u c e s most o f t h e f a c t s a n d t h e s p o r t s d r a m a it

r e f e r s t h e reader to i n brand/sponsorship product associations.

A t the level of syntagmatic connections, the three

p h o t o g r a p h s of R i l l R u s s e l l e n g a g e d i n " a c t i o n paintingw further

f a c i l i t a t e t h e t r a n s f e r of m e a n i n q b e t w e e n t h e p a i n t i n g a n d

R u s s e l 1 8 s production of it (between t h e photograph a t t h e bottom

and t h e text). These photographs f u r t h e r add to t h e authentic

v a l u e of t h e p a i n t i n g a n d t h e h u m o u r o u s i n c i d e n c ~o f i t s

p r o d u c t i o n ( R u s s e l l is c o v e r e d i n p a i n t a n d a p p e a r s t o h a v e

t r o u b l e d r i b b l i n g t h e b a l l on p a i n t ) , I n t h e s e c o n d of t h e

diagonally descendinq photographs t h e product l a b e l appears i n

back of 2ussell. T h i s s i g n i f i e s t h a t R u s s e l l h a s be211

c o m m i s s i o n e d b y ~ ~ B u d u e i s ea rn ~d l i n k s t h e ' b e f o r e an3 aftera

s e q u e n c e p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e p r o d u c t s i g n ( t h e p a i n t i n g / bran3

name). I n t h i s ad t h e Eudweiser l a b e l , a n d t h e 3 u d u e i s e r Olympic

emblema o p e r a t e a s t h e p r o d u c t s i g n s a t t h e l e v e l o f d e n o t a t i o n .

T h e y a r e t h e most r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t e r m i n a l p o i n t s for t h e

i n v e s t m e n t o f m e a n i n g a t t h e l e v e l of c o n n o t a t i o n g e n e r a t e d b y

the written text, The ad l a y o u t s o f ' b a s k e t b a l l a r t 8 sn? ' h o c k e y

art* r e l y heavily on printed t e x t and use literal statements o f

h i s t o r i c a l context to connote the painting, its p r o d u c t i o n and

t h e message of s p o n s o r s h i p -- t h e a d r e p r o d u c e s its oun r e f e r e n t

systems, T h e s e l e c t e d s p o r t s c e l e b r i t y r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s of

Russell and Eruzione i n t h i s message d o not, a s well, require

d e c o d i n g knowledge o f t h e s p e c i f i c h i s t o r i c a l or t e c h n i c a l
aspects of t h e s p o r t s discourse. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s e

a t h e l e t e s and t h e i r p a i n t i n g s are open t o a l l r s a d e r s for t h e

f i n a l s i g n a s s o c i a t i o n of B u d w e i s e r a n d i t s p o s i t i v e

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o American s p o r t s .

S e c a u s % t h e s e a d s a p p e a r i n b o t h Spm$s I&lgsrgnaed a n d

g&ay&by, a n d b e c a u s e t h e y s e l e c t a s p o r t s h i s t o r y a n d

s p o n s o r s h i p r e f e r e n t s y s t e m ( s p o r t s i s p e r h a p s t h e s a f e s t common

d e n o m i n a t o r f o r c u e i n g t h e " H e a v y Male Beer D r i n k e r w m a r k e t ) ,

t h e media segmentation i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a d s matching t h e

s p e c i f i c e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t a n d form o f elpykby seem less

important. The c o n c e p t of Olympic s p o r t s s p o n s o r s h i p i n 'hockey

a r t * a n d ' b a s k e t b a l l s r t ' is p a r t of a n o v e r a l l m a r k e t i n q
c a m p a i g n t h a t co!nes t o f u l l f r u i t i o n i n t h e t h e h u n d r e 3 s o f

h o u r s o f O l y m p i c s p o r t s t e l e v i s i o n c o v e r a g e a d v e r t i s i n g i n 1384.

Approximately h a l f o f a l l Anheuser-Busch's p r i n t a d v e r t i s i n g for

Budweiser, 3ichelo5, and nichelob Light bear t h e bran3sg Olyxpic

s p o n s o r s h i p e m b l e m a n 3 t h e s t a t e m e n t , " p r o u d s p o n s o r of t h e 1 9 8 4

O l y m p i c Team" ( s e e a g a i n P i y u r e s 1-5, 9). 'Hockey a r t ' a n d

'basketball a r t * c o n s t r u c t a s e a n i n y s y s t e m or p r e d i s p o s e d

i n t e r t s x t u a l c o m p e t e n c e f o r t h e male mass a u d i e n c e w h i c h , based

upon t h e open c o d e s a n d r e f e r e n c e s to t h e s p o r t 3 d i s c o u r s e ~ o s t

often found i n beer advertising, produces the e f f e c t of

r e s o n a n c e when v i s u a l l y c o m m u n i c a t i n q t h e emblem i n o t h e r

non-sports o r i e n t e d l i f e s t y l e ads. Such generalized sponsorship

image c o n n o t a t i o n s are n o t attempted i n t h e market segment a d s

of t h i s s a m p l e a s we s h a l l se? s h o r t l y .
b) 'season's qreetinqs'

I n t h ? l a s t f i v e ye2rs t h i s ad h a s a p p e a r s a w i t h s l i g h t

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n f & g y b g y , Smcxtp I&&ys&gqagg 3 n d ,

before t h e sample period, i n zp&lj.gg S t p ~ gm a g a z i n e s . The

f u n d a m e n t a l r e f e r e n t s y s t e m o f a l l t h e s e B u d w e i s e r a d s is t h s t

o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e r i t u a l s t h a t s u r r o u n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of

Chistmas. The c o n n o t a t i o n s drawn f r o n t h i s r e f e r e n t s y s t e m are

r i t u a l l y and symbolically s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a l l audiences -- the

r e f e r e n c e t o C h r i s t m a s seems t o c u t a c r o s s a n d c o m e i n t o u s e i n

a l l c u l t u r a l g r o u p and consumsr community f o r m a t i o n s o f

p r e d o m i n a n t l y C h r i s t i a n societies. I n t h i s sense it coaes into

s e a s o n a l u s e i n ad messages w i t h few media segment o r market

based v a r i a t i o n s of its tradition-oriented themes.

In 'season's greeting', t h e photograph denotes an o l d

S u d w e i s e r b e e r wagon t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e b e e r a n d a c h i s t m a s tree.

Within t h e i n t e r t e x t u a l frame of t h e reader's sxperience with

beer advertising, t h e C l y d e s d a l e h o r s e s a n d r e d B u d w e i s e r wagon

c o n n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l emblem o f A n h a u s e r - B u s c h .

T h e i m a g e h a s b e e n used f o r t h e S u d w e i s e r b r a n d (the brewery's

l o n g e s t s e l l i n g brand) f o r decades and its presence i n t h i s ad

s i g n i f i e s old-time tradition, b o t h i n a d v e r t i s i n g an>d i n t h e way

beer u s e d t o b e t r a n s p o r t e d . T h e Christmas t r e e o n t o p o f t h e

wagon f u r t h e r s i g n i f i e s t h i s r e f e r e n c e t o o l d - t i m e t r a d i t i o n by

s u g g e s t i n g t h a t p e o p l e ussd t o t a k e home t r e a s f o r t h e s a m e
r i t u a l p u r D o s e t h e y 30 t o d a y -- t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e s h a r e d

meanings o f a s o c i e t y an? its b e l i e f systems. The p h a t i c

f u n c t i o n t h i s b r o a d c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e message r e n d e r s - a
u n i t y o r a l l p e o p l e who a c k n o w l e d g e t h e h o l i d a y a s a s p a c i a l

time - d o e s n o t i m p l i c a t e t h e r e a d e r by m e m b e r s h i p o f a n y

s p e c i f i c s o c i a l group, The p r i n t e d c a p t i o n e c h o e s t h i s

connotated signified, f u r t h e r providing f o r t h e a d ' s open

coding, with t h e words, " T a k e Home A H o l i d a y T r a d i t i o n w . T h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e tree, a s a symbol of t h e h o l i d a y , is b e i n g

" t a k e n homen a l o n g w i t h a n a m p l e s u p p l y o f b e e r r e f r e s h m e n t s ,

The c o n t i g u o u s contsinment of t h e s i g n i f i e r s b e e r and tree on

t h e wagon d i r e c t s t h e r e a d e r t o see a n e s s e n t i a l s i m i l a r i t y

b e t w e e n t h e tree a s a r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e d (tradition of

Christmas) and t h e product s i g n i f i e d Budweiser beer i n a

metaphoric trsnsformation of t h e product's meaning i n t h e f i n a l

s i g n o f t h e ad. T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f meaning i s f a c i l a t e d by

t h e c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e i n t h a t t h e c a p t i o n i n red m a t c h s t h e r e d

B u d w e i s e r wagon (the product signifier).

It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e a d v e r t i s i n g e n c o d e r i n t e n d s t h i s

message a s a n e m o t i o n a l s t i m u l u s i n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o

communicate t o t h e market/audience segaent through particular,

predisposed, lifestyle/habitual media use r e f e r e n c e s , In fine

p r i n t a t t h e t o p o f t h e ad t h e m a r k e t s r s f o r Budweiser o f f e r t h e

photograph a l o n e a s a purchaseable 17 x 4 0 " colour poster, By

doing so, they are assuming t h a t , t o t h e r e a j e r s of Sgprts

-----------
Illustrated a n d P&hy&by, t h e v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n of 'season's
greetings' i s p l e a s i n q t o t h e ey2, or, i n f a c t , c o n s t i t u t e s a r t .

It is u n l i k e l y t h a t ownership o f t h i s p o s t e r o r t h e a r t p i e c e s

i n 'hockey a r t * and ' b a s k e t o a l l a r t a s i g n i f y any p a r t i c u l a r set

of cultural values o r spscific l i f e s t y l e preferences. The

p o s t e r s 20 s i g n i f y t o t e m i c g r o u p o r e f e r e n c e s o f b e e r b r a n d i n

t h e i r n e w h o u s e h o l d c o n t e x t of s e s s a q e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . As

c u l t u r a l a r t e f a c t s a s s o c i a t e d with Budweiser's modes of a d d r e s s

t o t h e s e media segments, these p i e c e s ' artistic styles

( C h r i s t m a s c a r d 3rt a n d a b s t r a c t e x p r e s s i o n i s r e ) r e p r e s e n t

d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l t a s t e s o f t h e mass m e d i a m a r k e t . Instead,

t h e s e p o s t e r s a r e t o b e t a k e n a s totemic o b j e c t s s i g n i f y i n g

p r o d u c t a f f i l i a t i o n s a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s p o n s o r s h i p of

s p o r t i n n a t i o n a l i s t terms. T h e y a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f a g r o w i n g

a a r k e t i n g t r e n d t o f i l l t h e w o r l d o f t h e mass c o n s u m e r ' s

c o l l e c t i o n o f everyday goods and o b j e c t s w i t h t h i n g s b e a r i n q t h e

Budweiser l a b e l . most l i f e s t y l e a d v e r t i s i n g b r a n 3 s ( c i g a r e t t e s
an3 b e e r i n p a r t i c u l a r ) o f f e r p r o d u c t s s u c h a s c l o t h i n g , s p o r t s

e q u i p m e n t a n d " a r t c o l l e c t i o n s ~i n w h i c h t h e c o n s u m e r c a n

identify t o others h i s choice of lifestyle/brand associations.

T h e s e B u d w e i s e r t h i n g s r e s o n a t e w i t h t h e mass c u l t u r a l

d e f i n i t i o n s o f what 'Budweiser b r i n g s t o y o u 9 ( s e e f i g u r e 14,

'Bud p r o d u c t s ' ) .
 T h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e s a ~ p l ee x h i b i t s w h a t I b e l i e v e t o b e

t h e d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u e n c e o n a d v e r t i s i n g f o r m a n d c o n t e n t of t h e

e d i t o r i a l form a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e c a r r y i n g p u b l i c a t i o n . YQ& &pa

i s t h e most t y p i c a l of w h a t t h e a d v e r t i s i n g i n - i u s t r y c a l l s

" l i f e s t y l e magazinesgf i n t h i s s t u d y ' s sample s e l e c t i o n from

different publicstions. &ore t h a n a n y o t h e r y o u t h m a r k e t

p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e sample, Hi& go?l~ e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t i s

c o n s c i o u s l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e r e a d e r s * conrnon i n t e r e s t i n h i g h

performance v e h i c l e s and t h e i r r a c i n g competitiveness,

maintenance, and design, S e l d o m do o t h e r a d v e r t i s e r s r e f e r t h i s

r e a d i n g a u d i e n c e t o s t a n d a r d y o u t h m a r k ? t a? p r a s e n t a t i o n s a n d

a s s o c i a t i o n s o f youth entertainment "tie-insff i n signifying

t h e i r products. Host of t h e a d s i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n p e r t a i n t o

t h e i n t e r e s t i n a u t o m o t i v e p a r t s a n d more M r a t i o n a l - i n f o r m a t i o n "

a n d " p r o d u c t q u a l i t y w a s s o c i a t i o n s i n c h o s e n i m a g e r y (see f i g u r e I
15, ' a u t o m o t i v e a p p e a l q ) . A l l c o - o p n ad j o i n t l y ~ r o z o t i n g

B u d w e i s e r beer a n d Q u a k e r S t a t e m o t o r o i l e x h i b i t s t h e m a r r i a g e

of S u d w e i s e r * ~o v e r a l l g e n e r a l i m a g e mode o f a d d r e s s w i t h t h e

" p r o d u c t q u a l i t y w t y p e of a p p e a l c o m a o n i n Z u a k e r S t a t e a d s ( s e e I
I
f i g u r e 15, ' Q u a k e r S t a t e a n d 3 u d 1 ) . 3 Budweiser advertisement
p r e s e n t a t i o n s h a v e f o c u s e d upon t h e p u b l i c a t i o n ' s priqary

audience segment reading i n t e r e s t -- high performance vehicles.

This i s t h e c a s e f o r a l l b u t o n e o f t h e a d s a n a l y z e d h e r e . The

o u t s t a n d i n g ad, a s we s h a l l s e a , i s p r e s e n t e d i n a v e r y

a m b i g u o u s r e f e r e n t i a l c o n c e p t u a f i z a t i o n much t h e same a s ' t h e

pitcher*. Overall, Uudwsiser t a k d s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d segementation

approach i n developing t h e rand's i m a g e , not only f o r the

audience segment of @t Rod, b u t f o r t h e w h o l e m a r k e t of h i g h

performance racing enthusiasts/spectators i n marketing and

a d v e r t i s i n g "tie-inf' promotions r e l a t e d t o t h e 3 p o n s o r s h i p of

e v e n t s a n d c o m p e t i t o r s (see f i g u r s 1 7 , ' e d i t o r i a l pages*). I n

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s mass m a r k e t i n g a ? p r o a c h e s a n d t h e

o t h e r a d v e r t i s i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o t h e y o u t h market which f o l l o w

t h o s e of Hq& god i n t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e o v e r a l l B u d w e i s z r S r a n d
i m a g e i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d by t h e a d s a s e m b l e m s o f t h e r a c i n g

community ( r e a d e r s / spectators). Budweiser b r a n d b e e r becomes,

w h a t K l i n e d e f i n e s a s a " t o t e m o b j e c t n w h i c h forms t h e " b a s i s o f

symbolic r e l a t i o n upon which a l l o t h e r s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e

d e f i n e d t h r o u g h m e i u b e r ~ h i p . ~ *I n t h e * B u d u e i s e r K i n g 1 a d t h a t

f o l l o w s and i n t h e Budweiser Kina ' t - s h i r t * ad, t h e marketing

e n c o d e r a t t e a p t s t o d e f i n e t h e terms o f m e m b e r s h i p i n a t o t e m

g r o u p by t h e u s e o f r e s t r i c t i v e c o d e s o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r a n d

social r e l a t i o n s within t h e group and i n opposition t o o t h e r

l i f e s t y l e t o t e m g r o u p s ( i . e., d e f i n e d by b e e r b r a n d , clothing,

m a c h o v a l u e s of t h e w 5 u d w e i s r r K i n g R a c i n g Team" m e m b e r ) .
 The s y n t a q m a t i c s t r u c t u r i n g o f 'Budweiser Kingg e v o l v e s

a r o u n d a s i m i l a r m a r k e t i n g c o n c e p t a s is p r e s e n t e d i n ' h o c k e y

a r t ' a n d ' b a s k e t b a l l a r t g . What v a r i e s i s t h e mode o f a d d r e s s t o

a m o r e well d e f i n e d a u d i e n c e , T h e p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s o f

c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s i n ' B u d w ~ i s e rKing1 t o e x t e r n a l r e f e r e n t

s y s t e m s are s p e c i f i c w i t h i n t h e model r e a d e r s 8 s x t r a t e x t u a l

i n t e r e s t and c o m p e t e n c e i n t h e l i f e s t y l e d i s c o u r s e t h a t

s u r r o u n d s t h e h i g h performance r a c i n g s p e c t a c l e . The photographs

of t h e c a r a n d p e r s o n b e l o w d e n o t e , f o r t h e r e a d e r o f N p t got, a

"funny car" class v e h i c l e l e a v i n g t h e s t a r t i n g l i n e , the

s p o n s o r s h i p o f t h e c a r by the b r a n d name f l B u d w e i s e r " o n t h e c a r ,

a n d t h e d r i v e r o f t h e car s i g n i f i e d b y t h e h e l d h e l m e t w i t h t h e

n a m e n 8 u d w e i s e r Kingf* o n i t . T h e s e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s o p e r a t e a s

r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s o f t h e d i s c u r s i v e system of high performance

vehicle racing based i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r e x t r a t e x t u a l competencies

o f t h e m o d e l r e a d e r (i.e,, common frames o f h a v i n g t a l k e d 3 b o u t

a n d e x p e r i e n c e d s u c h r a c e s a n d i n t e r t e x t u a l frames b u i l t u p i n

the reading of &it god, Bpmd qnQ Tlqck a n d t e l e v i s i o n s p o r t s

media c o v e r a g e ) , The "funny carw s t a r t , w i t h i n t h e r e f e r e n t

s y s t e m o f r a c i n g cars, c o n n o t e s t h e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l rnosent o f t h e

most p o w e r f u l car i n r a c i n g ' s t e s t of p e r f o r m a n c e , R a c e s a r e won

o r lost at the s t a r t i n t h i s racing class. The "funny c a r w i s

t h e e m b l e m i n America o f t h e h o t r o d c o m m u n i t y , T h e emblem o f

B u d w e i s e r on t h e h o o d o f t h e c a r s u g g e s t s b o t h t h e n o t i o n s o f
product sign. Tha words "3uiweiser Kingn ( t h e name o f t h e c a r )

and "This B u d l s F o r YouH o n t h e r e a r " s p o i l e r H o f t h e c a r a r e

paradigmatically l i n k e d to t h e productls long standing slogan i n

ad messages, This encourages 3 r e s o n a n c e of p r e v i o u s a d

meanings. The p o s t u r e and f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e d r i v e r

c o n n o t e t o t h e HqA god r e a d e r t h a t h e is p o s i n g , p e r h a p s a f t e r
t h e race d i s p l a y e d a b o v e . The t - s h i r t h e wears i s t h e same

o f f e r e d i n 'ltearn m e m b e r s h i p t 1 a n d t h e h e l m e t h e c a r r i e s c o n n o t e s

p a r t of t h e r a c i n g e q u i p m e n t w h o s e s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t r a n s f e r r e d

to t h e s i g n of t h e t-shirt i n a c o n t i g u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e

smaller p h o t o g r a p h . T h e c o n n o t a t i o n a l s i g n o f b e i n g a m e m b e r of

t h e team ( b y o w n i n g / w e a r i n g the t - s h i r t ) t r a n s f e r s its meaning

t o t h e a c t i o n p h o t o g r a p h of t h e c a r t h r o u g h t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f

the written text. T h e l a r g e r c a r p h o t o g r a p h e n c l o s e s t h e smaller

p h o t o g r a p h of t h e d r i v e r , The l a r g e r v i s u a l d e p i c t i o n o f

a c t i v i t y l i t e r a l l y frames o r i n c l u d e s t h e d r i v e r and, of course,

the t-shirt worn. I n t h i s literal framing of t h e t - s h i r t by t h e

a c t i o n s h o t a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d r i v e r i s w e a r i n g it, t h e

t-shirt becomes p a r t o f t h e a c t i v i t y o f d r a y - r a c i n g . The

"Budweiser Kingw p r i n t o n t h e t - s h i r t refers t h e r e a d e r t o t h e

w B u d w e i s e r K i n g 1 * p r i n t o n t h e c a r i n a n o p e r a t i o n of l i t e r a l

similarity -- t h e car and t - s h i r t a r e two o b j e c t s w i t h t h e same

significance.

The ? 3 B u d w e i s e r K i n g M c a p t i o n a t t h e h e a d of t h e p a g e

d e n o t e s t h e car i n t h e p a s s a g e t h a t accompanies t h e photograph

and c o n n o t e s t h e marketrng sloqsn, '*Budweiser, t h e king of

beers". The r e d a n d w h i t e o f t h e c a p t i o n is c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h

t h e c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e t o t h e c3r a s a s y m b o l o f t h e r a c i n g

community. The f i n e r p r i n t d e n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f i e s what i s

e n t a i l e d i n a n d what o n e r e c e i v e s from n e m b e r s h i p i n t h e

n 5 u d w e i s e r K i n g M e r c u r y L N 7 M o t o c r a f t R a c i n g Teamia. T h e o p e n i n g

phrase, "Now y o u c a n j o i n . . . " c o n n o t e s a time r e f e r e n c e o f

' b e f o r e y o u were u n a b l e t t o b e a member o f ths a c t i v i t y

s i g n i f i e d by t h e p h o t o g r a p h e s , b u t now B u d w e i s e r h a s a l l o w e d

f o r your e n t r y i n t o t h i s l i f e s t y l e g r o u p a c t i v i t y (of r a c i n g ) ,

3y purchasing t h e t - s h i r t , o f f i c i a l s p o n s o r decals, tzam b u t t o n ,

newsletter, a c t i o n p o s t e r and car photo - a l l included with

membership - t h e r e a d e r is p r o m i s e d a n i d e n t i t y w i t h i n t h e

r a c i n g l i f e s t y l e group. T h e s e p u r c h a s e a b l e items a r e f o r d i s p l a y

and s u g g e s t a f u r t h e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f g r o u p membership around

t h e t o t e m i c s i g n o f t h e B u d w e i s e r b r a n d name. This racing

p a r a p h e r n a l i a becomes a c u l t u r a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

l i f e s t y l e c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e c o m m u n i t y 05 c a r e n t h u s i a s t s a n d t h e

p r o d u c t i m a g e o f B u d w e i s e r whose m a r k e t e r s c o m p e t e a g a i n s t o t h e r

b r e w e r i e s a n d p r o d u c t name r a c i n g s p o n s o r s , As w e l l , t h e ad's

w r i t t e n t e x t e x p l a i n s t h a t mezibers a n d non-members may e n t e r i n

a c o n t e s t t h a t i n c l u d e s two p r i z e s o f a l l - e x p e n s e p a i d t r i p s t o
major d r a g - r a c e s where t h e c o n t e s t a n t works a s a p a r t o f t h e p i t

crew. T h i s f u r t h e r s i g n i f i e s t h e e n c o d e r ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of
t h e m o d e l r e a d e r a s one who w i s h e s t o b e p a r t o f t h e a c t i v i t y

s i g n i f i e d by t h e a c t i o n p h o t o g r a p h o i t h e c a r . I t is, of c o u r s e ,
u n l i k e l y t h a t t h s a d e n c o d e r s f o r a u d w e i s e r wou14i p r + s e n t s u c h

a n o f f e r i n E l p y b ~ yo r & l & i g q Stpqg m a g a z i n e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s .

There are r e f e r e n t s i q n i f i e r s i n t h i s advertisement other

t h a n j u s t those b e l o n g i n g t o t h i s d i s c o u r s e of h i g h peformance

r a c i n g a n d 3 u d w e i s e r ' s o v e r a l l p r o m o t i o n s ( o t h e r ads, r a c i n g a s

3 "tie-inu activity). T h 2 term l * B s e f y - T w t h a t d e s c r i b e s t h e

t-shirt c o l l o q u i a l l y expresses t h e n o t i o n o f "macho" power

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s p o r t of d r a g - r a c i n g . I n the s e p a r a t e ad,

't-shirt8, a woman, nude from t h e t - s h i r t down, m o d e l s t h e

"Beefy-T:* (see f i g u r e 19, ' B e e f y-T8). Her g e s t u r e i s s i m i l a r t o

t h o s e of m o d e l s i n " g i r l i e t q m a g a z i n e s . This female p i c t o r i a l

d i s c o u r s e is c o m m o n l p b o r r o w e d by e n c o d e r s t o a d v e r t i z e

s p e c i a l t y c a r p a r t s i n m a g a z i n e s s u c h a s jig: agd a n d i s , a s

well, a common i m a g e o n a u t o m o t i v e c o m p a n y c a l e n d e r s ( s e e f i g u r e

20, 'sexy p a r t s g ) . T h e i m a g e of t h e woman c o n n o t e s a n

i n t e r t e x t u a l r e a d i n g competence of t h e model r e a d e r ' s habitual

m e d i a u s e of t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s a n d c u e s a common frame

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n i n s o c i a l v a l u e s (i.e., macho m a l e ) p e r t a i n i n g t o

i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n and judgement. These s o x i s t s o c i a l

v a l u e s a r e c o n n o t e d i n t h e a t t e m p t t o c u e t h e s ~ e c i f i ca u d i e n c e

s e g m e n t o f Hpt Jtpd a n d a r e common, through i n t e r t e x t u a l

r e f e r e n c e to o t h e r ads i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n , but are not exhibited

i n o t h e r p a r a d i q m a t i c r e l a t i o n s of o t h e r S u d w e i s e r a d s i n o t h e r

publications.
 T h e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s of t h i s a d c o n s i s t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d

photograph o f t h e hyjropl3ne boat, t h e p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e crew

working on t h e boat, t h e product image o f t h e audweiser c a n and

t h e mug, and t h e f i n e p r i n t c a p t i o n a t t h e b o t t o n o f t h e page.

The c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a c t i o n p h o t o g r a p h of the

hydroplane performs a similar r e f e r e n t i a l function as did the

a c t i o n photograph i n *Budweiser Kinga, The speeding hydroplane

cues, as a symbolic referent, t h e reader's interest i n high

performance racing within t h e r e f e r e n t system o f boat types. The

p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e crew s e r v i c i n g t h e boat c o n n o t e s i n l i e x i c a l l y

t h e n e c h a n i c a l work a n d e x p e r t i s e t h a t is r e q u i r o 3 i n making t h e

hydroplane performance competetive, The image connotes a

documentary, action s p o r t s coverage for@ i n its photographic

coding t h a t invites, t h r o u g h t h e s h o t a n g l e and c l o s e - u p

perspective, t h e r e a d e r t o a l ~ o s tj o i n w i t h t h e crew i n

s u r v e y i n j t h e e n g i n e i n s e a r c h o f a p o s s i b l e inech3nical f a i l u r e .

Again, t h e crew a r e a l l w e a r i n g B u d w e i s e r b r a n d embleqs t h a t

i d e n t i f y t h e m a s m e m b e r s o f a tesm. T h e p h o t o g r a p h of t h e

p r o d u c t i s p o s i t i o n e d r i g h t n e x t t o t h e p h o t o g r a p h of the crew.

These two photographs are both i n s h a r p f o c u s and are connected

by t h i s s i a i l a r i t y i n v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , while tha speeding

h y d r o p l a n e p h o t o g r a p h is more g r a i n y , thus suggesting a

s e c o n d a r y a s s o c i a t i o n o f p e r h a ? s a time l a p s e ( f u t u r e m m e n t ) o r

d r e a m l i k e i m a g e ( t h e e n v i s i o n e d m o m ~ n to f t h e t e s t i n g o f a l l t h e
m e c h a n i c a l work t h a t i s g o i n g o n ) . T h e two smaller p h o t o g r a p h s

are s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d i n c l o s e s p a t i a l p r o x i a i t y an3

c o n n o t e t h e s i g n i f i e d ' t h i s p o u r e d b e e r i s f o r t h o s e who h a v e

w o r k e d h a r d t o make t h e h y d r o p l a n e p e r f o r m ' . The c o l o u r

t e c h n i q u e f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n s t h e b o n d of t h e t w o s m a l l e r

photographs through resemblance of t h e boat's c o l o u r and w h i t e

uniforms t o t h e brand l a b e l c o l o u r s , The p e o p l e i n t h e w h i t e

uniforms present t h e r e f e r e n t s i g n of mechanical e x p e r t i s e i n

t h e system o f high performance r a c i n g and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y are

a l l concerned with and assembled around t h e engine connotes a

n o t i o n of c o m m u n i t y i n t e r e s t ( i n m e c h a n i c s ) w h i c h i s , a s well,

t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e product-sign, T h i s o b j e c t of t h o p h o t o g r a g h

is s e l e c t e d w i t h t h e Hi& Rpd r e a d e r i n mind a n d would be o f E a r

l e s s e r i n t e r e s t t o t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r who may o n l y e n j o y t h e

action element i n t h e racing spectacle.

T h e p r i n t e d t e x t l*MissB u d ' s f o r youH o p e r a t e s i n

s i g n i f y i n g a d u a l c o n n o t a t i v e meaning. The p h r a s e r e f e r s t h e

r e a d e r t o t h e p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e b o a t a n d t h e crew w o r k i n g o n t h e

boat, and s i g n i f i e s Budweiser's s p o n s o r s h i p o f t h e 1980 n a t i o n a l

champion h y d r o p l a n e a n d its e x c e l l e n t r e c o r d . The p o s i t i o n i n g o f

the c a p t i o n b e s i d e t h e p r o d u c t s i g n p h o t o g r a p h s n d t h e

p h o t o g r a p h of t h e m a i n t e n a n c e c r n w p r o v i d e s f o r a n a m b i q u o u s

r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e e l e m e n t s b a s e d on t h e l i n g u i s t i c p u n i n

"Miss B u d ' s f o r y o u w . T h e p h r a s e ' I t h i s B u d ' s f o r you1* i s t h e

brand's s l o g a n and, is w h a t r e s o n a t e s , t h r o u g h s i m i l a r i t y , in

the reader's m i n d w h e n e n c o u n t e r i n g t h e "Flissq' i n t h i s a d ' s

 slogan. The d u a l meaning c r e a t e d by t h i s p l a y on words or

grammatical tampering, s y n t a g m a t i c s l l y associates t h e p r o d u c t

image and t h e n o t i o n o f sponsorship of t h e hydroplane s p e c t a c l e

f o r "youw, t h e reader. A s well, it r e f e r s t h e r e a d e r t o t h e

system o f Rudweiser promotional slogans. It n a t u r a l i z e s t h e

well-known s l o q s n by a l l o w i n g t h e r 2 a d e r t o p i c k u p o n t h e

o b v i o u s s p e l l i n q m i s t a k e of glMissw
instead of 'this'.

T h e c a p t i o n lwilissB u d ' s f o r you1' c o n t e x t u a l i z e s b o t h t h e

phatic and r e f e r e n t i a l contact function with t h e reader. This

p h r a s e a s s u m e s a m o d e of a d d r e s s t h a t t h e male r e a d e r , i n

r e f e r r i n g t o h i s c o m m o n frame e x p e r i e n c 2 , is s u p p o s e d t o

i d e n t i f y a s o n e man t a l k i n g t o a n o t h e r f r i e n d a b o u t a woinan. The

- a d e m p l o y s a c o l l o q u i a l e x p r e s s i o n b a s e d u p o n a r e f e r r e d male

tendency t o personify machinery and e s p e c i a l l y v e h i c l e s i n t h e

-
female g e n d e r . I n t h i s sense t h e slogan performs a structured

cross-reference of t h e d i s c o u r s e of h i g h p e r f o r m a n c e v e h i c l e s

and t h e s e x i s t male s o c i a l values and t h e informal i n t e r a c t i o n

a m o n g wales.

I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c a s t o t h e d i s c o u r s e of

performance v e h i c l e mechanics and r a c i n g (the e d i t o r i a l f o c u s of

---
Hot ---
Rod) a r e l e s s s p e c i f i c t h a n t h e way i n w h i c h t h e r e f e r r e d
d i s c o u r s e is u t i l i z e d i n ' B u d w e i s e r King*. The r a a d e r d o e s n o t

h a v e t o k n o w m u c h a b o u t t h e s p o r t of h y d r o p l a n e r a c i n g o r

m e c h a n i c s t o g r a s p t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e a d . The r e f e r e n c e t o

t h e d e f i n i t e l y male t e n d e n c y t o r e f e r t o t h i n g s a s women , as
well, w i l l p r o b a b l y g a i n u n p r o b l 2 m a t i c d e c o d i n g by t h e r e a d e r ,
 who m o s t l i k e l y i s a m a l e . Despite t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e open

t e x t u a l f o r m of t h i s a d , t h e r e is a n a s p e c t of t h e g r o u p - r e l a t e d

( t o t e m i c community o f h o t r o d d e r s ) s p e c i f i c i t y of the referent

s y s t e m s of t h e a 3 t h a t n s e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n -- how many

g e n e r a l i z e d r e a d e r s ( m a s s ~ e d i am a r k e t ) w o u l d f a v o u r a b l e d e c o d e

o r p r e f e r t h e i n t e r d i s c o u r s e of the r a c i n g s p e c t a c l e , mechanics,

and r e f e r r i n g to aachinery i n t h e female gender? I b e l i e v e t h a t

t h e d e n s i t i e s of r e l a t i o n s between t h e s e t h r s e r e f e r e n t systems

, a r e f e w f o r t h e a v e r a g ~ ! member of t h e t s H e a v y Hale Beer

D r i n k e r M m a r k e t a n d a r e e v e n fewer f o r m e m b e r s o f t h e " Y o u n g

A d u l t YaleM m a r k e t ( e . g . , c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ) when c u l t u r a l

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e cued. Yet, f o r t h e r e a d e r s o f gpg god, u h o

- a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r e f e r t h e o v e r l a p p i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e

p a r a d i g m a t i c s y s t e m s of r a c i n g a n d m e c h a n i c s , an i n t e r t e x t u a l

frame i s b u i l t u p f r o m r e a d i n g o t h e r a d s i n Hot god which

includes, a s well, t h e s e x i s t d i s c o u r s e , It i s a l s o b e l i e v e d ,

t h a t practiced conceptualizations of t h e s e d e n s i t i e s o f

r e f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s can b e f o u n d i n t h e common f r a m e

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e America c o m m u n i t y o f h o t r o d a e r s a n d t h e i r

s o c i a l v a l u e s i n communication, be t h e y p a r t of t h e 18-24 o r

18-49 d e m o g r a p h i c g r o u p s ,

c) ' t h i s i s B u d g

The ' t h i s is Buds is d e s i g n e d t o p e r f o r m t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

resonanca. T h e p r o d u c t s i g n is s i g n i f i e d i n t h i s a d by t h e
p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e h a n d r e a c h i n g i n t o t h e i c e d beer a n ? t h e

slogan, " t h i s Bud's f o r you". I n comparison with a l l t h e

a d v e r t i s s m e n t s t h a t h a v e bsen s t u d i e d t h u s f a r , the 'this is

Bud1 a d w o r k h a s fewer c o n t r i c u t i n q c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s a n 3

fewer s e p s r a t e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s i n i t s s t r u c t u r e . As

well, t h e p r i n t 2 d t z x t , which u s u a l l y c o n n e c t s several

connotative s i g n i f i e r s t o t h e s i g n i f i e d product, is rsduced t o

t h e elementary brand slogan and t h e beer label. T h i s ad t a x t ,

e v e n t h o u g h i t i s o n e of a s e r i e s o f m e s s a g e s t h 3 t h a v e h e l p e d

s h a p e t h e communication r e l a t i o n s h i p o f marketing encoders and

Aecoding markets/audiences f o r t h s brand's meaning, a i m s t o be

c o n s i d e r e d a s a c o a p l e t e message, a s a s y s t e m h 2 r m o n i o u s a t all

l e v e l s and f o r a l l functions. I n t h i s way t h ? a ? p z r f o r m s a n

a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n i n communication o f its meaning t o t h e

raader.

I n ' t h i s is B u d g , t h e p r i n t e d s l o g a n " T h i s B u d ' s F o r Youo

is a c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r t a k e n f r o m t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m of
s i g n i f i e d s t h a t t h i s s l o g a n h a s p r o d u c e d i n o t h e r B u d w e i s e r ads,

F o r t h e r e a d e r t h i s s l o g a n r e s o n a t e s w i t h s t o r e d meaninq f r o 3

h a v i n g v i e w e d it i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s o f adwork and p a r a d i g m a t i c

relations. T h e a m a l g a m of t h e s e d i f f e r e n t m e a n l n g s of t h e s l o g a n

a r e f r o z e n or n a t u r a l i z e d i n t o one, whose s i g n i f i c a n c e i s

transferred to t h e simpls photographic elements through a

complete metaphor of o n e system ( s l o q a n meaning) b e i n g s i m i l a r

t o another (the photograph as an a e s t h e t i c a l l y comolate

asseablage of elements). T h e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n e l e m e n t s o f the

p h o t o g r a p h a r e t h e h a n d a n d s e v e r a l c a n s o f ~ u d w e i s e rf l o a t i n g

o n ice. T h e s e e l e m e n t s a p p e a r n o t t o refer t o a n y social

d i s c o u r s e s o r c u l t u r a l i n f o r m 3 t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h e p r o d u c t form

and label, The s l o g a n r e f e r s t o t h e photograph a s i f t o s u g g e s t ,

literally, t h a t t h i s c a n o f S l e r i s b e i n g p u l l e d from t h e i c e

for t h e reader, The s l o q a n w i l l o n l y r e s o n a t e w i t h meaning t h e

r e a d e r h a s e x p e r i e n c e d from p r e v i o u s a d d e c o d i n g s . Tho s l o q a n

meanings a r e u s u a l l y i n s t r u c t u r e d a s s o c i a t i o n s with t h e product

image ( u s u a l l y a b o t t l e or c a n l a b e l ) . J u s t a s t h e r e a d e r is

i n v i t e d t o perform 3 s t r u c t u r e d r e c a l l of whatever product

m e a n i n g by t h e s l o g a n a s t h e c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r , so t h e hand

c h o o s e s w h a t e v e r c a n i n t h e i c e w h i c h is t h e p r o d u c t s i g n i n t h e

message, Both t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e s l o g a n (any o n e r e c a l l e d

s i g n i f i e d of p r e v i o u s B u d w e i s e r s l o g a n p o s i t i o n s i n a d w o r k ) a n d

t h e multiple product images i n t h e photograph open t h i s t e x t t o

w h i c h e v e r p r e f e r r e d r s a d i n g t h e d e c o d e r w i s h e s t o select,

The s e l e c t i o n t h e r e a d e r p a r t i c i p a t e s i n is r e s t r i c t e d to

t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m of B u d u e i s e r m e s s a g e s t h e ' t h i s is B u d ' ad

is p a r a d i g m a t i c a l l y a p a r t of. T h i s ad, presented i n a context

o f media s e g m e n t a t i o n , i s r e m a r k a b l y o p e n and n o n - s p e c i f i c i n

its r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s . Yet, c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e i s n o t t h e

o b j e c t i v e of t h i s a d , T h i s t y p e of g e n e r a l r e s o n a n c e a r o u n d the

p r o d u c t s i g n o p e r a t e s a s a most e f f e c t i v e a p p e a l t o t h i s

s p e c i f i c audience, who w i l l h a v e s e e n B u d w e i s e r a d s , b u t whose

c u l t u r a l p r z ? i s p o s i t i o n s may b e h a r d t o d e f i n e , 3s a group, and

r e p r e s e n t i n ads. T h i s a 3 o p e r a t e s i n ways similar t o t h e

g C h a n e l l a d i n w h i c h D e n e u v e s s face i s o m i t t e d a n d o n l y t h e

p e r f u i n e b o t t l e i s l e f t t o r e s o n a t e w i t h a s s o c i a t i o n s l e a r n e d by

the r e a d e r i n p r e v i o u s s p e c i f i c r e a d i n g c o n t e x t s ( ' C h a n e l ' ads

i n f a s h i o n magazines).

-4 . 2 . 2 - National -
La-
m g-o o n -R o l l i n- g S t o n e ---
-,-,, a n d &ngggeqqd

-- ------
Am~erssnd

T h e s e l a s t s e v e n a d s of t h e s a m p l e h a v e a l l b e e n p r e s e n t e d

i n National ~ Q P ~ Q ,
Bgl&&ng Stose a n d qg~gesand ~ a g a z i n e so n a

r o t a t i o n b a s i s f o r t h e s a m p l e p e r i o d o f 1981-1382. B e c a u s e of

t h i s r o t a t i o n m e d i a d i s t r i b u t i o n s t r a t e g y e f f e c t e d by t h e

advertiser, t h i s youth market subsample need n o t be

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by t h e media v e h i c l e s c a r r y i n g it. F r o 3 t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e o f a p r a g m a t i c semiotics t h a t a t t e m p t s t o l o o k a t

t h e m e s s a g e a s well a s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s o f s e n d i n g a n d

receiving, i t is u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e a d v e r t i s e r s of Eludweiser

conceptualize the readerships of these three publications a s s f 1 -

belonging to similar c u l t u r a l and social backgrounds (and one

market d e f i n i t i o n ) . T h i s assumption - based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

a d s do n o t change i n appearance from one magazine t o t h e n e x t -

i s of c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e , qivsn the closedness of their textual

f o r m which I s h a l l d e s c r i b e s h o r t l y .

T h e a d s i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e '*Young A d u l t B a l e f * s u b s a m p l e

s h a r e a commonness i n f o r q - o r i e n t e d adwork f o r m a t s and i n

s e l e c t i o n of i n t e r r e l a t e d paradiomatic systems brought i n t o

adwork t h r o u g h t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e messages. As
well, t h e s e a d s d o n o t e n c o d e a n y p r i n t e d s l o g a n s w h i c h d e m a n d

t h e a t t e n t i o n o f the r e a d e r a s s i q n i f i c a n t l y s e p a r a t e from t h e

photographic o r c o l l a g e s i g n s taken a s complete s i g n forms.

U n l i k e t h e rest of t h e budweiser brand a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , the

syntaqmatic relations of these seven ads i n v i t e t h e reader t o

e n t e r i n t o "hermeneutic" i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s while t h e paradigmatic,

r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s of t h e s e messages r e l y h e a v i l y on t h e i r

a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n s ( t h e whole a d s t r u c t u r e t a k e n a s a u n i f i e d ,

harmonious r e f e r e n t ) . Williamson provides a valuable d e f i n i t i o n

o f h e r m e n e u t i c s i n h e r own s p e c i f i c semiotic u s a g e :

By t h i s I s i m p l y m e a n i n t e r p r e t i n g , b u t i n t e r p r 2 t i n g i n
t h e s e n s e o f d e c i p h e r i n g a code, o r t r a n s l a t i n g from one
language t o another: it is a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n along g i v e n
c h a n n e l s , w h i c h l e a d a w a y frow t h e i n t e r p r e t e d o b j e c t ,
t o a ' ~ e a n i n g ' behind o r beyond i t - o r even ' i n s i d e *
it. 5

This encoding of a strict path of s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s t h e

d e c o d i n g r e a d e r must u n d e r g o i n a r r i v i n 3 a t a ' n e a n i n q beyond*,

*behindt o r 'inside' t h e a d aessage u s u a l l y t a k e s t h e f o r m o f a

p u z z l e o r j o k i n g r e l a t i o n i n w h i c h the r e a d e r m u s t s t o p a n d w o r k

out 3 lsolution'. Tho e x c l u s i o n o f p r o d u c t s , and t h e conative,

persuading r h e t o r i c of t h e advertising languaqe code, in

opposition t o t h e i r u s u a l abundance i n a d messages, p r o v i d e s the

r e a d e r with t h e impression t h a t he is d i s c o v e r i n g a hidden

m e a n i n g t h a t is a l r e a d y t h e r e , i n t h e message. The a d ' s

s t r u c t u r a l form reminds t h e r e a d e r t h a t a p u z z l e has o n l y one

s o l u t i o n o r m i s s i n g p i e c e a n d t h a t a j o k e h a s only o n e s t r i c t

l o g i c w h i c h m u s t b e f o l l o w e d i n o r d e r t o " g e t it*'. W h i l e p u z z l e s

i m p l y t h a t s o m e t h i n g s h o u l d b e t h e r e or * m e a n t g , j o k e s o f t e n
o m i t a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n two f r d m e s o f m e a n i n q o r s i g n s w h i c h ,

when d i s c o v e r e d , r e v e a l a n u n l i k e l y o r i m p o s s i b l e meaning behind

i t s c o n d e n s e d s u r f a c e meaning. 6 T h e r e is a meta-communication

i n communicated j o k e s and p u z z l e s t h a t t h e r e f e r e n t s o l u t i o n

(completed ?uzzle o r seeing t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y y e t t h e

i n t e r s e c t i o n o f two jokinq p l a n e s o f meaning) i s d e c i p h e r a b l e

from and o b t a i n a b l e i n t h e message, Such ad messages, employing

s y n t a g m a t i c joking or p u z z l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , requirs *conscious8

work f r o m t h e r e a d e r w i t h i n t h e p s r a r o e t e r s o f t h e t e x t u a l

processes -- t h e y a p p e a r t o n o t r e l y a s much o n c o n n o t e d

e x t r a t e x t u a l knowledge i n t h e i r s u r f a c e o p e r a t i o n s o f adwork.

T h e s i g n i f i e r s o f t h e p u z z l e a n d j o k e a p p e a r t o come f u l l y

e q u i p e d u i t h t h e i r own s i g n i f i e d s a n d t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e a d ' s

s i g n system l e a d s d i r e c t l y to a 'meaningful' r e a l i t y is c r e a t e d .

Uilliamson states t h a t i n d e c i p h e r i n g such ads,

we a r e c o n s t i t u t e d a s t h e d i s c o v e r e r s of m e a n i n g , a n d
a r e i n v o l v e d i n a ' c o n s c i o u s * a c t i v i t y which k e e p s u s
looking through a c e r t a i n opacity i n t h e signifying
process, t o a message beyond; t h u s a l t h o u g h involved i n
a hermeneutic and l i m i t e d 'deciphering', we o v e r l o o k t h e
s i g n i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s itself.'

I n terms o f Eco's t h e o r y of o p e n a n d c l o s e d t e x t s ,

Williamson is suggesting t h a t t h e hermeneutic advork provides an

i l l u s i o n o f c l o s e d n e s s which d i v e r t s t h e r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n away

from t h e a d ' s s i g n i f i c a n c e . Yet, s h e d o e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n

t h i s f i n a l significance as an 'i3eological' paradigmatic

r e l a t i o n i n s i g n i f i y i n g t h e product. She merely a s s e r t s t h a t t h e

r e a d e r has p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a ' f a l s e r e a l i t y ' which is imparted

t o t h e product, I t c o u l d be s a i d t h a t t h e p u z z l e o r j o k e e n a b l e s
t h e reader t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a pleasurable discovery (emotions
of h u m o u r a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t i n t h e d e c i p h e r m e n t ) t h u s m a k i n g

t h e p r o d u c t r e s o n a t e with t h e emotion produced. The a u d i e n c e ' s

r e a c t i o n t o t h e r e f e r e n t s l g n ( t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n of t h e joke o r
p u z z l e ) is t h e r e s u l t of h a v i n g p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a p e r s o n a l
realization -- an emotive function. I f t h i s is t r u e , t h e r e is
a n o t h e r l e v e l upon which ad t e x t s c a n u n d e r s t o o d ss b e more open
o r c l o s e d a n d , a s well, i d e o l o g i c a l ( i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
s e n s e o f t h e term).
Pun a n d j o k e s t r u c t u r e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a r e n o t f u n n y f o r
e v e r y o n e b u t d e p e n d o n a s h a r i n g of e x t r a t e x t u a l k n o w l e d g e
between t h e encoder and d e c o d e r f o r t h e f i n a l meaning of t h e
joke to be c o r r e c t l y i n t s r p r e t e d . If t h e conaensed s i g n i f i e r s of

t h e joke and t h e i r s i g n i f i e d meanings (taken a s a whole) d o n o t

coincide with t h e cultural predispositions of t h e audience, then
t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t is n o t a c h i e v e d . Hermeneutic processes of
t h e ad t h u s p e r f o r m a r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n ( c o g n i t i v e
association of s i g n s of t h e ad with external objects, c u l t u r a l
meaning) and a n e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n ( e x p r e s s a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s
t h e j o k i n g r e l a t i o n a s a sign, a f f e c t i v e i n c a u s i n g a n
expression o f emotion), If t h e r e f e r e n t i a l function within t h e
hermeneutic s t r u c t u r e does not properly cue t h e audience, the
e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n is l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e an u n f o r e s e e n r e s o n a n c e o r
no remembered s t i m u l i i n p r o d u c t a s s o c i a t i o n .

T h e y o u t h subsample is f o r a - o r i e n t e d i n another sense that

is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e h e r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r e a n d e m o t i v e a n d
 r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h a a d , An a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n d o m i n a t e s

t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e s e ad m e s s a g e s , The r e f e r e n t is t h e a d

message's uartisticv layout design (refers the reader t o an

! artistic style, t h u s rendering i t an o b j e c t of t h i s s t y l e

-r
system). I t is n o l o n g e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f some
F
r e a l i t y b e y o n d i t s e l f , b u t b e c o m e s i t s own r e f e r e n t . A s

message-objectslart-objects, w h o s e p h o t o g r a p h i c o r c o l l a g e s i g n

elements a r e harmoniously united, t h e s e a d s b e a r t h e i r own

meaning and belong t o a r e f e r r e d s e m i o t i c s of s t y l i z a t i o n . The

a d ' s a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r depends on its ambiguity and, a s Eco

p u t s it, o n t h e f a c t t h a t i t is l ~ s e l f - f o c u s i n g N . T
~ he ad a e s s a g e

f u n c t i o n s a s a m e a n i n g f u l whole.

-
- S e r s i o t i c . ~h a s u s e d t h e t h r e e d o m a i n s of s y n t a c t i c s ,

semantics and pragmatics i n t h e a n a l y s i s of art-objects.

-
- S y n t a c t i c s i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e problems o f r u l e s which govern t h e

art-object as a text. These s y n t a c t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n be

s t r i c t l y d e t e r m i n e d ( e . ~ . , i n t h time
~ of C l a s s i c i s m ) o r l e s s

restricting ( e mg., a b s t r a c t expressionism) -9 The meaning o f t h e

art-object or its semantic operations can be taken as its

immanent s e n s e , u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d with its value, o r as the

n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n of i t s r e f e r e n c e t o s o m e t h i n g e l s e . The

a n a l y s i s of t h e a d s u b s a m p l e a s s u m e s t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f t h e

art-object becoaes a s i g n w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r artistic s t y l e or

d i s c o u r s e of o b j e c t s a n d t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s e d i s c o u r s e s

d e m a n d of t h e v i e w e r a n a p p r a i s a l o f v a l u e ( c u l t u r s l l y b a s e d i n

audience predisposition). T h e s e m i o t i c s of a e s t h e t i c B e s s a g e s ,
from t h e p r a g m a t i c p o i n t o f view, h a s u s u a l l y tended t o examine
t h e work of a r t a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e a r t i s t ' s i n n e r l i f e a n d
p e r s p e c t i v e , T h i s is n o t t h e p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h t a k e n i n t h e
a n a l y s i s of t h e w a r t i s t i c " d e s i g n of a d m e s s 3 g e s i n t h i s
analysis, Instead, t h e art-object/layout design is seen as a n

i n t e n t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e a d e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r e a n d its
a p p r o p r i a t i o n of a r t i s t i c s t y l e s u p p l i e s t h e m e a n s ( c o d e s ) f o r
c u e i n g p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s of c o n s u m e r s .
A c r i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n o f s i g n p r o c e s s e s a r i s e s o u t of t h e

d o m i n a t i n g p r e s e n c e of t h e a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e s e a d s , E v e n
t h o u g h t h e s e * * a r t i s t i c 1 smessages d i s p l a y s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s a t
t h e s a a e time, t h e d o m i n a t i n g a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n - i n opposition
t o o t h e r message f u n c t i o n s - seems n o t a i m e d a t t h e f u l f i l l w e n t
o f a n y p r a c t i c a l t a s k of c o m m u n i c a t i n g c o n t e n t (e.g., product
information). T h e * * a r t i s t i c Hp r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s e a d s , in
effect, d i s a r m t h e reader i n , what P o l l a y d e s c r i b e s as, a
p r o c e s s t h a t " r e l i e s o n s i m p l e a s s o c i a t i o n , w h e r e a mood,
f e e l i n g , o r a f f e c t c o m m u n i c a t e d by t h e a r t s u r r o u n d s t h e
product, l i k e s o much s u g a r c o a t i n g o n a b i t t e r p i f l , N l o T h i s

u s e of a r t i n p r o d u c t p r e s e n t a t i o n s is a v e r y a p t e n c o d i n g
s t r a t e g y of s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n f o r t h e y o u t h a u d i e n c e
t h a t "does not respond i n a highly positive fashion t o
t r a d i t i o n a l ad a e s s a g e s . " E v e n so, t h e a d e n c o d e r c a n n o t s e l e c t
j u s t any a e s t h e t i c value (semantically s i g n i f i c a n t art s t y l e )
f o r cueing t h e youth audience becsuse i n a s o c i e t y t h e a e s t h e t i c
v a l u e is v a r i a b l e a n d i t i s c o n d i t i o n e d s o c i a l l y ( i t i s l e a r n e d

265
and s h a r e d w i t h i n groups). I n t h e example of t h e communication

o f a e s t h e t i c t e x t s (where t h i s f u n c t i o n dominates t h e message)

i n youth c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e media, an album cover, for

instance, w i l l have its s i q n i f y i n q e l e m e n t s a r r a n g e d i n a n

artistic layout design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a p a r t i c u l a r visual

g e n r e w h o s e s y n t a c t i c r u l e s of c o m b i n a t i o n h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d i n

c o u n t l e s s o t h e r a l b u m s f o r t h e same m o d e l c o n s u m e r / v i e w e r

( s i t u a t e d i n a s p e c i f i c musical taste and t h e r e f o r e a s s o c i a t d

v i s u a l taste market). C o m i n g from a s e m i o t i c a n d a e s t h e t i c

evaluation theory t h a t does not consider the comaercial

production aspect of t h e t e x t (in t h e sense developed here), Jan

Hukarovsky e x p l a i n s :

Not o n l y t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e a e s t h e t i c e v a l u a t i o n ,
but a l s o t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e objective a e s t h e t i c value
m u s t b e d e r i v e d from t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a r t s a n d
s o c i e t y . 11

The a e s t h e t i c e v a l u a t i o n s of a r t d e s i g n s vary depending o n

u h i c h c u l t u r a l g r o u p r e c e i v e s them. The a u d i e n c e ' s

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s t o w a r d s w a r t i s t i c g tm e s s a g e s i s b a s e d o n w h a t ,
through experience i n decoding, t h e y have come t o d e f i n e w i t h

p o s i t i v e value. From t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p t e r T h r e e , ~ u s i ch a s

b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e most p o s i t i v e l y v a l u e d c u l t u r a l

p r o d u c t i o n m e d i a c o n s u m e d by y o u t h , The a e s t h e t i c e v a l u a t i o n o f

t h i s media h a s n o t been r e s t r i c t e d merely t o sound images

r e c e i v e d i n t h e consumption o f r e c o r d albums, but also has

included, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e s i x t i e s , e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e

i m a g e r y of p o s t e r s a n d r e c o r d c o v e r s t h a t p e r f o r m c o n ~ r u e n t

aesthetic functions, Dominy H a m i l t o n , an a n a l y s t o f t h e

 iconography of album c o v e r a r t , e x p l a i n s t h a t :

t h e p s y c h e d e l i c p o s t e r a n d r e c o r d s l e e v e were,
l i t e r a l l y , o b j e c t s of contemplation. Listening to
r e c o r d s was i n t h e l a t e ' 6 0 s a m a n n e r o f ' g e t t i n g i n t o
i t 8 , you p u t t h e r e c o r d o n t h e t u r n t a b l e , you q o t h i g h ,
and probably looked a t t h e r e c o r d c o v e r while l i s t e n i n g .
T h e c o m p l e x a n d a m b i g u o u s i m a g e s were f o o d f o r
f a n t a s i e s . 12

T h e p o i n t h e r s is t h a t t h e album c o v e r , w h i c h n o t o n l y

identified the record, b u t a l s o was c o n s u m e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h

the n u s i c a l contents, was u s e d a s a n a e s t h e t i c t e x t a n d s t i l l i s

today. While t h e consumer would p e r h a p s be somewhat l o s t a s t o

t h e social and c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e 8qcomplexand

ambiguousw imagery of t h e c o v e r d e s i g n s , t h e l y r i c a l contents of

t h e accompanying music provides, through contiguous presence i n

t h e decoding experience, social and c u l t u r a l value t o t h e cover

image a s t h e v i s u a l product/group/music sign, And i t i s

i ~ p o r t a n tt o n o t e t h a t t h e s y n t a g m a t i c r u l e s o f a l b u m c o v s r

design, l i k e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r ~ u s i c a lg e n r e o r

"soundu, become e s t a b l i s h e d a n d e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d b y p a t r o n i z i n g

audiences.

The artistic d e s i g n s of t h e s e v e n a d s t h a t f o l l o w i n t h e

a n a l y s i s resemble t h e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s a n d n o r m s o f s y n t a c t i c a l

message s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f album c o v e r

designs. The form-oriented p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s e a d s t r a n s l a t e

i n t o a " m e d i a a p p r o a c h w b o r r o u e d f r o m t h e p r o m o t i o n of y o u t h

albums and, on t h e basis o f t h e youth i n t e r d i s c o u r s e , it i s

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e a d l a y o u t s perform s s i m i l a r a e s t h e t i c a n d

I marketinq function i n youth market advertizing. T h i s is n o t to

s a y t h s t album c o v e r t y p e adwork s n d r e f e r e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e s are

t h e o n l y way t o a p p r o a c h t h e " Y o u n g A d u l t Male" a a r k e t , a m a r k e t

w i t h p r e f e r r e d s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o d e s of p r o d u c t m e a n i n g s .

Yet c o n t e m p o r a r y a d v e r t i s e r s r e a l i z e t h a t i t i s t h e m u s i c

i n d u s t r y t h a t h a s n o t only had t h e g r e a t e s t s u c c e s s with t h e

youth market, b u t a l s o h a s a l s o had a b i g hand i n a c t u a l l y

shaping the l i f e s t y l e preferences, a t t i t u d e s and c u l t u r a l

p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s of t h 2 c o n t e m p o r a r y y o u t h c o n s u m e r .

H a m i l t o n g s s t u d y of r e c o r d a l b u a c o v e r s i d e n t i f i e s a f a i r l y

common a e s t h e t i c v a l u e w h i c h s h e r e f e r s t o a s t h e

"fantar;y/reality confrontationw. The confrontation, which is

m a n i f e s t e d i n many a l b u m c o v e r d e s i g n s a n d u s u a l l y c o m m u n i c a t e d

through d i s t o r t e d representations of objects and unusual layout

patterns and colours, s u y j e s t s a c o n s c i o u s t e s t i n g of t h e m o r e

dominant/traditional m e d i a s t a n d a r d s a n d c u l t u r a l tastes.

Hamilton s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s a e s t h e t i c forin/value concerns an

o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n c e p t u a l terms a n d c o n s u m p t i v e

p r a c t i c e s of t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y a n d t h e c o n s u a p t i v e p r a c t i c e s

of t h e y o u t h a u d i e n c e , who c o n s t a n t p l a y w i t h t h e a c c e p t a b l e

b o u n d a r i e s of t h e " s t r a i g h t f * m e d i a r e a l i t y . Hamilton n o t e s t h e

o b v i o u s e x p r e s s i o n of t h i s ' * f a n t a s y / r e a l i t y confrontationH on

a l b u m c o v e r s s i n c e t h e m i d '60s a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s

aesthetic/social v a l u e i n youth c u l t u r e h a s been uorking i t s e l f

out since. Hamilton also n o t e s t h e i n t e r d i s c u r s i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s

of o t h e r media d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i n shaping t h e album c o v e r

mediun, a p a r t from m u s i c i t s e l f :
 The v i s u a l i n f l u e n c e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e importance
o f s l e e v e d e s i q n f r o m a b o u t 1 9 6 3 o n w a r d s were f e w b u t
c o v e r a wide spectrum of contemporary c u l t u r e . Rovies,
f a s h i o n p h o t o g r a p h y , modern a r t ( e s p e c i a l l y S u r r e a l i s m
and c o l l a g e ) and f a n t a s y and s c i - f i i l l u s t r a t i o n a p p e a r
i n unexpected combinations. The a t t i t u d e of
t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k s o p h i s t i c a t i o n t h a t made t h i s p o s s i b l e
was l a r g e l y f o s t a r e d by a r t d i r e c t o r s , who s e t h i g h
s t a n d a r d s of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m . A l l t h i s h a s g i v e n rise t o
t h e emergent? o f t h e a l b u m a s a n i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n medium
( s o m e s a y a r t - f o r m ) i n i t s own r i q h t . 1 3

O t h e r media have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e forination o f a e s t h e t i c

a n d s o c i a l v a l u e s o f a l b u m c o v e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n such t h e same

way t h a t t h e medium of a l b u m c o v e r d e s i g n h a s b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d

b y t h a a r t i s t i c l a y o u t d e s i g n e r s of t h e s e s e v e n a u d w e i s e r a d s .

The c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n t h i s trans-media exchange is t h a t an

a r t i s t i c form w i l l s u r v i v e i n t h ? media p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y a s

l o n g a s it h a s market v a l u e i n p o s i t i v z l y c u e i n g c e r t s i n

audiences. A case i n p o i n t s t e m m i n g f r o m a B u d w e i s e r a d

a p p e a r i n g on b o t h t e l e v i s i o n and i n magazines c a n be t r a c e d back

t o o t h e r m e d i a of o r i g i n a t i o n of i t s form. I n t h e B u d w e i s e r a d

'the tastebuds', p r e s e n t e d i n N a t i o n a l L p ~ p p pa n d i n a

t e l e v i s i o n a d v e r s i o n shown d u r i n g " S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e w i n

1 9 7 9 , a d i s t i n c t i v e comic b o o k a e s t h e t i c a n d s o c i a l v a l u e is

c o m m u n i c a t e d b y i t s form c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e h i s t o r i c

value of such conceptualization. The j u x t a p o s i t i o n of t h e c o d e s

o f s i m p l e a n d 'sake-believes forms a n d c h a r a c t e r s - something

t h a t w o u l d a p p e a l t o a n d a p p e a r s more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a c h i 1 3 -
w i t h a d i a l o g u e a n d c h a r a c t e r s t h a t are a d u l t a n d o f t e n p e r v e r s e

and grotesque, t y p i f i e s a c a r t o o n f o r m , o r i g i n a t e d by R . Cruab

and Clay Wilson, i n t h e l a t e ' 6 0 s a n d early ' 7 0 s a s u n d e r g r o u n d

"comixn, T h i s f o r m g a i n e d p o p u l a r i t y among y o u t h a u d i e n c e s
b e c a u s e o f i t s almost p o l i t i c a l d e f a c e m e n t o f a medium t h a t

r e p r e s e n t e d t h e p a r e n t culture's c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o

fantasy and entertsinment - i n n o w a y was t h e r s a l s o c i a l w o r l d

t o i n t r u d e i n t o a e s t h e t i c a n d more l i t e r a l c o d e s of c a r t o o n s .
T h e form i s u s e d i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e " C h e a p thrill^'^ a l b u m

c o v e r a n d i n f a c t t h e a r t i s t i s H. Crumb h i m s e l f (see f i g u r e

23). Here s e m i o t i c s c a n i d e n t i f y s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e m e s s a g e

f o r m s p r e s e n t e d i n underground 'vcomixN, album c o v e r d e s i q n s and

magazine ads, and c a n n o t e t h e omissions or reworking o f c e r t a i n

r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t s of t h e s e m e s s a g e f o r m s a s t h e y a r e
a p p r o p r i a t e d from one mediun t o a n o t h e r . This
comparison-oriented a n a l y s i s 05 t h e c h a n g i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f

t h e message f o r @ s u g g e s t s t h e s e a r c h for t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l

f u n c t i o n o r v a l u e common i n t h e s e s o c i a l m e d i a f o r m s t h a t

marketers/encoders f i n d suitable i n cueing t h e readers o f the

y o u t h a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n , T h e s e forms e v i d e n t l y h a v e p a r t i c u l a r

media m a r k e t a b i l i t y b a s e d i n t h e i r r e f e r e n t i a l , phatic and

conative functions. T h i a factor is t h e a u d i e n c e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n

t o t h a t message-form a n d it is t h i s factor which h a s lead t h e

e n c o d e r s of ' t h e t a s t e S u d s n t o c o n f i d e n t l y e n t s r i n t o t h e y o u t h
media s e g e m e n t ( f o r t h e f i r s t time i n 1 9 7 9 ) w i t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e

t o t h e i r c o n v e n t i o n a l ad c o n t e n t a n d form. T h e s i m i l a r i t y i n
a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e Crumb wcomixw a n d a l b u m c o v e r , a n d t h e

B u d u e i s e r l a y o u t are s i g n i f i e d by t h e b u l b o u s and erotic

p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s ( i . e . , t h e faces e%?rging from

t h e tongue, t h e woman's breast o n t h e album c o v e r and its s e x u a l

c o n n o t a t i o n s i m i l a r t o what is s ? e n i n " u n d e r g r o u n d comix") and

by t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r s w i t h a d u l t , vulgar

d i a l o g u e o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s f o r humourous e f f e c t . 'The

t a s t e b u d s o , and a s c a n b e s e e n i n t h e f o r t h c o m i n g s a m p l e , the

Budweiser youth advertisements, have kept pace with t h e a l b u s

c o v e r medium a n d h a v e b o r r o w e d t h e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l s t y l e s

produced by y o u t h album c o v e r d e s i g n e r s . Hamilton d e s c r i b e s

these:

The unexpected j u x t a p o s i t i o n s and d i s t o r t i o n s of s c a l e

d e r i v e d from S u r r e a l i s m c o n t i n u e t o a p p e a r b o t h i n
p h o t o g r a p h i c c o l l a g e a n d i n i l l u s t r a t i o n and h a v e become
a l ~ o s ta s p r e d i c t a b l e a f o r m u l a a s t h e s t y l i z e d
p o r t r a i t s of t h e 1950Rs.l+

S u c h e v i d e n c e o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n s a n d d i s t o r t i o n s of s c a l e c a n b e

s e e n i n t h e e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f ' a l b u m d i s t o r t i o n s 8 (see

f i g u r s 25). The remaining a n a l y s i s h e r e s u g g e s t s t h a t Budweiser

a d l a y o u t s borrow t h e r e f e r e n t album c o v e r d e s i g n form a s , in

E u k a r o v s k y l s terms, " t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e o b j e c t i v e a e s t h e t i c

v a l u e w h i s t o r i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e v a l u a t i o n by y o u t h

audiences. T h i s i s n o t t o c o n t e n d t h a t t h e a l b u m c o v 2 r is t h e

s o l e s o u r c e of t h e o r i g i n a t i o n o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e a d s

which follow. Rather, I wish t o use t h e comparative semiotic

framework to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e album c o v e r d e s i g n h a s been t h e

m o s t p o p u l a r v i s u a l medium t o y o u t h a n d h a s b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d

b e c a u s e o f i t s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e young p e r s o n s media and

c u l t u r a l experience o f youth i n r e l a t i o n t o t h s communications

a b o u t goods.
a ) 9women d a n c e r s '

'Women d a n c e r s ' a t t h e l e v e l of syntagmatic r e l a t i o n s

o p e r a t e s i n a p r o c e s s o i h e r m 2 n e u t i c adwork, as Williamson

c o n c e i v e s of i t . T h e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s o f t h e s e t t i n g

(walls, doorways and s k y ) , t h e e l 3 e r l y women d a n c i n g , the

statue, the cat, and hand h o l d i n g t h e p r o d u c t i m a g e a r e

c o n n e c t e d by v i r t u e o f t h e i r c o n t a i n m e n t w i t h i n t h e l a y o u t a s a

meaningful whole, T h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t c o n a t i v e f u n c t i o n

operative here; t h a t is, t h e a d v e r t i s e r d o e s n o t d i r e c t t h e

reader's a t t e n t i o n through printed captions, but rather, the

d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s a p p e a r j u x t a p o s e d o n o n e l a y e r o f images a f t e r

a n o t h e r ending u i t h t h e product s i g n i n t h e c e n t e r background.

The d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s are p r e s e n t e d i n c o l l a g e form, as disparate

u n i t elements, whose c o n n e c t e d n e s s is o f f e r e d a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o

t h i s p u z z l i n g s t r u c t u r e t h a t t h e r e a d e r must figure o u t . The

r e a d e r is p r e s e n t e d w i t h t h e i l l u s i o n a r y p r o b l e m a t i c o f a c l o s e d

t e x t whose s i g n i f y i n g e l e m e n t s need c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e f o r e

m o v i n g o n t o a n e x t l a y e r of m e a n i n g , The s e t t i n q o f t h e ad

l i t e r a l l y appears as a dream-like maze. T h e o n l y e l e m e n t i n t h e

p u z z l e t h a t m a k e s s e n s e t o t h e r e a d e r is t h e o b v i o u s p r o d u c t

image, w h i c h o n the b a s i s of p r e v i o u s a d v e r t i s e m e n t r e a d i n g

experience, t h e r e a d e r knows t o b e o n e o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t s i g n s

o f p r o d u c t messaqe meaning. The p r o d u c t image is u s u a l l y t h e

s i g n s i g n i f i e d by o t h e r s o c i a l l y o r p e r s o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t

referent signifiers. The s t a t u e , poised i n 3 position of looking

a t t h e b o t t l e o f B u i l w e i s e r a n d t h e common s i g n i f i e d o f t h e h a n d

p r e s e n t i n g t h e b o t t l e o f 3 u d w e i s e r ( i m a g e common i n o t h e r

Budweiser ads) r e - a f f i r m t h a p r o b a b l e role i n s i q n i f i c a t i o n t h e

product image must play.

Upon c l o s ~ ri n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e d e n o t a t i v e e l e m e n t s o f t h e

a d , t h e r e a d e r i s f i n a l l y rewarded w i t h a d i s c o v e r y . In the

p a t t e r n s o f t h e w a l l p a p e r on t h e background wall a r e t h e p r i n t e d

words, qvThisBud's F o r You1'. The s i g n i f y i n g s l o g a n is h a r d l y

n o t i c a b l e b e c a u s e of its p a t t e r n e d r e p e t i t i o n on t h e wall and

b e c a u s e of its p r e s e n t a t i o n i n f i n e , low c o l o u r c o n t r a s t p r i n t ,

T h e r e a d e r h a s b e e n l e d down a c l o s e d p a t h o f impossible product

a s s o c i a t i o n s while t h e Rudweiser brand s i g n i f l e d , " t h i s buds*

f o r youv, is d i s p l a y e d o v e r a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f o f t h e l a y o u t ' s
e n t i r e space. T h e d e c o y c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r s of t h e women

d a n c i n g a n d t h e S u r r e a l i s t i m a g e s o f t h e d i s t o r t e d s i z e of t h e

h a n d a n d b o t t l e ( h s r e s i g n i f i e d a s a c t u a l l y p a r t of t h e s c e n e ) ,

t h e c l a s s i c a l s t a t u e a n d a r c h i n g doorway, and t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n

o f a sky i n a g e w h e r e t h e f l o o r s h o u l d b e , a l l o p e r a t e a s

d i v e r t i n g n o i s e i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e mundane m e s s a g e

s i g n i f i e d " t h i s Bud's f o r youw.

On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e women d a n c i n g

with o t h e r d i s t o r t e d or o u t of p l a c e imagery connotes t h e

r e a d e r s * involvements w i t h deep symbolic meanings and complex

illusionism. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e message is d e f i n i t e l y a

Budweiser advertisement. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e whole ad o p e r a t e s a s

a r e f e r e n t t h a t i n t e r t e x t u a l l y refers t o t h e u s u a l system o f
a d w o r k c o n v e n t i o n s ( t h e s e a d s make e s t a b l i s h e d p a r a j i g m a t i c

c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r s e t s of r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s ) . The

puzzling co-presznce of t h e s e two f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e s i n o n e

m e s s a g e i s c o n t e x t u a l i z e d or m a d e s e n s e of b y t h e h i d d e n

s i g n i f i e d "This Bud's F o r You." The p h r a s e m2ta-communicates t o

t h e r e a c i e r t h a t t h e r e is n o 3 e e p e r / o t h e r f i n a l meaning. The

p u n c h l i n e o f t h e j o k i n g r e l a t i o n i n 'women d a n c e r s ' or t h e p o i n t
w h e r e t h e r e a d e r r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e

l a y o u t h a s been i n vain, o c c u r s when t h e r e a d e r n o t i c e s t h e

h e r m s n e u t i c s l o g a n o n t h e wall. T h e r e a d e r b o c o m e s t h e o b j e c t of

t h e joke and h i s oversight t h e joke's referent. A t t h i s moaent

of d i s c o v e r y t h e e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e ( p o s i t v e ,

h u i a o r o u s r e a c t i o n ) r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e c o R n i o n s l o g a n s i g n i f i e d of

Budweiser as b o t h t h e s u b j e c t / c o m n u n i c a t o r of t h s joke (and t h e

p l e a s u r e i t g i v e s ) a n d t h e p r o d u c t s i g n i f i e d of t h e a d w o r k . This

resonance a t first glance might be thought o f as being a product

of a n o p e n t e x t ; t h a t is, a l l i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y t h e a d

would s u g g e s t a humourous p r o d u c t meaning to o c c u r to t h e

reader, 9 u t t h i s i s n o t t h e case.

The e m o t i v e f u n c t i o n depends l a r g e l y upon t h e r e f e r e n t i a l

f u n c t i o n o f t h e ad. T h e S u r r e a l i s t f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e m u s t b e

s i g n i f i c a n t i n some w a y i n o r d e r f o r t h e a u d i e n c e t o p a r t i c i p a t e

i n t h e joking relationship. If t h e audience d o e s n o t a c t i v e l y

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e ail s y s t e m f r a m e ( r e c o g n i z e how a d s u s u a l l y

arrang2 people, p l a c e s and t h i n g s a r o u n d t h e p r o d u c t s i g n ) , then

t h e * * p u n c h l i n e " or s u r p r i s e e l e m e n t o f t h e a d w i l l n o t b e
a f f e c t i v e f o r t h e r e a d e r and no r e s o n a n c e w i l l occur.

T h e a r t s t y l e e m p l o y e d i n 'women d a n c e r s v c l e a r l y d r a w s

from t h e S u r r e a l i s t a r t i s t g e n r e / t r a d i t i o n . The Id-24-year-old

B u d w e i s e r 3 d m a r k s t / a u d i e n c e -nay n o t b e c o m p e t e n t i n t h e c l o s e d

i n t e r t e x t a a l s y s t 2 m of 3rt h i s t o r y . However, they are competent

r e a d e r s o f a l b u m c o v 5 r a r t w h i c h i s v e r y much a p a r t o f t h e i r

lifestyle interests. H a m i l t o n e x p l a i n s t h e u s e of s t y l e s s u c h a s

t h o s e of t h e S u r r e a l i s t p a i n t e r 3 a g r i t t e i n a l b u m c o v e r d e s i g n :

Rorrowing from t h e s u r r e a l i s m o f M a g r i t t e , E r n s t and

D a l i p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r l i n e of d e v e l o p m e n t . A g e n e r a t i o n
t h a t was c o m m i t t e d t o u n d e r m i n i n g a c c e p t e d n o t i o n s o f
r e a l i t y r e j o i c e d i n d i s t u r b i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s embodied
i n a h i g h l y i l l u s i o n i s t i c s t y l e . 15

T h e w o r k s o f 2 e n e M a g r i t t e p r o v i d e a n a p p r o p r i s t e f r a ~ eo f

c o m p a r i s o n f o r t h e o f t h i s ad s t y l e sample.

The a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s (semantic) and norms (pragmatic,

s o c i a l a s p e c t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a u d i e n c e s and

p r o d u c e r s ) of t h e l a y o u t s t y l e o f #women d a n c e r s * can b e t a k e n

as a r e f e r e n t s i g n presented i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t media
( S u r r e a l i s t art, album c o v e r a r t and youth market a d v e r t i s i n g ) .

It is p o s s i b l e t o acknowledge t h e u s e o f t h i s i l l u s i o n a r y s t y l e

i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s of e n c o d e r i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d

c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n t h e s t y l e produces for t h e audience

( c o m p a r e t h e s t y l e s u s e d i n f i g u r e s 25, 26 a n d 27).

T h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s of i m a g e s a n d s t r u c t u r e f r o m

a n o r i g i n a l medium t o a n o t h e r , a p p r o p r i a t i n g medium w i t h a

completsly d i f f e r e n t intention a e s t h e t i c t o co%mercial intention

in t h i s case - results necessarily i n a modification of

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l v a l u e s of t h e f o r m i n m e s s a g e s .

A d v e r t i s i n q a n d m a r k e t i n g e n c o d e r s o f a l b u m c o v e r a r t were

caught bgtween t h e c o u n t e r - c u l t u r a l audience predispositions of

c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s b a s e d i n r a d i c a l i s m a n d esotericism, a n d t h e

n e e d t o r e d u c e t h i s a u d i e n c e ' s d e c o d i n g p r e f e r e n c e s t o a mora

m a n a g a b l e h a n d f u l of c o n s u m e r t a s t e s . The r e c o r d i n d u s t r y had to

iuold its m a r k e t / a u d i e n c a nxperiences. O n e way o f d o i n g t h i s was,

i n fact, t o t u r n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s social r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h music

i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h l e i s u r e c o m m o d i t i e s d e f i n e 2 by t a s t e

differences . T h e c o m i t t e r c i a l i z a t i o n a n d mass d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

a l b u m a r t , a s a p a r t of t h e r e c o r d c o m m o d i t y - o b j e c t form, c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s p a r t of a l a r g e r a p p r o p r i a t i o n p r o c e s s w h i c h F r i t h

s u g g e s t s i s t h e c o n t r o l of " c u l t u r a l practiceM:

The r e c o r d i n d u s t r y m u s t a l w a y s t r y t o mold i t s m a r k e t
( t h i s is t h e r 5 a l i t y o f r o c k - a s - c o m m o d i t y ) , but t h i s
m u s t a l w a y s i n v o l v e a s t r u g g l e ( t h i s i s t h e r e a l i t y of
rock-as-a-leisure-commodity). The rock a u d i e n c e h a s its
own i d e a s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s of w h a t m u s i c is f o r - t h i s is
what g i v e s t h e b e s t rock performers t h e i r artistic edge.
Hass c u l t u r e w o r k s b y d r a i n i n g t h e s e i d e a s a n d
e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e i r edge i n t h e v e r y a c t o f r e s p o n d i n g
t o a n d e x p r e s s i n g t h e m . What i s c r u c i a l h e r o i s t h e
c a p i t a l i s t c o n t r o l n o t of i d + a s b u t of c u l t u r a l
practice.16

T h e f o r m a t i o n a n d s t r u c t u r i n g o f r o c k m u s i c and its

accompanying v i s u a l expression i n album cover art, through

c u l t u r a l production and d i s t r i b u t i o n to youth, d i r e c t e d t h e s e

m e d i a t o t h e d i s c o u r s e of y o u t h e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d l e i s u r e - t i i n e

activity, As n o t e d i n C h a p t e r T h r e e , F&l&ihq Stgqg m a g a z i n e

p l a y e 3 a m a j o r r o l e i n t h i s d i r e c t i n g of m u s i c a s a

leisurz-rel3ted object f o r consunption. T h e r o c k a u d i s n c z was

i
categorized i n t o a series of market t a s t e s . Music, along with

its v i s u a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n , became a s o l u t i o n t o these

audiences' p a r t i c u l a r l e i s u r e problems.

S u r r e a l i s t a r t s t y l e s today c a r r y t h i s v a l u e of l e i s u r e

-commoditization i n t h e i r c u e i n q o f an a l r e a d y c o n s t i t u t e d

d i s c u r s i v e s p a c e f o r t h e r e a d e r s o f Ain~grgpnd, Nqtjiinq. h g m p q ,

and Rp11inq Stone. From t h e y o u t h a u d i e n c e ' s previous experience

w i t h t h e a l b u m c o v e r d e s i g n s i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of

leisure-commodities ( p e r h a p s t h e most c e n t r a l a n d i m p o r t a n t f o r

youth), youth market advertisers, such as t h e encoders of 'women

d a n c e r s g , a r e a b l e t o design images of t h e i r brand which

resonate with p o s i t i v e a e s t h e t i c value. The p r o d u c t image

(slogan and bottle) is n o t e n c o d e d i n t h e m e s s a g e t o s i m p l y

s i g n i f y t h e v a l u e o f t h e a m b i g u o u s S u r r e a l i s t an3 c o l l a g e l a y o u t

form by some i m p l i e d t r a n s f e r o f m e a n i n g . Rather, 'women

d a n c e r s 8 i s t o b e t a k e n a s a leisure-commodity-~bject, a s a

m e a n i n g f u l w h o l e , much t h e same way t h a t a r t i s t i c a l b u m c o v e r s

and r e c o r d s a r e both p a r t of t h e a e s t h e t i c function o f t h e

r e c o r d a s a medium. The leisure-commodity-object

c o n t e x t u a L i z a t i o n o f t h e ad's meaning c a n n o t be d e n i e d s i n c e t h e

a d s a r e s o l d by t h e a d v e r t i s e r a s l a r g e p o s t e r s . The p r o d u c t

E u d w e i s e r beer i s n o t p r o m i s e d t o p e r f o r m a n y s o c i a l o r p e r s o n a l

s e r v i c e or p l e a s u r e upon p o s s e s s i o n . The c o m p l e t e ad as 3

r e f e r e n t s i g n o f t h e s y s t e m of r e c o r d c o v e r s d o e s n o t p r o m i s e

anything. Yet, t h e s d c r e a t e s a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e f u l f i l l m e n t

o f a l i f e s t y l e nesd b y e m p l o y i n g t h e p o s i t i v e l y r e c e i v e d a l b u m
1
c o v e r %ode of a d d r s s s .

I n a f i n a l sense, t h e herrneneutic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e joke i n

'women d a n c e r s ' performs, t h r o u q h t h e p r o d u c t p r e s e n t a t i o n frame

of r e f e r e n c e , a self -r3f?rence t o t h e s y s t e m of B u d w s i s e r

a d v e r t i s e m e n t s i n s tongue-in-cheek parody. A t the level of the

hermeneutic solution of t h e ad's neaning, t h e Surrealism and

women 5 a n c i n g a r e n o t t r u l y i n t e n d e d t o s i q n i f y t h e p r o d u c t . The

l a y o u t p a r o d i e s inore s e r i o u s u s e s o f S u r r e a l i s t s y m b o l s i n o t h e r

m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l sass m a r k e t a d s . The f i n e p r i n t e d s l o g a n , "This

Bud's F o r Youw, p a r o d i e s a d v e r t i s i n g ' s c r u d e a n d m a n i p u l a t o r y

e f f o r t s a t *lunconsciousw persuasion. T h e w u n c o n s c i o u s ~a p p e a l s

have been p o p u l a r l y understood a s s u b l i m i n a l messaqes r e l a y e d to

a d a u d i e n c e a t l e v e l s o f a w a r e n e s s below c o n s c i o u s

i n t e r p r e t 3tion, O b v i o u s l y t h e t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s l o g a n

d o e s n o t t r u l y fall i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f s u b l i m i n a l s e d u c t i o n s

b e c a u s e it is so a p p a r e n t . These s e l f - c r i t i c a l references, as a
mild undermining of aduork i t s e l f , r e v e a l 'women dancers9 a s a

c l o s e d t e x t i n terms of t h e mode o f a d d r e s s w h i c h i m p l i c a t e s t h e

more c r i t i c a l y o u t h a u d i e n c e ' s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n by s a t i r i z i n g a

d o m i n a n t c u l t u r a l media message.17 T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e a d is

p a r t o f a more w i d e l y u s e d s a t i r i z a t i o n o f mass sedia d i s c o u r s e

common i n y o u t h c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s (see f i g u r e s 2 9 a n d 30).

b) ' r a i n i n g Bud1
o p e r 3 t e r a s well, i n a n "openu h e r m e n e u t i c r e a d i n g s t r u c t u r e i n

which t h ? r e a d e r i s i n v i t ? d t o a c t i v e l y d e c o d e some d e e p e r

meaning. Ths d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s which s i g n i f y t h e s e t t i n g , persons

an3 a c t i v i t y i n t h e photograph a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f youth l i f e s t y l e

interests. The s u r f e r , a n d man a n d u o a a n t a k i n g s h e l t e r u n d e r

the bridge cue t h s readers' common f r a m e o f e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e

beach. The ' r e a l - l i f e ' referent signs, which are condenssd

i n d i c a t o r s of a l a r g e r c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y , a r e symbolic of things

youth l i k e t o d o i n t h e sumwer.

A c o l o u r and photographic, air-brush technique contributes

t o t h e a e s t h e t i c i d e n t i t y of t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d s c e n e . The

photograph h a s been 'touched up1 i n o r d e r t o a r a p l i f y t h e p u r p l e

o f t h e s u r f b o a r d a n d t h e woman's tank-top shirt. The s u r f b o a r d

( w h i c h l i t e r a l l y r e f l e c t s t h e i m a g e of t h e y o u n g man c a r r y i n g

i t ) a n d t h e woman ( d i s p l a y e d i n s u g g e s t i v e p o s t u r e a n d r e v e a l i n g

clothing), who h a s d r a w n t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e s u r f e r , s i g n i f y a s

r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s o f t h e young a d u l t s a l e ' s l i f e s t y l e

interests,

Yet, t h e r e a d e r s 1 a t t e n t i o n i s most l i k e l y d i v e r t e d t o w h a t

is * w r o n g 8 i n A s well, t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e s u r f e r l o o k s c o u l d b e
towards t h e hermeneutic c l u e of t h e cartoonish billboard i n t h e

remote b a c k g r o u n d . t h e photograph. A h e r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r g is

s u g g e s t e d by t h e B u d w e i s e r b o t t l e s a n d c a n f a l l i n g f r o m t h e sky

and forming puddles t h a t r e f l e c t t h e product's l a b e l i n them.

A l l t h e s i g n e l e m e n t s of t h a ad are i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e
hermeneutic puzzle. T h e sczne i s r e a l i s t i c , yet t h e product sign

r e p l a c e s t h e r a i n w h i c h is i n d e x i c a l l y s i g n i f i e d b y t h e p e o p l e

takinq s h e l t e r under t h e surfboard, umbrella and bridge. The

r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e r a i n d r o p s by c a n s a n d b o t t l e s n a p l o y s

a n o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n o f S u r r e a l i s m (see H s g r i t t e ' s n G o l c o n d e w ) .

S u r r e a l i s m o r d e r s o b j e c t s t h a t h a v e b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d f r o m their

'normal', 'natural' environxent i n a dream-liks association.18

T h a a3 j u x t a p o s e s t h e p r o d u c t w i t h t h e n a t u r a l s i t u a t i o n o f 3

r a i n storm i n t h e d r e a m - l i k e a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n o f the! l a y o u t ,

B e c a u s e t h e s u r f e r a s s u m e s t h e s p a c i a l p r o x i m i t y of t h e

foreground o f t h o photograph, t h e r e a d e r is drawn i n t o a n 3

perhaps sharss t h e s u r f e r ' s perspective. T h i s is t h e b a s i s o f

t h e p h a t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e a d u o r k .

T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o w h a t c o n t e n t i s

c o n t e x t u a f i z e d w i t h i n t h e ad. And i n a n a l y z i n g t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c

r e l a t i o n s of t h e text to r e f e r e n t systems, it would be

insufficient t o m e r e l y claim t h a t t h e h e r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e ad r e f e r s t o a n ' i r r a t i o n a l 1 l e a p from t h e s y s t e m o f n a t u r e

t o t h e s y s t e m of g o o d s a s s n a t u r a l i z e d ~i n t o t h e s c e n e . T h e f a c t
t h a t t h e b e a c h s c e n e is e m b l e m m a t i c of t h e C a l i f o r n i a n y o u t h

lifestyle - a m y t h u s e d t o s e l l t o a l a r g e p o r t i o n of A m e r i c a n
y o u t h i n t h e r e c o r d i n d u s t r y s i n c e t h e 1 9 5 0 1 s (see f i g u r e 3 3 ,

'beach covers8) - makes t h e a d s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e y o u t h

audience. It is t h e t e c h n i c 3 1 m a r r i a g e o f p h o t o g r a p h y w i t h

c a r t o o n a n d c o l o u r d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e 2 d w h i c h holps, s s w e l l , t o

r e s i g n i f y t h e s u r r e a l imagery. The dream-lika sequence suggested

 by t h 2 r a i n i n g c a n s a n d b o t t l e s is r e s i g n i f i e d b y t h e c o l o u r

distortion. It c o n n o t e s t h s f a n t a s y / r e a l i t y c o n f r o n t a t i o n which

is t h e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o d u c t s i g n of t h e r a i n i n g b o t t l e s

i and c a n s and t o t h e s t a n d a r d Yudweiser s l o g a n , "This Bud's For

Yout1. T h i s s l o g a n r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o d u c t s i g n i f i e d t h a t a p p e a r s

on a l a r g e b i l l b o a r a i n t h e backgrounii. This coincilentsl

b i l l b o a r d s i g n i s o n e o f two " h i d d e n " hermeneutic c l u s s to t h e

f i n a l meaning o f t h e ad. T h e men o n t h e b r i d g e o p 9 r a t e i n t h e a d

a s two r e f e r e n t s i g n s a n d a t t r a c t t h e r e a d e r ' s i n t e r e s t by t h e

c o n t r a s t of t h e i r c o n s e r v a t i v e c l o t h i n g (i.e., black s u i t s and

umbrella) w i t h t h e c a s u a l c l o t h i n g a n d c o n t e x t of t h e b e a c h

scene. T h e t h o f a c t t h a t o n e o f t h e men i s t a k i n ~a p h o t o g r a p h

- w h o s e o b j e c t c o u l d e i t h e r b e t h e s u r f e r o r t h e reader h i m s e l f ,

f u r t h e r s t h e n o t i o n of s h a r e d p e r s p e c t i v e .
-
The o n l y element which b r e a k s t h z a e s t h e t i c v i s u a l

p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r m of t h e a d i s t h e c a r t o o n i s h b i l l b o a r d s i g n . It

is less s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d , therefore, less tied t o t h ?

photographic scene presentation, Yet, throuqh s i n i l a r i t y i n t h e

ad's c o l o u r code, t h e b i l l b o a r d s i g n (an ad) is l i n k e d w i t h t h e

product s i g n images, T h e s i m p l i c i t y of t h e b i l l b o a r d ' s

p r e s e n t a t i o n a l form o p e r a t e s i n a r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f

self-parody. This mild self-critique prefers t h e youth

audience's aversion to traditional advertising. The fact t h a t

t h e b i l l b o a r d h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d ~y p e r h a p s a n i m a g i n e 3 s i g n , as

w e l l , s u q q e s t s t h a t t h e p r i m a r y r e f e r e n t s y s t e m o f t h e a d may b e

surreal replacement i t s e l f , 3illianson explains the intentions

behind such paradigmatic suggestion:

The u s e o f s u r r e a l i s m I t s e l f 3s a r s f e r e n t s y s t e m h e l p s
advertising t o protect these properties [aduork
t r a n s f e r s o f meaning 3 from e x p o s u r e , by a p p e a r i n g t o
expose t h e m i t s e l f . 1 9

T ~ Pm a j o r 2 3 r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n o f 'raininq 3ud9 o p e r a t e s

a t t h e l z v e l o f t h e a s s t h e t i c ad t e x t a s r 2 f e r e n t . The

form-oriented l a y o u t r e f e r s n o t s o much t o a s i n g l e m o a n i n g o f

t h e p r o d u c t a s a l e i s u r e c o ~ m o d i t y , b u t r e f e r s t o the y o u t h

p r a c t i c e o f l e i s u r e consumption i t s e l f . The youth v a l u e s o f t h e

self-reflective fantasy/reality confrontation present i n

' r a i n i n g Sud' u s e s s i m i l a r a e s t h e t i c means ( c o d e s ) f o r t h z

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i m a g e a s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r r o c k a l b u m

c o v e r s a n d p o p a r t s i n c e t h e mid 6 0 ' s . The c o f o u r code o f

h i g h l i g h t i n g and d i s t o r t i n g c o l o u r balances, uhich is evident i n

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s c e n e i n ' r a i n i n g B u d ' , c a n be s e e n i n

c o u n t l e s s album c o v e r d e s i g n s which Hamilton a t t r i b u t e s t o

i n f r a r e d photography and o t h e r unusual photographic techniquas.

The c o l l i s i o n of 'real-life i c o n o g r a p h y w i t h soBe k i n d o f

d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e laws o f n a t u r e b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p r o d u c t

s i g n (i.e., t h e c a n s a n d b o t t l e s r a i n i n g f r o m t h e s k y and

d i s s o l v i n g i n t o puddles) does r e q u i r e , a s Williamson p o i n t s o u t ,

a distortion of t h e reader1s understanding of t h e r e a l places

r e z l t h i n g s t a k e i n t h e r e a l world. The i n t r u s i o n o f t h e surreal

product s i g n i n t o otherwise normal l i f e s t y l e s i t u a t i o n s does,

from p r a c t i c e d decoding, assume an * o r d e r a and ' r i g h t n e s s * . For

youth audiences of t h e t h r e e publications t h a t carry *raining

Bud', t h i s 'normal' u n r e a l i t y would b e l e a r n e d i n t h e 3 i s c o u r s e s

of a l o u m c o v e r d e s i g n s a n d pop p o s t e r a r t . These media d i s p l a y

distortion through t h e colour technique - a carry-over from t h e

psychedelic period of t h e s e e v o l v e d media - whereas s u r r e a l

p a i n t i n g p r o p e r a n d t h e m a n y mass m a r k e t a d s t h a t u s e t h e a r t

f o r m d o n o t u s e c o l o u r d i s t o r t i o n i n t h i s way.

A t t h e syntagmatic l e v e l of h e r m e n e u t i c adwork, the product

s i g n is s i g n i f i e d b y a B u d n e i s e r c a n r i p p i n g t h r o u g h t h e p a g e of

t h e l a y o u t a t t h e top. It h a s a s u r r e a l p r e s e n c e i n t h e ad by

v i r t u e of t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i t s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y -- it

breaks through t h e two-dimensional s i g n medium o f v i s u a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of p e r s o n s , s e t t i n g a n d a c t i v i t y below. The

p h o t o g r a p h b e l o w c o n t a i n s t h e d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s of a s m a l l - t o w n ,

main street and its e v e n i n g a c t i v i t y . The herrneneutic puzzle

s t r u c t u r e i s c o n n o t e d by t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of t h i s n o r m a l ,

u n d i s t o r t e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s t r e e t a c t i v i t y w i t h t h e

over-scaled can p i e r c i n g t h e photograph above. The p r o d u c t s i q n

r e p r e s e n t s a d i s t o r t i o n n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o f its u n r e a l i s t i c s i z e

and p l a c e m e n t r e l a t i v e t o t h e s i z e s c a l e of t h e r e a l i s t i c s c e n e

below, but, most s i g n i f i c a n t l y , because of its breaking o f t h e

c o d e of p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i t s e l f (iconic, analogic

t e c h n i c a l c o d e of r e p r e s e n t i n ? t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l o b j e c t s i n o n e

flsttened, two d i m e n s i o n a l p l a n e o f t h s p h o t o g r a p h ) .
 The p r o d u c t s i g n of t h e can p i e r c i n g t h e page i n t r o d u c e s

two v a l u e f r a m e s which s e t up a n o s c i l l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e * r e a l p

plane o f =+presentation and t h e s u r r e a l representation. On t h e

F
[ one hand, t h e product sign, wlthin t h e system of r e a l ohjects i n

1
r
t h e m a t e r i a l world, is more r e a l b e c a u s e i t is a s o l i d

three-dimensional o b j e c t t h a t c a n r i p a page. On t h e 0 t h 3 r h a n d ,

t h e s c e n e b e l o w is t r u e t o tha s y s t e m o f l i t e r a l p h o t o g r a p h i c

:! r e p r e s e n t a t i o n which d o e s n o t i n c l u d e t h e t e c h n i c a l e f f e c t s of

three-dimensional representation -- the audience has learned to

see r e a l i t y r e p r o d u c e d i n two d i m e n s i o n s . An o p p o s i t i o n i s

s t r u c t u r o d i n t h e a d t e x t i n w h i c h t h e c a n izi a r e f e r e n t - o b j e c t

( i t i s t h e r e a l t h i n g i n t h s r e a l w o r l d w h i c h signs p o i n t t o )

- and t h e photograph i s a product of c u l t u r a l and t e c h n i c a l c o d e s

of r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e real world.
-
T h e man s t a r i n g u p a t t h e c a n , t h e h e a d l i n e s of t h e

n e w s p a p e r b e i n g r e a d b y t h e man o n t h e s t r e e t c o r n e r , and t h o

page r i p t h z t g o e s a l l t h e way d o w n t h e p a g e e n d i n g a t t h e c l o c k

conn2ct t h e photograph with t h e product sign, These e l e m e n t s are

connotative s i g n i fi e d s of the product's intrusion i n t o t h e

photograph, T h e y o u n g man, who i s w a l k i n g w i t h h i s

g i r l f r i e n d l w i f e a p p e a r s t o b e t h e only o n e t h a t n o t i c e s t h e c a n

w h i c h s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h i s msy b e h i s f a n t a s y ( s i m i l a r a d w o r k ,

internal-referential and p h a t i c device a s i n ' r a i n i n g Bud').

T h i s man l o o k s b a c k f r o m a p r o m i n e n t f o r e g r o u n d p o s i t i o n a t

s o m e t h i n g d e e p e r w i t h i n t h e s p a c i a l b a c k g r o u n d of t h e s c e n e .

U n l i k e t h e o t h e r p 2 o p l e o n t h e s t r e e t , h e sees w h a t t h e r e a d e r
 sees. From t h e c r a n i n g of h i s neck, h e may b e t u r n i n q t o see t h e

c l o c k o r t h e h e a d l i n z s o f t h e n e w s p a p e r t h a t is p r i n t e d i n b o l d

l e t t e r s j u s t f e e t away. The man's d i r e c t i o n o t a t t e n t i o n , a s an

i n d i c a t o r of where t h e r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n should be directed,

may, a s w e l l , be t ? w a r d s t h e ' s u r r e s l ' or real (from t h e

audience perspective) presence o f t h e looming can above. The

herweneutic s t r u c t u r e r e v o l v e s around t h e can.

As a n e l e m e n t i n t h e hermeneutic structure, the clock

i n d i c a t e s t h e time, a q u a r t e r t o e i g h t ( i n t h e e v ~ n i n go n e w o u l d

expect), a n d i s a s i g n i f i e d o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e time f o r

thinking/dreaming about going o u t f o r a drink (of B u d w e i s e r ) . If

his/the readers' e y e s follow down f r o m t h e c l o c k t o t h e f r o n t

--
- p a g e o f t h e n e w s p s p e r below, t h e r e a d e r is a b l e t o d i s c o v e r t h e

hidden piece of t h e puzzle i n t h e headlines, *"This Bu3's For

7

- Youn. T h i s c o n n o t a t i v e s i g n i f i e r o f t h e n e w s p a p e r s l o g a n
o p e r a t e s a s a r e f e r e n t s i g n o f t h e system of Budweiser product

presentations i n advertising. Ths f a c t t h a t t h i s slogan appears

as a h e a d l i n e snd n o t as an a d v e r t i s i n g page message s u g g e s t s

t h a t t h e young man's/readers' perception of the product, as a

r e a l and u n u s u a l o c c u r r e n c e of * f a n t a s t i c 1 p r o p o r t i o n s is
justified -- i t made t h e news. Budweiser, as both a physical
o b j e c t and 35 an o b j e c t o f e d i t o r i a l news c o v e r a g e v a l u e ,
deserves the readers* attention outside the usual 'flatg

r e p r e s 2 n t a t i o n i t is a l l o w e d i n a d v e r t i s i n g m e s s a g e s p r i n t e d o n

p a g e s j u s t l i k e t h e o n e the c a n r i p s . In thiz wly the

hermensutic s t r u c t u r e a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e a u d i e n c e and
m e t a - c o m m u n i c a t e s a b o u t t h e ' f l a t 1 d i s c o u r s e of a d v e r t i s i n g

itself. While t h e h o r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r e is o p e n l y p r o v i d e d by

t h e s y n t a 3 m a t i c a l l y c o n t e x t u a l i z e d s i g n i f y i n q ~ l e m e n t so f '3-d

Bud', t h i s mot3-communication about t h e system of advertisin'j

i t s e l f r e l i e s upon th@ a u d i e n c e s s c r i t i c a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n

t o w a r d s ad m e s s a g e s a n d t h e i r mundane, t r a d i t i o n 3 1 s t r u c t u r i n g

of t h e a s s o c i 3 t i o n s aade b e t m e n people, p l a c e s and t h i n q s . Here

t h i s t r a i l i t i o n a l l i f e s t y l e c o d i n g is conmented upon i n a

s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e m i o t i c s t a t e m e n t o f t h e medium i t s e l f .

T h e t e c h n i c a l c o d e o f p h o t o g r a p h i c 3-d media h a s a h i s t o r y

of a e s t h e t i c functions i n t h e c u l t u r a l production of aagazines,

youth market films, pop a r t p o s t e r s and album c o v e r d e s i g n .

W h i l e e v e n e a r l i e r t h e A m e r i c a n mass m e d i a a u d i e n c e i n t h e

1950's a c t i v e l y consumed '3-d* films, t h e c u l t u r a l form d r i f t e d

q u i c k l y o u t o f f a v o u r due, i n large part, to technical

inadequacies. The youth marketlaudiences o f t h e s e v e n t i e s and

e i g h t i e s h a v e r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e '3-d1 f o r 3 f o r its

fantasy/distortion v a l u e o f a d d i n g a new d i m e n s i o n t o s t a n d a r d

m e d i a forms a n d f o r n o s t a l g i a a e s t h e t i c v a l u e s . 20 For exaaples,

Andy W a r h o l ' s F r a n k e n s t e i n a n d c e r t a i n a l b u m c o v e r d e s i g n s (see

f i g u r e 35) e m p l o y t h i s a e s t h e t i c form i n a f a n t a s y l r e a l i t y

d i a l e c t i c b a s e d o n i t s c o n n o t a t i o n of the y o u t h v a l u e of

s u b v e r t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l v i s u a l c o d e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h s mass

media. As well, N a t i g q p g hgeqmp h a v e r u n s e v 2 r a l e d i t o r i a l

p i e c e s m a k i n q f u n o f t h e 3-d form of v i s u a l p r e s e n t a t i o n i n

p a r o d i e s o f t h e medium b a s e d o n i t s f a i l u r e i n t h i r ? r a t s f i l m s
 ( s e e f i g u r e 3 6 ) . Here, t h e a t t e m p t e d c o n t r a s t o f t h e i n c r e d i b l e

w i t h t h e mundane c o l l a p s e s i n t o t h e f i n a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e

medium's mundane t e c h n i c a l i n a d e q u a c i e s -- t h e reader of

N a t i o n a l ---
-------- L a m g---*
oon a f t e r d a w n i n g t h e 3-d qlasses an3 squinting

h i s way t h r o u g h s e v e r a l 2 i c t u r e f r a m e s o f a f i l m - l i k e frame

sequence r e a l i z e s t h a t , n o t o n l y d o e s t h e medium n o t w o r k , but

t h e work h e h a s p u t i n t o r s a d i n q h a s b e e n i n v a i n : the story

i t s e l f i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y b o r i n q and m u n d a n e . In the tradition of

t h i s publication's c y n i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t r a d i t i o n a l mejis, the

r e a d e r is m a d e t h e o b j e c t o f t h e j o k i n g f r a m e ( s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h

t o t h e j o k i n g s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t e d i n 'women d a n c e r s ' ) .

Similarly, t h e e n c o d e r s o f '3-d B u d 8 know t h e y c a n n o t

- a c t u a l l y produce t h e real '3-d* effect. The a d i n t e r p e l l a t e s t h e

a u d i e n c e a s t h o s e who a r s c r i t i c a l o f s t a n d a r d i z e d c u l t u r a l
-
productions. This c r i t i c a l predisposition of youth readerships

( e s p e c i a l l y t h e c o l l e g e s e d i a market) guides t h e i r decoding of

t h e p o p u l a r a r t s , contemporary music and s a t i r e ( t h e l i f e s t y l e

interests reflected i n the editorial contents of the three

p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t c a r r y '3-d B u d 8 ) . T h e 3-d can, a s a product

sign, p r o d u c e s a c i r c u l a r d e n i a l o f i t s own f o r m b y d i s r u p t i n g

t h e a d v n r t i s i n g p a g e w i t h t h e 3-d can a n d t h e n p r o v i d e s t h e
hermeneutic product s i g n i f i e d ( " T h i s B u d 8 s F o r You") as a

solution, n o t m a t t e r how m u n d a n e a s o l u t i o n i t n a y b e . The f i n a l

meaning o f t h e '3-d' can i n t h e open hermeneutic s t r u c t u r e is

r e s i q n i f i e d a s two-dimensional o r ' j u s t anothzr 3d* i n a closed

p r o j e c t o f c r i t i c i z i n g t h e m e d i u ~o f a d v e r t i s i n g messages
i p o s i t i v e humour r e s o n a n c e . ce. T h i s s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o t h e
c r i t i q u e o f t r a d i t i o n a l media i n t e r t e x t u a l l y p o i n t s t h e r e a d e r

t o t h 2 h u m o u r d i s c o u r s e f o u n d i n N p t j o q a l Lpmgooq e s p e c i a l l y ,

and meta-communicates t o t h e youth audience t h a t t h e i r c u l t u r a l

v a l u e s h a v e b e e n r e p r e s e n t 5 3 by t h e a d v e r t i s e r s o f S u l w e i s a r .

d) ' t h e campers'

' T h e c a m p e r s * s i g n i f i e s t h r o u g h a more o b v i o u s h e r m e n e u t i c

structure than t h e previous ad texts. The photograph d e n o t e s a

n a t u r a l s e t t i n g w i t h two y o u n g o u t d o o r s m e n c a m p i n g b y a

w a t e r f a l l a n d stream. The s e t t i n g , campers and a c t i v i t y connote

' g e t t i n g away froa c i v i l i z a t i o n ' and a n encounter with nature

( l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t s around camping). T h e p r o d u c t s i g n of t h e

B u d w e i s e r c a n i s s u r r e a l i s t i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n p l a c e of p e r h 3 p s

a high rock formation above t h e waterfall. The p r o d u c t s i g n is

connoted, through replacement, a s a n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n because of

its i r r e g u l a r a n g l e and b e c a u s e t h e r e is a c o y o t e h o w l i n q a t its

*peak8. The can's size i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e physical t e r r a i n

i m p l i e s a s u r r e a l pretence, a s well, t h r o u g h e x a g g e r a t i o n . T h e

p r o d u c t s i g n i s c o n n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f i e d by i t s s p p a r e n t ?lace i n

nature, by o n e o f t h e c a m p e r ' s a d m i r i n g s u r v e y of i t ( h e a d

p o s t u r e a s a s i g n i f i e r ) a n d by t h e c a l l i g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n of

t h e s l o g a n i n l e t t e r i n g produced by t h e c l o u d s . The s l o g a n , l i k e

t h e product sign i t s e l f , i s p r e s 2 n t e . d a s a n e l e a e n t of n a t u r e
 and r e a a s , " t h i s B u d ' s f o r youw.

T h e t l y o u u t h e s l o g 3 n r e f e r s t o is, o n c e a g a i n , t h e camper

i n t h e scene and t h e audience. Yet t h e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e t e x t ,

which makes c l o e r t h i s c o n a t i v e f u n c t i o n of t h e s l o g a n , is f a r
more s i q p l i s t i c a n 3 r e q u i r e s f e w e r s t a g e s o f d e c o d i n g t h a n what

h a s b e e n d e s c r i b 2 d i n t h e few p r e v i o u s 3 d s i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f

the analysis. C o n n o t a t o r s i n t h i s a d a l l seem t o b e m o r e o p e n t o

g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s which t h a 3d i t s e l f p r o d u c e s . For instance,

t h e n a t u r e / c u l t u r e o p p o s i t i o n i s o p e n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by

i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d i n t h e m e s s a g e (i.e., t h e product iwage and

s i g n i f i e d a s s l o g a n t a k i n g t h e form r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f n a t u r a l

things set o u t from t h e n a t u r a l setting). A s well, t h e bubbling

- w a t e r and w a t e r f a l l s s i g n i f y t h e n a t u r a l means t o s a t i s f y i n g

thirst, which d e v e l o p s a s r u c t u r s l r e l a t i o n s h i p i n which t h e

m--

--
- b e e r 3s p a r t of n a t u r e a n d t h e w a t e r a s p a r t o f n a t u r e may,
through an operation o f replacement, b o t h be u n d e r s t o o d t o

satisfy thirst.

The paradigmatic r e l a t i o n s of t h i s form-oriente3 ad t e x t

connect with t h e r e f e r e n t systems o f rugged, male, o u t d o o r

l i f e s t y l e a d s a n d m o r e a m b i g u o u s s u r r e a l a d s i n mass m a r k e t

advertising, t h u s producing a hybrid advertising format. The

f i r s t male l i f e s t y l e a d r e f e r e n c e i s b e s t l o c a t e d i n c i g a r e t t e

a d v e r t i s i n g i s c o m p e t i t i v e 'Camel9 a n d e M a l b o r o 8 a d s . The

a e s t h e t i c v a l u e o f t h e s e t y p e s o f l a y o u t p o r t r a y t h e i r two

e m b l e m ~ a t i ch e r o e s i n b e a t i f u l , rug+ged w i l d e r n e s s s c e n e s . The

s l o g a n s a n d u s e of t h e p r o d u c t sign f o l l o w s t a n d a r d a d w o r k
s t r u c t u r e s common i n m o s t l i f e s t y l e a d v e r t i s i n g . T h e v 3 l u e s of

rugged independence and n a t u r s l w a u t y o f t h e l a n d s c a p e c o n n o t e

these 9r3ducts. I n ' t h e campers', t h e c h a r a c t e r s are a l i t t l e

l e s s r u g ~ s dan.i i n d e p e n d a n t b y v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e

l e i s u r e l y camping with a p a r t n e r and are n o t hanging o f f a c l i f f

n o r c h a s i n g down cows. U n l i k e t h o I H 3 r l b o r o man8 o r ' C a m e l man*

who s i m p l y e n j o y t h e i r c i g a r e t t e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r t h e r e a d e r is

t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h i n * t h e campers* is p e r c e i v i n g t h e g u d w e i s e r

can.

The d i s t o r t e d r e l a t i o n 3 h i . p between t h e p r o d u c t s i g n and

n a t u r e i s s t r u c t u r e d i n t o t h e ad t e x t by t h e c a a p e r s s own

i l l u s i o n and l i f e s t y l e wants expressed through fantasy. The

c a l l i g r a p h i c s l o g a n is d e r i v e d i r o a a c o n t e x t u 3 1 u s e found i n

r o c k album a r t (see f i g u r e 3 8 ) . I n a similar l a y o u t s t r u c t u r e a s

is f o u n d o n many a l b u m covers, t h e n a m e of t h e p r o d u c t ( a l b u m o r

beer) blends i n t o t h e depicted scene a s a n a t u r a l objnct i n t h a t

scene. I t is t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e s u r r e a l p r o d u c t

s i g n i f i e d by t h e 1 n a t u r a l i z e d 8 p h r a s i n g , " T h i s Bud's F o r Youm,

the reduction of the surreal aesthetic t o the l i f e s t y l e

characterls fantasy, and t h e d i s t o r t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l beauty

e l e m e n t of t h e l i f e s t y l e s c e n e w i t h c o m m o d i t y s i g n s t h a t s u g g e s t

an unlikely combination of a e s t h e t i c images/for~s. This

p o t e n t i a l l i f e s t y l e and n a t u r a l a e s t h e t i c s c e n e d e p i c t e d i n t h e

a d i s i n t r u d e d u p o n b y a n e x c e s s i v e u s e of s u r r e a l i m a g e r y ,

T h i s ad not only s u p p l i e s t h e reader with a l l t h e

inform3tion needed f o r deco3ing i n a n open t e x t u a l f o r % a t , b u t

i t r e f e r s t o l i f z s t y l e d i s c ~ u r s e st h a t most o f t h e " R e a v y Male

Beer D r i n k e r t * m a r k e t / m a s s a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e l i t t l e p r o b l e m

understanding. An e x t r a t e x t u a l c o m p e t e n c e i n r e a d i n g a d s a n d

c a m p i n g 3s a l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t i s e n o u g h t o p e r m i t t h e a d ' s

open reading. T h e e n c o d e r s of ads f o r B u d w e i s e r b r a n 3 beer a r e

p r o b a b l y 3ware o f t h e more wide a p p e a l of t h i s ? a r t i c u l a r a d a n d

c o n s e q u e n t l y h a v e r u n i t i n glqybqy i n 1983.

e) 'Bud lust'

I n t h e ad t e x t *Bud l u s t 1 a p r o d u c t - p e r s o n exchange is

communicated through t h e a f f e c t i v e functi.on o f t h e

surrealist/fantasy a s s t h e t i c code a n d is s o c i a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d

t h r o u g h a r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n of s i g n i i i e r s of

'hyper-ritualized, s o c i a l d i s p l a y of a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s * s o c i a l

s c e n e and behaviours, T h i s a d uses a d w o r k a n d c o n t e n t

a r r a n g e m e n t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of w h a t K l i n e a n d L e i s s call

"lifestylew formst, but with a s i g n i f i m n t difference located i n

t h e t e c h n i c a l a n d s o c i a l n a t u r e of t h e a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e

message a s a meaning2u l whole.

T h e h e r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r e of t h i s a d o p e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e

denotative setting -- p e o p l e a n d a c t i v i t y s i g n i f i e r s of a c o r n s o n

t o t e m i c c o m m u n i t y of t h e c o l l e g i a t e y o u t h c r o w d . For t h e youth

a u d i e n c e s t h e s e t t i n g is d e n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f i e d a s a l o c a l ,

c a s u a l h s r w h e r e a c e r t a i n t y p e of y o u n g p e o p l e (most l i k e l y

c o l l s ~ es t u d e n t s ) c o n g r e q a t e f o r l e i s u r e e n j o y m e n t , T h e d r e s s of
t h e y o u n q p e o p l e i n t h e b a r i s t h e most a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t o r o f

t h e i r s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s and h a s i n more g e n e r a l

c u l t u r a l d i s c o u r s e b e e n c a l l e d g 8 p r e p p i e 1 *-- c o n n o t i n q a f f l u e n t

p r e p s c h o o l s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r manner and d r e s s .

Several d e n o t a t i v e s i g n s ars s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y l i n k e d i n t h e

h e r m e n e u t i c ~ u z z l eo f t h e a d . T h e p u z z l e f r a m e is s u g g e s t e d t o

t h e d e c o d e r by t h e p r o d u c t s i g n i f i e r o f t h e s u r r e a l B u d w e i s e r

b o t t l e c a p w h i c h i s p l a i n l y v i s i b l e i n t h e f o r e f r o n t of t h e

d e p i c t e d s c e n e ( t h e c a p t a k e s on s u r r e a l v a l u e b e c a u s e o f it

mammoth p r o p o r t i o n s ) . The f o r e g r o u n d e d i n d i v i d u a l ' s astonishzd

expression on viewing t h e cap, a s well, h e l p s l e a d t h e r e a d e r t o

t h i s f i r s t s t o p i n t h e h e r a e n 5 u t i c s e t u p of t h e a d .

A l l t h e b o t t l e s and g l a s s e s i n t h i s bar s c l n e c a r r y t h e

product s i g n i f i e r of t h e Budveiser l a b e l o r eablem and connote

t h i s s c e n e a s a t o t e m i c community b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r around t h e

product Budweiser, E v e n o n e of t h e c u s t o m e r s a t t h e b a r i s

wearing a t - s h i r t with t h e slogan, "This % u d s s F o r You", printed

o n it. I n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h i s a young c o u p l e f a c i n g

each other while talking, The c l o s e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e i r s a i l i n g

f a c e s a n d t h e p o s t u r e o f t h e woman's l e f t hand and l e g s

( p r a c t i c a l l y e n c l o s i n g t h e y o u n g man) c o n n o t a t i v e l y s i g n i f y i n a

hyper-ritualized e x p r e s s i o n a social r e l a t i o n s h i p o f intimacy

and c o u r t s h i p . The f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n and p o s t u r e o f t h e young

man ( h i s r i g h t hand c l e n c h i n g t h e b a r s t o o l ) signify excitement

a n d s e x u a l d e s i r e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l

nonverbal signals. Yet, e v e n w i t h i n t h i s i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t e x t ,

t h e w o n a n s t i l l c l a s p s o n t o h e r g l a s s of B u d w e i s e r b o e r w h i c h

seems s i q n i f i c a n t t o h e r , a s well, e v e n w i t h a l l t h e

'excitement' g o i n g on.

T h 2 r e f l e c t e d i m a g e s of t h e mirror c o n t a i n t h e s t r u c t u r e d

s o l u t i o n t o t h e h e r m s n e u t i c p u z z l e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e of

t h e m a s s i v e B u d w e i s e r c3p a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l a y o u t , In the

b a r mirror r e f l e c t i o n of t h e s c e n e a s i n g l e s u r r e a l d i s t o r t i o n

i s c o m m u n i c a t e d by t h e l i t e r a l r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p a s s i o n - f i l l e d

y o u n g man w i t h a m a s s i v e B u d w e i s e r b o t t l e t h a t f i t s t h e

p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e c a p o n t h e ' r e a l * f l o o r . I n t h e mirror

r e f l e c t i o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e complete switch between

s t e r e o t y p e d c h a r a c t e r (a d a s h i n g , y o u n g male c o l l e g i a t e ) a n d

commodity s i g n is s i g n i f i e d by t h e g r o u p s c e n e a p p a r s n t o n l y i n

t h e mirror r e f l e c t i o n of p e o p l e t a l k i n g . T h e r e f l e c t e d mirror

image - w h e r e t h e y o u n g man i s a b o t t l e a n d p e o p l e c a n b e seen

talking - o p e r a t e s a s a r e f e r e n t of t h e t o t e m i c c o m m u n i t y a r o u n d

Budweiser. I n t h i s image t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r s o c i a l i d e n t i t i e s

i s a s s u n z d b y t h e p r o d u c t s i n c e t h e y o u n g man i s l i k e t h o s e i n

t h e b a c k g r o u n d of mirror. T h e p r o d u c t s i g n a s totera o b j e c t

becomes, i n K l i n e 8 s words, "the b a s i s of s y m b o l i c r e l a t i o n upon

which a l l o t h e r social r e l a t i o n s are d e f i n e d t h r o u g h

~ e m b e r s h i p . ~ * * T1 h e p r o d u c t s i g n i f i e r s of t h e B u d w e i s e r b o t t l e s

a n d g l a s s e s h e l d by v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o n e i n t h e b a r s c e n e

r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e s i g n i f i e d of t h e i r t o t e m i c m e m b e r s h i p t o t h e

Budweiser l i f e s t y l e community. T h i s system o f social

classification svsn pertains t o the interpersonal relationship

of t h e c o u p l e s i t t i n g a t t h e b a r . T h e y o u n g man i s s o much a

p a r t o f t h i s community i d e n t i t y a r o u n d t h e p r o d u c t a s emblem,

t h a t h e h a s b e c o m e t h e p r o d u c t e m b l e m o r t o t e m i c o b j e c t of t h e

~ u d w e i s e rb o t t l e i t s e l f . In analoqic reference to his identity

as t h e totemic object, h e h a s opened h i s c a p ( ' f l i p p e d h i s cap1;

s u q g e s t i o n through t h e l i t e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a f i g u r e of

s p e e c h t h a t s i g n i f i e s ' t o become e x c i t e d 8 ) . I n t h i s u a y t h e a d ' s

h e r m e n e u t i c s o l u t i o n l i n k s B u d w e i s e r w i t h t h e y o u n g male's

l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l i z i n g with t h e opposite sex,

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s a c t i v i t y and t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e b o t t l e a s

a n emblem s u g g e s t s a l i f e s t y l e s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e t n o s i g n i f i e d s

n o t o n l y i n t h e 33, b u t i n t h e wider d i s c o u r s e a f y o u t h ' s

l i f e s t y l e i n t e r e s t o f g o i n g t o b a r s t o d r i n k a n d t o meet m e m b e r s

o f t h e o p p o s i t e sex.
This hermeneutic s t r u c t u r e constructs a closed t e x t i n t h a t

t h s young m a l e g s p r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g , b a s e d o n common f r a q e

knowledge o f c o l l e g i a t e l i f e a n d t h e y o u t h c o u r t s h i p r i t u a l , is

r 2 f e r r e d t o b y t h e r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r s of t h e p e o p l e a n d

cultural activity i n the layout, 50th t h e a e s t h e t i c semantic

v a l u e of e r o t i c s y m b o l i s l n ( i . e . , t h e man b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y t h e

phalic beer bottle) and t h e sureal distortion of reflected

i m a g e s a s c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e msssaqe a s a c o l l e c t i v e a n d

h a r m o n i o u s s t r i n g o f s i g n s , i s a s t y l e common i n y o u t h c u l t u r e

album c o v e r a r t . T h e s u r r e a l a e s t h e t i c norm o f d i s t o r t i o n i n

r e f l e c t i o n o f i m a g e s i s n V e r y common v i s u a l f o r m o n r o c k a l b u m

covers. D e s i g n e r s have ?layed u i t h t h i s form i n e s p e c i a l l y t h e

changes of s i m i l a r s c e n e s d e p i c t e d on t h e f r o n t and back o f

album c o v e r s (see f i g u r e 40). This type of d i s t o r t i o n through

symmetry h a s become f s m i l i a r t o t h e y o u t h r e c o r d c o n s u m e r , a n d ,

l i k e t h s d e c o d i n g d e m a n d e d b y t h e a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n of 'Bud

l u s t y , t h e 2lements added o r omitted u s u a l l y s i g n i f y t o t h e

consumer a c h a n g e e f f e c t e d by t h s v a l u e o f t h e p r o d u c t i t s e l f .

Contrary to Williamson's theory of t h e mirror function i n

mass m a r k e t a d w o r k , t h e " g a p w b e t w e e n t h e r e a d e r s a n d t h e I t i d e a l

o t h e r u i n t h e a d (i.e., t h e man t u r n e d B u d w e i s e r b o t t l e ) d o e s

not s i a p l y o p e r a t e a s a wspace" t h a t is unproblematically closed

by t h e s u r r e a l , " i r r a t i o n a l w c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e adwork. Instead,

t h e " s p a c e w is t h a t of t h e d i s c u r s i v e s p a c e c o n s t i t u t e d by

p r a c t i c e d i n t e r t e x t u a l and comwon frame a s s o c i a t i o n s s h a r e d b y

t h e totemic c o m m u n i t y a n d r e f e r r e d t o by t h e a e s t h e t i c f o r m of

the ad as referent signifier. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e r e f e r e n c e is

specific to the audience's p r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g frames. product

presentations,

f ) ' j o c k Bud1

T h e a d t e x t ' j o c k Bud* f a l l s i n t o t h e l i f e s t y l e f o r m a t . The

l i f e s t y l e s e t t i n g , p e r s o n s and a c t i v i t y d e n o t e a l o c k e r r o o m

where young xale a t h e l e t e s are d r e s s i n g i n preparation for

s p o r t s o r u n d r e s s i n g an3 s h o w e r i n g a f t e r p l a y . Based o n t h e

c o l l e g i a t e a u d i a n c e ' s common f r a a e e x ~ e r i e n c e , t h e s e t t i n g

c o n n o t e s a n o l d u n i v a r s i t y 3 t h l e t i c f a c i l i t y c h a n g e room. The
 f u r t h e r s i g n i f i e s c o l l e g i a t e s p o r t s community membership. The

laughing f a c i a l expressions of the a t h l e t e s i n the foreground

i

s i g n i f y c o m r a d e r y ana l o c k e r r o o m t a l k a s a p r e d o m i n a n t l y m a l e

d i s c o u r s e o f s h a r e d s t o r i e s snd a t t i t u d e s . The l a u g h t e r a l s o

s i c j n i f i e s t h a t a j o k i n g r e l a t i o n z h i p is b e i n g or h a s been

presented. The r e a d e r , by r e f e r r i n g to t h e product s i q n o f t h e

R u d u e i s e r b o t t l e p o u r i n g i n t o t h e mug, is i n v i t e d , a s well, t o
s h a r e i n a j o k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o v i d e d by t h e s u r r e a l B a n n e r i n

w h i c h t h e beer i s p o u r e d .

The product s i g n of t h e beer pouring i n t o t h e g l a s s is

n o t i c e d b y t h e two a t h e l e t e s who h a v e j u s t s h o w e r e d a n d h a v e

supposedly finished t h e i r sports. The product-sign represents a

s u r r e a l i n t r u s i o n i n t o t h e coiumonplace o r d e r o f t h e p e o p l e and

o b j e c t s o f t h e lockerroom (similar s u r r e a l d i s t o r t i o n s a r e a g a i n

p r e s e n t i n album c o v e r l a y o u t , see f i g u r e 4 2 ) . I t is b e i n g

p o u r e d b y h a n d s coming o u t o f t h e j e r s e y w h i c h is h u n g o n t h e

locker door, b u t t h i s i n a n i m a t e j e r s e y is n o t b e i n g worn by

anyone -- t h e r e is nobody i n it, The j e r s e y is v i s u a l l y

personified, T h e f a c t t h a t t h e j e r s e y is u n s o i l o d a n d h u n g u p

r i g h t n e x t t o t h e man w i t h t h e towel a r o u n d h i s w a i s t s i g n i f i e s

t h a t t h i s i s h i s j e r s e y which s h a l l be worn s h o r t l y . The

h e r m e n e u t i c p u z z l e of who i s p o u r i n g t h e b e e r i s answered by t h e

e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e o w n e r o f t h e j e r s e y who n o t i c e s t h e s u r r e a l

presence o f t h e pourinq Hudweiser, I t signifies a f u t u r e

s c t i v i t y o f what t h e owner o f t h e s h i r t w i l l i n f a c t b e d o i n g
o n c e h a v i n g d r e s s e d a n d g o n e t o t h e l o c a l b a r o r home. The

p o u r i n g h a n d s are and w i l l De t h o s e of t h e a t h e l e t e , but the

f a c t t h a t t h e a t h e l e t e i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d seems t o see t h i s

aberration too s i g n i f i e s a sharing of perspective. This connotes

t h e c o l l e c t i v e c o n c e p t t h a t a t h e l e t e s s h a r e a f t e r a hard workout

-- 'they a l l need a dudweiser'.

T h e p r o d u c t s i g n o f t h e p o u r i n g S u d w e i s e r b o t t l e is f u r t h e r

s i g n i f i e d i n c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h o s e b e l o n g i n g s of t h e a t h e l e t e D s

w h i c h c o l l e c t i v e l y form t h e s h a p e o f a h u m a n b o i y t h a t m i g h t

f i l l t h e jersey. The f o o t b a l l on t o p o f t h e l o c k e r whsre t h e

j e r s e y is hung, t h e c u t o u t f a c e of t h e woman a n d t h e s p o r t s

magazine photographs o n t h e l o c k e r door, and t h e tennis racquet

l e a n i n g a g a i n s t t h e l o c k e r d o o r a l l r e s e m b l e t h e v a g u e form of a

body. These objects also connotatively signify t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e

e l e m e n t s o f l i f e s t y l e which metonymically compose a body o f

interests. T h i s c o l l a g e of t h i n g s s i g n f i e s t h e n s x u s o f

i n t e r e s t s t h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t i n a y o u n g a d u l t male's l i f e s t y l e

a n d a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t a k e n a s t h e form w h i c h s e l e c t s a n d p o u r s

Budueiser.

Two o t h e r p r o d u c t c o n n o t a t o r s c u e t h e r e a d e r ' s intertextual

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s y s t e m of B u d u e i s e r a d v e r t i s e m e n t s . The

g r a f f i t i on t h e green p i l l a r behind t h e a t h e l e t a r e a d s "This

Bud's F o r You". The s l o g a n pr2sented h e r e o p e r a t e s i n t h e

r e a d e r ' s r e f e r e n c e t o it, n o t j u s t a s a w r i t t e n emblem o f t h e

product siqn (signifies t h i s illusionary beer f o r t h e atheletes

who h a v e had a g o o d w o r k o u t ) , b u t a s a n e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e more

closed, asoteric jiscourse of atheletes and t h e i r values. In a

more g e n z r s l i z e d referents t o g r a f f i t i a s a y o u t h c u l t u r a l

d i s c o u r s e , i t is n o t j u s t m i s c h i e v o u s d e f a c e m e n t , b u t a medium

for t h e expression of usually group-centered s o c i a l commentary

3nd a l t e r n s t i v e views, I n a pore popul3rized format within youth

cultural expression, g r a f f i t t i h a s been u s e d o n c o u n t l e s s a l b u m

c o v e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y for punk a r t i s t s ) t o i d e n t i f y t h e

product/band (see f i g u r e 4 3 ) . T h e B u d n e i s e r s l o g a n , so s t y l i z e d

i n t h e a e s t h e t i c a n d s o c i a l r e f e r e n t i a l f o r m of t h e ad, merely

borrows t h e f o r m a n d n o t t h e c o n t e n t of t h i s y o u t h m e d i u a ,
I n t h e c h a n g e k i t of t h e a t h e l e t e i n ' j o c k Sud' a magazine

back cover s t i c k s out, u n d e r l i n e d by a m y s t e r i o u s l i g h t b l u e

l i n e t h a t d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o it. T h e c o v e r c o n t a i n s t h e l a y o u t

o f ' t h e camperss and d i s p l a y s t h e s u r r e a l Budweiser c a n which

resonates with t h e illusionary significance of t h e product sign

e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e e n c o d e d a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e s e s e v e r a l

ads, Because ' t h e campers' occurs i n Amersand, gqrioppl I , p m m ~ g

and &olliqq siope, i t o p e r a t e s a s a r e f e r e n t of t h e r s a d e r s l

a d v e r t i s i n g i n t e r t e x t u a l knowledge based upon s p e c i f i c media u s e

h a b i t s a n d l i f e s t y l e e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n t e r e s t s (media

segmentation), The i n t e r t e x t u a l r e f e r e n c e (linking t h i s apparent

s p o r t s a d w i t h B u d w e i s e r * ~s p e c i f i c y o u t h m a r k e t / a u d i ; n c e ad

t e x t s ) a n 2 t h e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e l i f e s t y l e ad r e ~ r e s e n t a t i o nw i t h

a s u r r e a l a s s t h e t i c v a l u e r e q u i r e a more c l o s e d t e x t u a l r e a d i n g
of ' j o c k Bud* by t h e y o u t h s u d i e n c e . The d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e

commonplace, hyper-ritualized l o c k e r r o o m s c o n e by t h o s u r r e a l
presentation o f t h e product s i q n i f i e r falls i n t o t h e f a m i l i a r

mode o f a d d r e s s t o y o u t h i n n o n t r a d i t i o n a l a d v e r t i s i n g l a y o u t

design. T h i s d i s t o r t i o n a g a i n a p p e a r s based o n t h e c u e i n g o f t h e

f a n t a s y / r e a l i t y c o n f r o n t a t i o n s p e c i f i e d i n o t h e r areas o f y o u t h

culture rather than advertising i n general.

T h e s e ~ i o t i ca n a l y s i s e n d s w i t h t h e a d t e x t ' s i d e c a r Bud'.

The s y n t a g n a t i c arrangement o f t h e s i g n elements i n t h i s ad

q u a l i f y i t a s a l i f e s t y l e f o r m a t and t h e ad a l s o o p e r a t e s as a

'sidecar B u d 1 a r e l i t e r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f ' t h i s i s Bud1 a n d

'3-d 3ud'. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h e e n c o d e r s a t t e m p t t o cue s p o c i f i c

i n t e r t e x t u a l k n o w l e d g e of t h e r e a d e r s ' having decoding these a d s

previously.

T h e c o n n o t a t i o n s of a p a r t i c u a l r l i f e s t y l e s e t t h r o u g h

persons, s e t t i n g a n d a c t i v i t y s h a r e a common s i g n i f i e d w i t h t h e

work-reward theme a d s running i n S~e~rts JL&s&ratefi -- t h e y are

r e l a t e d t o a d e f i n i t i o n o f l i f e s t y l e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d by

work-related s i g n i f i e d s of persons and s e t t i n g s . The photograph

i n 'sidecar Budo d e n o t e s a b u s , m o t o r c y c l e and s i d e c a r , and

o t h e r cars confined u i t h i n rush-hour t r a f f i c i n a downtown

district. T h e y e l l o w i s h c o f o u r i n g o f t h e b u s and b u i l d i n g and

t h e l o n g s h a d o w s c a s t by t h e s u n l i g h t i n d s x t h e s i t u a t i o n --
 l a t e aitcrnoon rushhour. Th? f a c t t h s t t h e b u s i s p a c k e d a n 3 t h e

t r a f f i c i s n o t moving t u r t h e r s i g n i f i e s t h e s c e n e a s s u c h . The

man i n t h e s i d e c a r i s h o l d i n g a m a g a z i n e i n a t y p i c a l c o m m u t e r

posture. As t h e c e n t e r of t n e photograph h i s image demands t h e

readersv attention. As well, i n explicit contradiction to

b
s t a n d a r d l i f e s t y l e ad d e p i c t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s of consumer

community r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s (stereotypical people), this com~utor

a n d h i s y o u n g f e m a l e d r i v e r w a r r a n t t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e reader

because t h e y a r e d i s t i n c t i v e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e y d e f y

classification. Q u e s t i o n s o f who t h e y a r e , why a r e they d r i v i n g

i n a s i d e c a r a n d w h a t d o t h e y mean t o t h e r e a d e r i s l e f t t o t h e

reader's imagination. W h i l e t h e s i d e c a r a n d i t s o c c u p a n t s see@

t o be s o c i a l l y ambiguous, i t i s i i n p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e their
opposition, as a sign, with o t h e r commuters i n t h e ad scene.

W h i l e t h e y a r e i n d e p e n d e n t and d e f y c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , t h e people

o n t h e b u s , s o m e o f whom p e e r o u t , are t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e . The

y e l l o w h u e o f t h e b u s a n d t h e building i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d l i n k

t h e t w o s i g n s a n 3 c o n n o t e a u n i f o r m mass i d e n t i t y w h i c h i s

faceless. I t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h e u n u s u a l p r e s e n c e of t h e

s i d e c a r commuters sets u p a cofnparative fraatework f o r t h e

t e s t i n g of conventional s o c i a l defintions of l i f e s t y l e values.

T h e a d d e n i e s the r e a d e r of a n y c o a f o r t a b l e aRswers i n s a y i n g

who t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t o r e p r e s e n t a n d how t h e r e a d e r i s t o

a s s o c i a t e w i t h him.

The product s i q n i f i e r of ' s i d e c a r Bud' i s t h e " t h i s i3udss

f o r youN s l o g a n on t h e s i d e o f t h e bus. A hermeneutic operation
i s s t r u c t u r a d i n t o t h e r e a d i n g of ' s i d e c a r B u d t b y t h ? s u r r e a l ,
3-d a e s t h e t i c d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t
s i g n i f i e r , T h e p r o d u c t s l g n i f i e r o f t h e ' t h i s i s Bud' ad,
o r i q i n a l l y e n c o d e d i n a n o p 2 n y o u t h a u d i e n c e a d is d i s t o r t e d by
t h e a c t u a l dudweis9r c a n s and ice s p i l l i n g o u t of t h e bus ad

l a y o u t o n t o t h e rosd. I n t h i s s u r r e a l e x t e n s i o n of t h e c a n s from
t h e realm of t w o d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e realm of t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ,
t h e c a n s s h r i n k t o n o r m a l s i z e . T h i s c o n n o t e s t h e i r new e n t r y
i n t o t h e u o r l d of m a t e r i a l o b j e c t f o r m s , I n t h i s d i s t o r t i o n of
s i z e a n d d i m e n s i o n comes t h e s i g n i f i e d t h a t t h e b e e r c a n s i n
' t h i s i s 9 u d 8 a r e c o n f i n e d t o t h e o r d e r l y o r n o r m a l s y s t e m of
m a s s a d v e r t i s i n g v e h i c l e w h i l e t h e f a l l i n g c a n s a n d ice c a n n o t
b e c o n t a i n e d a n d a r e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e of t h e i r

d i f f e r s n c e i n forw.
T h e s e u n c o n t a i n a b l e c a n s a r e f o r t h e man i n t h e s i d e c a r a n d
t h i s i s s i g n i f i e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e is t h e o n l y o n e who
n o t i c e s t h e m c o w i n g o u t of t h e b u s , As u e l l , t h e slogan
a p p e a r i n g r i g h t a b o v e t h e man's h e a d r e f e r s t h e r e a d e r s
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e man -- " T h i s Buda i s f o r t h e wan. The
f a n t a s y / s u r r e a l i m a g e of t h e beer c o i n i n g o u t of t h e b u s f o r t h e

man is s y n t a g m a t i c a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e o v e r a l l s c e n e of p e o p l e

r e t u r n i n g home f r o a w o r k o n a h o t s u m a e r * s d a y a n d q u i t e
p o s s i b l y heading s t r a i g h t for a beer. further, throuqh a
s t r u c t u r e d c o l o u r t e c h n i q u e , t h e man, d r i v e r a n d s i d e c a r
provide t h e red, w h i t e and b l u e c o l o u r s o f t h e Sudweiser l a b e l
which i s c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n t h e two a n 3 t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l
 e x p e r i e n c e o r a way o f b r e a k i n g the r u l e s : b r e a k i n g t h e r u l e s of

standard social identification, b r e a k i n g t h e r u l e s of m e d i a

dimensionality.

T h e f i n a l p r o d u c t c o n n o t a t o r i s t h e back c o v e r o f t h e

m a g a z i n e t h 3 man i s h o l d i n g . Throuqh an i n t e r t e x t u a l performance

c o d e b a s e d o n t h e s p e c i f i c p r e v i o u s r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e of t h e

youth audience, t h e r e a d e r i d e n t i f i e s t h e a d '3-d Bud*. It i s a

r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e r of t h e p r e f e r r e d media o f t h e a u d i e n c e and

t h e media t a s t e s o f t h e man i n t h e s i d e c a r . The '3-d Bud' layout

c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e m e s s a g e ' s i d e c a r Bud* r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e

product s i g n ( t h e Budueiser can) and, more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , w i t h

- the sophisticated, 3-d f a n t a s y / r e a l i t y value i n t h e a e s t h e t i c o f

B u d w e i s e r * ~c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n o f ~ e a n i n gt o t h e

youth market/audience. T h e way of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g r e a l i t y i n t h e

------
R o l l i n g -----
Stone e d i t o r i a l pages t h e s i d e c a r man r e a d s , is

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n a y h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e ' t h i s i s Bud' ad '

p r e f e r s t o see t h e c a n s i n a more real or s o p h i s t i c a t e d

three-dimensional a e s t h e t i c ( h i s way of l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d a s

a ~ o d e lr e a 3 e r ) . H i s d i s t o r t i o n of t h e I t h i s i s B u d * a d i n

f a n t a s y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l n o d e of a d d r e s s of t h i s a d

h a s n o s t r a i g h t m e a n i n g f o r him. The reader, taking the

p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e s i d e c a r man, i s p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e ad
s t r u c t u r e t o s h a r e i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e ' t h i s is aud' ad a s

commonpl3ce a n 3 t o share a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e a e s t h e t i c s e m a n t i c

o f '3-d bud', T h e ad t e x t 'sidecar Bud9 m e t a - c o m m u n i c a t e s a

c h o i c s b a t w t e n two a e s t h e t i c ad f o r m s , o n e o f which is open t o

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by a l l r s s d e r s , and o n e i n which t h e a u d i e n c e is

asked t o s h a r e a p a r t i c u l a r , larjer, cultural predisposition to

decoding i n general. S u c h a s u g g e s t e d d a c o d i n g p r e d i s p o s i t i o n 1s

b u i l t up f o r i n s t a n c e i n t h e r e a d i n g of publications such as

------
R o l l i n g --___
Stone and i n o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e youth c u l t u r e ' s media

consumption pattorns.

The 3 e s t h e t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e a d a s a m e n a i n g f u l whole,

t h s l i f e s t y l e s i g n i f i c a n c s of t h e s i d e c a r man, a n d the

a d v e r t i s i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e s of t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n ' t h i s is

Bud8 a n d '3-d Bud* l a y o u t s a r e , t h r o u g h t h e r e f e r e n t i a l

f u n c t i o n s of t h i s a d m e s s a g e , meaningful f o r t h e young a d u l t

male b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b a s e d o n p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e
y o u t h m e d i a market p l a c e .
As H e n d r i c k s p o i n t s o u t z a r l i e r i n c h a p t e r t w o , a n I o w a
f a r m e r aay n o t 5e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h ? c u l t u r a l s c e n e s ,
r y t h m e s , a n d r i t u a l s o f an u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t . L i k e w i s e , a
y o u n g r e a d e r o f o f 2 1 y e a r s o l d may h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t
common f r a n e c o m p e t e n c y t h a n a m i d d l e a g e d b u s i n e s s m a n ( o n e
r e a j e r t y p i f y i n q t h e r o e i ~ r s h i po f go?&inq Stope w h i l e t h e
o t h e r may b e t h e r e a d e r of g&hybby).

Y.H. A r n a s o n , H i s t e r y pf g g J g ~ gBir, s e c o n d e d i t i o n , (New

York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , l 9 7 8 ) , p , 523.

T h i s ad h a s been o m i t t e d i n t h e primary sample a n a l y s i s

b e c a u s e t h e mode of address i s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e
co-representation of the automotive product type,

Kline, "Images o f well-being," p. 35.

From a s e m i o t i c p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e o b j e c t o f t h e j o k e i s
contained within t h e joking frame e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r
i n d i r e c t l y by i n v o k e d r e f e r e n c e , T h e j o k e i s a r t i c u l a t e d s o
t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l p e r c e i v e t h s two p a r a l l e l and
i n c o n s i s t e n t t f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e made t h a t i n t e r n a l l y
c o n n e c t i n t h e j o k e o b j e c t . Thus it is based on a s h a r e d
knowledge/social understanding of t h i n g s - l a n g u a g e e,
c o n c e ? t u a l c a t e g o r i e s , r o l e s , m u t u a l a w a r e n e s s of s i t u a t i o n
- a n d t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g is r e q u i r e d f o r t h e p e r c e p t i o n of
t h e j o k e i t s e l f . I t i s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h t h e j o k e is
c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d i t s o b j e c t by t h e j o k e r i n a g i v e n
s o c i a l c o n t e x t , Mary D o u g l a s d e f i n e s t h e j o k e a s a n y p l a y
o n f o r m , a n y d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e norm w h i c h is s o c i a l l y
a c c e p t a b l e , see n a r y D o u g l a s , "The S o c i a l C o n t r o l o f
C o g n i t i o n : Some F a c t o r s i n J o k e P e r c e p t i o n , " BIB, 111,
351-376.

D i f f e r e n t a r t f o r m s are more or less r e s t r i c t e d w i t h i n a

f o r m a t of s y n t a c t i c r u l e s o f c o m b i n a t i o n of e l e n e n t s , V h i l e
C l a s s i c i s m is h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d by t h e v a l u e s o f s i m p l i c i t y ,
r e a l i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s and objects (i.e., lslandscape't),
a n d c o n f o r m i t y t o p r o p o r t i o n , Abstract E x p r e s s i o n i s m is
more f r e e - f o r m , d e p i c t i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of r e a l i t y
through i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e artist's
feelings/expression.

Richard Pollay, "The Zommunicatinn o f C u l t u r e : American

~ d v s r t i s i n qa' n d t h e S t r u c t u r e o f V a l u e s , " ( p a p e r q i v e n a t
the j o i n t s e s s i o n of t h e C a n a d i a n C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n
and Socioloqy and Anthropplogy A s s o c i a t i o n Meetings on
A d v e r t i s i n g , L e a r n e d S o c i e t y , 1 9 8 3 , V a n c o u v e r ) , p. 5.

J a n Mukarovsky, " A e s t h 2 t i c s o f t h e Code," I r e n a Bellert a n d

P e t e r o h l i n , eds. Selgcred Zpncg~tt 2~ S g g J ~ g i s s9H rJ
----------
A e s t h e t i c s , M o n t r e a l : M c G i l l , 1 9 7 5 , p. 7 5 ,

Dominy H a m i l t o n , A h q @ C o v e y Album, e d i t e d b y Ed S t o r m a n d
R o g e r D e a n , ( L o n d o n : D r a g o n ' s W o r l d B o o k , l 9 7 7 ) , p. 13.

Hamilton, &&bum C o v e r &&bug, p. 13,

B a t i o n a l ---
-------- L a a E ---
oon p r o v i d e s i n its e d i t o r i a l p a g e s a c y n i c a l
p a r o d y of t r a d i t i o n a l p o p u l a r m e d i a p r o d u c t i o n s u c h a s
newspaper and c u r r e n t a f f a i r s magazine stories. The
m a g a z i n e p l a y s n o f a v o r i t e s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n of t o p i c s f o r
p a r o d y a n d satire, a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , select o b j e c t f o r
r i d i c u l e from e v e r y c o r n e r of mass n e d i a c u l t u r a l
production with representational accuracy and shocking
juxtapositions,

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a d r e a m - l i k e a e s t h e t i c i s
set u p i n a s i m i l a r l a y o u t p r o d u c e d i n a s k e t c h by n a g r i t t e
(see f i g u r e 32, Golconde')

W i l l i a m s o n , Qecgqjnq Bdyert&gemapts, p , 134,

T h e n o s t a l g i a v a l u e of r e f e r r i n g t o p a s t m e d i a and p a s t
s t y l e s i n c u l t u r a l a r t e f a c t s composes a n i n t e r d i s c o u r s e
centered l a r g e l y around t h e r e v i v a l of musical genres
(e.q., R o c k * a l S i l l y ) a n d a e s t h e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t forms
( e . g., Art D e c o , K i t s c h ) . Pluch of t h i s i n t e r d i s c o u r s e i s
c o n s t i t u t e d b y t h e c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s of w b r i c o l a g e ~ g(see
C h a p t e r Two).

Klino, uImages o f w e l l - b e i n g , " p. 35.

V. Conclusion

T h i s s t u d y has lemonstratsd t h e need f o r a n a l y s t s o f

a d v e r t i s i n 7 to acknowledge t h e influence of market segmentation

on t h e d e s i g n of meaningful p r o d u c t messages. The s e g ~ e n t a t i o n

s t r a t e g y d i r e c t s t h e e f f o r t s of a d v e r t i s e r s i n t h e i r a p p e a l s t o
particular audiences. Market s e g m e n t a t i o n is a growing
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e way a d v e r t i s e r s d e s i g n t h e i r p r o d u c t
messages for communication t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e d consumer audiences.
T h e semiotic c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s a p p l i e d t o b o t h

s e g m e n t a t i o n a n d m a s s m a r k e t B u d w e i s e r b r a n d beer a d v e r t i s e a e n t s
h a s p r o v i d e d s u b s t a n t i a l i n d i c a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n t w a y s

a d v e r t i s e m 2 n t s a d d r e s s a u d i e n c e s i n t h e s e two c o n t e x t s of
marketpl3ce comwunication. The s t r a t e g i e s employed by
a d v e r t i s e r s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e d p r o c e s s of s e l e c t i n g a n d c o m b i n i n g
message f o r m s a n d c o n t e n t s h a v e b e e n a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e

market-context s u b s a m p l e s o f a d s d i r e c t e d t o t h e "Heavy Male

Beer D r i n k e r M a n d t h e fitYoung A d u l t Malen i n A m e r i c a n m a g a z i n e s ,

T h e d e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t w e n t y - o n e a d s a n d t h e r e s e a r c h on t h e

media segment a u d i e n c e s t h a t r e c e i v e t h e s e a d s h a s s u g g e s t e d
t h a t i n market segmentation c o n t e x t s a d v e r t i s e r s i n t e n t i o n a l l y
s e n d messages t h a t r e q u i r e t h e r e a d e r t o r e f e r f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l
a d message t o p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a l s y s t e m s o f c u l t u r a l a n d a e d i a
knowlsdge. The r e a d e r must b e t h o u g h t of i n s e g m e n t a t i o n

c o n t e x t s a s p a r t of n d e f i n a h l e a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n d r a w n t o t h e
 p a r t i c u l a r m e d i a v e h i c l e carrying t h e a d , I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e
m a s s m e d i a c a r r y i n g mass m a r k o t a d s , t h e a d v e r t i s e r k n o w s l e s s
a b o u t t h o c u l t u r 2 l a n d m e d i a p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e a v e r a g e reader
and c o n s e q u e n t l y must use n o r e u n i v e r s a l l y understood c u l t u r a l
r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a n d g e n e r a l forms of a d d r e s s .
T h e s e m i o t i c a n a l y s i s of t h e t w o s u b s a m p l e s of a d s h a s b e s n

g u i d e d by t h e o r a t i c a l m o d e l s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s a n d
L
p r o c e s s e s t h a t e x p l a i n t h e r o l e of a d v e r t i s i n g from a n
anthropological/com~unication p e r s p e c t i v e . This perspective
o f f e r s a view t h a t i s somewhat c o n t r a r y t o t h e n o t i o n o f a
m a n i p u l a t e d c o n s u m e r s o c i e t y d o m i n a t e d by p r o d u c t i o n . A s well,

t h e p e r s p e c t i v e p u r s u e d i n t h i s s t u d y rejects t h e lqmass c u l t u r e w
a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n and r e c e p t i o n o f a d m e s s a g e s , The
s o c i o l o g i c a l , c u l t u r a l a n d c o ~ m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r i e s of S c h u d s o n ,
S a h l i n s , a n d K l i n e a n d L e i s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , r e c o m m e n d a more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d a c c o u n t of how g o o d s t a k e o n s y m b o l i c v a l u e s i n
consumer s o c i e t y . These t h e o r i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e symbolism
attached t o goods i n marketing and t h e symbolic a s s o c i a t i o n s
s e l e c t i v e l y used by consumers f o r d e f i n i n g t h e m s e l v e s s o c i a l l y
a n d c u l t u r a l l y i n t o s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s s e c t o r s , a r e two d i s t i n c t
b u t r e l a t e d a s p e c t s of t h e ways g o o d s a c q u i r e m e a n i n g i n

contemporary i n d u s t r i a l societies. I n t h i s way, t h e r o l e of

advertising, a s a communication system, c a n be understood as
s i t u a t e d b e t w e e n t h e d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f two s y s t e m s o f
structures. On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e s p h e r e of p r o d u c t i o n can b 2
v i e w e d i n l a r g e p a r t a s a r e a c t i o n t o t h e d e m a n d s of the
t
h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a r k e t p l a c e where c o n s u m e r d e m a n d i s c l u s t e r e d
i n t o v a r i o u s wants. This does not, of course, r u l e out the r o l e
o f m a r k e t e r s i n s t i r n u l a t i n 7 t h e s e wants. A s well, t h r o u g h media
segmentation a n 3 l y s i 3 t h s v a r i o u s consumer markets c a n be
i d e n t i f i e d a s a d d r e s s a b l a media a u d i e n c e s f o r messages a b o u t
goods i n advertising. This c a p a c i t y o f s a r k e t e r s t o c u l t u r a l l y
l o c a t e t h e market t h r o u g h t h e m e d i a l e a d s t o t h e s t r a t e g y o f
user-centered o r market s e g m s n t a t i o n a d v e r t i s i n g , O n t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e consumer s o c i e t y i n consuming a s e e m i n g l y e n d l e s s
v a r i e t y of p r o d u c t t y p e s a n d b r a n d s h a s d e v e l o p e d i n t o
i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d c o n s u m e r m a r k e t s or commodity
communities.
T h e media m a r k e t p l a c e c o n t i n u e s t o f r a c t u r e i n t o media

segments c o n s t i t u t e d by s p e c i a l i z e d programming a n d c o n t e n t
t h e m e s t h a t a t t r a c t a c e r t a i n t y p e of m e d i a c o n s u m e r . The
g r o w i n g s p e c i f i c i t y a n d d i s t i n c t i o n s of a e d i a s e g m e n t s h a s m e a n t
t o a d v e r t i s e r s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of c o a a u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s
t h a t r e a c h d e n s e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of d e s i r e d p r o d u c t a i a r k e t s i n
t h e defined audiences. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of m a r k e t - a s - a u d i e n c e has
lead t h e study to t h e conclusion t h a t marketers and a d v e r t i s e r s

t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e s e m e d i a s e g m e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n v e h i c l e s f o r

a d v e r t i s i n g b y e n c o d i n g c u l t u r a l s i g n s i n t o a d s i n a way t h a t
p r e f e r s t h e c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s of t h e d e m o g r a p h i c a l f y
defined audiences.
W i t h i n t h i s f u n d 3 r n e n t a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h s r o l e o f
a d v e r t i s i n g i n marketplace communication, t h i s s t u d y h a s
emphasized t h e d e t e r s i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s of t h e semi-autonomous

media market p l a c s a t b o t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n and consumption s i d e s

o f message communication. T h i s a p p r o a c h h a s p r o v e n t o be t h e

most comprehensive i n t h e e x c l a n a t i o n of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e

c u l t u r a l s i g n s a n d desiqn f o r s a t s b e t w e e n m a s s m a r k e t a n d m a r k e t

s e g m e n t ad c o n t e x t s . Thase d i f f s r e n c e s have n o t been l o c a t e d

m e r e l y a t t h e l e v e l o f a d w o r k d e s i g n s t r u c t u r e s of t h e m e s s a g e

a n d i n e x p l i c a t i o n s of how t h e a d r e p r o d u c e s

usubjects-in-qeneral.w Rather, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s have occurred

most a p p a r e n t l y i n p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s of c u l t u r a l s i g n s

r e f e r r i n q t h e r e a d e r t o p a r t i c u l a r s y s t e m s of k n o w l e d g e

constituted 'outside' t h e material a d message.

The u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e a d e r ' s i n t e r t e x t u a l and common

frame e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e d by t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e r e a d e r i n

d e f i n a b l e m a r k e t s e g m e n t s h a s allowed f o r a more e x a c t i n g

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s or c o d e s t h e r e a d e r

p r e f e r s i n decoding. A u d i e n c e c o m p o s i t i o n i s a n i n d i c a t o r of who

a d v e r t i s e r s must s a k e p r o d u c t s m e a n i n g f u l for, The h a b i t u a l

media p r a c t i c e s and g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e

a u d i e n c e ( d e v e l o p e d f r o m m e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s of

a u d i e n c e s by m a g a z i n e ) h a s o f f e r e d t h e a n a l y s i s some s u b s t a n t i a l

c l u e s f o r e x p l a i n i n g how a d v e r t i s e r s s e l e c t a d f o r m s and

c o n t e n t s a n d how t h e a u d i e n c e i n t e r p r e t s t h e s e i n d e c o d i n g ,

Accordinqly, i t has been p o s s i b l e t o a b s t r a c t from t h e ad

m e s s a g e what s t o r e o f e x p e r i e n c e t h e r e a d e r i s most l i k e l y t o

refer t o i n consuming c u l t u r a l s i g n s used. Tho r e a d e r t h e n , must

be thought of as an interpellated subject, within an audience

formation, whose knowledge o r p r e f e r r e d r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a r e

clustered i n an interdiscursive repertoire,

Sy e m p l o y i n g t h e n o t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r a a s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a n

a u d i s n c e , t h e s e m i o t i c f r a m e w o r k has r e n d e r e d a c l e a r e r a c c o u n t

o f how a l v s r t i s e r s c o n c e p t u a l i z e s n d d i r e c t m a a n i n g i n t h e

s e l e c t i o n and combination of c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n t signs. In a

semiotic approach to t h e combination of c u l t u r a l s i g n s

s y n t a g ~ a t i c a l l yl i n k e d i n a d d e s i g n s , Eco9s t h e o r y , which

d e v e l o p s t h e i d e a of open and c l o s e d t e x t s t o e x p l a i n r e a d e r

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n decoding c u l t u r a l l y produced messages, h a s

p r o v e n u s e f u l i n e x p l a i n i n g d e g r e e s of r e a d e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

s t r u c t u r e d a d s , C l o s e d t e x t s r e q u i r e More w o r k f r o m t h e r e a d e r

because they pressuppose t h a t t h e reader possessez s p e c i f i c

competencies i n m e d i a a n d c u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e , These c l o s e d

t e x t s a r e "open t o p r a g m a t i c a c c i d e n t w -- if a r e a d e r u n f o r e s e e n

by t h e e n c o d e r i n t e r p r e t s s u c h a t e x t , t h e r e is a g o o 3 c h a n c e

t h a t no meaning o r a n u n f o r e s e e n meaning w i l l be communicate3.

T h e s e a r e t h e t y p e of t e x t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s e g m e n t a t i o n

advertising, where a d v e r t i s e r s , t h r o u g h m a r k e t and media

research, have presented t h e product i n symbolic dimensions

u s i n g more r e s t r i c t i v e c o d e s (modes o f a d d r e s s and s p e c i f i c

r e f e r e n c e s common t o a r e a d i n g g r o u p ) .

I n c o n t r a s t , open t 2 x t s reduce indetsrminancy because of

t h e i r m o r e l i t e r a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o n t e n t s t h a t r e q u i r e much

l e s s s p e c i f i c i n t e r t e x t u a l a n d common f r a m e z o m p e t e n c e i n t h e
codes/knowledgo t h e reader m u s t s u p p l y i n d e c o d i n g . I n mass
m a r k e t a 3 v e r t i s i n g c o n t e x t s , the e n c o d e r . i d e n t i f i e s a m a r k e t

c o n s u m e r a n d g e n e r a l i z e d r e a d e r who i s c o n p e t e n t i n l e s s

s p e c i f i c e x t r a t e x t u a l codas/knowledge. Thus, f o r mass m a r k e t

ads, d i f f e r 2 n t r e a d e r s with d i f f e r e n t e x t r a t e x t u a l competencies,

o r r e a d e r s who c o m e f r o m d i f f e r e n t d i s c u r s i v e f o r m a t i o n s , w i l l

still u n d e r s t a n d t h e message.

I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n mass m a r k e t c o n t e x t s

a d v e r t i s e r s build up t h e general reader's intertextual

competence i n r e a d i n g a d messages by r e p e a t i n g t h e same adwork

s t r u c t u r e s ( s y n t a q m a t i c r e l a t i o n s ) a n d b y r e f e r r i n g t o a common

p o o l o f p r o d u c t i m a g e s or r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s . T h i s has been t h e

p o s i t i o n t a k e n b y t h e s e m i o t i c s of H a r t h e s a n d W i l l i a m s o n .

However, t h i s s t u d y h a s p r o v i d e 4 a n a n l y s i s which s u g g e s t s t h a t

i n s e g m e n t 3 t i o n or c l o s e d t e x t u a l s i t u a t i o n s , a d x e r t i k e r s s e e k

t o a p p r o p r i a t e and r e f e r t o o t h e r media-based and c u l t u r a l

r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s by a m p l o y i n g t h e mode o f , a d d r e s s a n d t h e more

s u b t l e codes of t h e s e r e f e r e n t systems. I n such advertising

contexts, the phatic, einotive, conative, a e s t h e t i c and

m e t a i i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s o f t h e ad message are c o a p e t e n t l y used

by t h e a u d i e n c e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c a p a c i t y a s p r e d i s p o s e d

c u l t u r a l s i g n s i n o t h e r media systems. Again, i t is m a r k e t a n d

m e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s w h i c h i n f o r a s a d v e r t i s e r s of w h i c h

discoucse/referent systems t h e audience h a b i t u a l l y uses, and

t h o s e t h a t may b e u s e d i n a d s t o c u e p r e f e r r e d r e a d i n g c o d e s

and, therefore, p o s i t i v e product as;ociation. It is t h i s

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l r e f i n e m e n t of a s e m i o t i c s o f a d v e r t i s i n g w h i c h

has l e d t o a fundamental comparison-oriented framework o f t h e

analysis. !3y l o o k i n g a c r o s s f r o m t h e c o n t e x t of t h e a d v e r t i s i n g

m e s s a g e f o r m t o o t h s r message f o r m s i n o t h e r c u l t u r a l

production, t h e a n a l y s i s has sought to f i n d o u t i f advertisers

s e l e c t c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e s e t of m e d i a m e s s a g e s known

t o b e h a b i t u a l l y c o n s u m e d by t a r g e t e d a u d i e n c e s .

Through t h e means a v a i l a b l e i n a d v e r t i s i n g , consumer and

marketing t r a d e journals, t h e a n a l y s i s h a s described t h e market

s e g m e n t o f "Young A d u l t Males, 15-24" as a demographically

i d e n t i f i a b l e commodity and media market. T h e most n o t a b l e

a s p e c t s of t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n a r e t h e y o u t h m a r k e t ' s l i f e s t y l e and

media consumption i n t e r e s t s around music ( p a r t i c u l a r l y

~ 8 r o c k * n * r o l l s * )t ,h e s p l i t of t h e y o u t h a a r k e t i n t o " o n - c a m p u s u

and woff-campusu groups, and t h e m a r k e t e r s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e

y o u t h m a r k e t h a s n o t r e a c t e d i n a v e r y p o s i t i v e way t o

t r a d i t i o n a l a d messages i n t r a d i t i o n a l media, A s well, the

publications c a r r y i n g t h e market segmentation subsample have

b e e n d e s c r i b e d by e d i t o r i a l m a t e r i a l a n d a u d i e n c e d e m o g r a p h i c s ,

T h e i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r y i n t h i s s u r v e y is t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

t h e a u d i e n c e s c o n s u m i n g H p r L o p & Lpqeoog, A g g e r s a n d a n d i?g&?&qq

S t o n e , and t h e a u d i e n c e consuming yqt Ed. gp&i?gg& & q @ ~ q p n ,

A m E------
-- ersand a n d R o l l i n g S t o n 2 s h a r e a c u r r e n t a f f a i r s , y o u t h

l i f e s t y l e a n d p o p u l a r y o u t h m e d i a r e v i e w f o r m a t i n common

( e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t h e m e s o f humour, c o l l e g i a t e l i f e and music

news r s s p e c t i v e l y ) . Thzse t h r e e p u b l i c a t i o n s take a

s o p h i s t i c a t a d and somewh3t c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h i n s o c i a l
commantary and communicate t o a homogeneous msdia m a r k e t d e f i n e d
w i t h i n y o u t h a s a rne3ia s e g m e n t . T h a s a m e B u d w e i s e r a d s a p p e a r
i n a l l three p u b l i c a t i o n s t h u s r e a f f i r m i n g t h e a d v e r t i s e r ' s
common c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of t h 3 s e m e d i a s e g e m e n t s . &pa,

h o w e v e r , i s a more s p e c i f i c l i f e s t y l e p u b l i c a t i o n w h e r e t h e
c e n t e r o f t h e e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t is c o n s c i o u s l y d i r e c t e d a t
m a i n t e n a n c e and i n n o v a t i o n s i n h i g h performance v e h i c l e s and t h e
readers8 i n t e r e s t relates t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a u t o m o t i v e

p r o d u c t s i n a consumer guide-type format. Two o f t h e t h r e e

B u d w e i s e r a d s r u n n i n g i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n are r e l a t e d t o t h i s
i n t e r e s t i n h i g h p e f o r u i a n c e vehicles and r a c i n g , uhile the third
is c u l t u r a l l y a m b i g u o u s , Overall, m o s t of t h e a d s i n t h i s
p u b l i c a t i o n employ t r a d i t i o n a l adwork formats a n d u s u a l l y
p r e s e n t a u t o m o t i v e p r o d u c t s , Seldom are youth l i f e s t y l e
i n t e r e s t s r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e e d i t o r i a l o r a d c o n t e n t s of t h i s
magazine. From t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e sample a n a l y s i s has
q u a l i f i e d t h e a d s a p p e a r i n g i n gig to be activity-centered

r a t h e r than user-centered i n its a p p e a l s t o t h e y o u t h m a r k e t .

T h u s , Hp& Rpd h a s a s s u m e d t h e m a r k e t v a l u e of a s p e c i a l case o f
media s e g m e n t a t i o n t h a t b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y

of hot rod e n t h u s i a s t s than t h e interdiscursive predispositions

of y o u t h a u d i e n c e s .

A l l t h e a d s i n t h e Budweiser s a m p l e h a v e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d and

d i r e c t e d meaning, and have s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s f o r a

predominantly malo r e a d e r s h i p . As w e l l , these a3 texts, with the
 e x c e p t i o n o f t h e t h r e e a ~ p e a r i n gi n elpybby, h a v e a l l r e f e r r e d
t h e r e a d e r t o t h e o v c ? r a l l system o f Yudweiser a d v e r t i s i n g

t h r o u g h t h e r e f e r e n t s i g n i f i e d " T h i s Buds' F o r You," However,

t h e a n a l y s i s has located within t h e s e similarities of appeal
d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s t r a t e g i e s o f s t r u c t u r e d syntagmatic and
p a r a d i g m a t i c a d m e s s a g e p r o c e s s e s b e t w e e n t h e l t H e a v y Hale Beer

D r i n k e r w a n d n Y o u n g A d u l t MaleM s u b s a m p l e s .
T h e " H e a v y M a l e Beer D r i n k e r " a d s have tended toward

d i r e c t i n g symbolic v a l u e o n t o t h e product i n open t e x t u a l

formats. T h e s e t e x t s r e q u i r e l e s s e x t r a t e x t u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n of
t h e r e a d e r by s u p p l y i n g c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n t s i g n s t h a t have been
u n i v e r s a l i z e d o r o f t e n p r a c t i c e d i n m e d i a l e x i c o n s of v e r y
= l a r g e , u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d male a u d i e n c e s , T h e s e a d s make more
l i t e r a l u s e of the g e n e r a l r e f q r e n t s y s t e m s a f t h e w o r k - r e w a r d

theme, n o p n l a r s p o r t s , a n d n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n , S u c h s y s t e m s and
t h e i r p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s to t h e a d are what B a r t h e s and
W i l l i a m s o n h a d i n m i n d f o r t h e i r u s e of t h e c o n c e p t w m y t h i c a l
systems." P a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t - s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h r o u g h a n d d i r e c t e d by
conventionalize?, s u p e r f i c i a l c o d e s of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r
l i t e r a l , w r i t t e n s t a t e m e n t s o f w h a t t o o k p l a c e o r w h a t is g o i n g

1 to take place. For examples, t h e work-reward theme a d s i n ~ E Q E ~ S

-----------
Illustrated refer t o s p e c i f i c work s c e n e s . The a d s c o n t e x t u a l i z e
these scenes a s referent siqnifieds through a superfical
treatment i n photo-journalistic c o d i n g of t h e A m e r i c a n work
a n d s t e e l w o r k e r s i d e n t i f y who t h e p e o p l e a n d w o r k s c e n e s i n t h e

a d s are, a s is d o n a i n n a t i 3 n s l news r e v i e w j o u r n a l i s m , However,

t h e a d s d o n o t refer t o t h e p h o t o q r a p h w i t h s p e c i f i c s o c i a l
c o n s i d e ra ti o n o f their "story1' o r newsworthiness. This

s u p e r f i c i a l r e f e r e n c e is i n t e r t e x t u a l l y f o r t i f i e d by t h e

"snapshotvt-type t r e a t a e n t a t h o s e people and s c e n e s assume i n t h e

f i v e ad series a s a n o n - d e s c r i p t i v e t r i b u t e t o t h e b l u e - c o l l a r
work w o r l d , The r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e ads r e q u i r e s t h e
r e a d e r s q competent knowledge i n p r e v i o u s Budweiser ads and i n
t h e p h o t o - j o u r n a l i s m c o d e u s e d w i d e l y i n o t h e r mass m e d i a ( i t
a p p e a r s o f t e n i n b e e r a n d c i g a r e t t e ads), 'Hewman r a c i n g g ,
' b a s k e t b a l l a r t 1 a n d ' h o c k e y a r t 1 a l l s u p p l y t h e reader w i t h
l i t e r a l , o p e n l y c o d e d s t a t e m e n t s of t h e r e f e r e n t s y s t e m t h e
d e p i c t e d c e l e b r i t i e s a n d s p o r t s a c t i v i t i e s refer t o , S i m i l a r l y ,
* B u d s g a t h e l e t e s * r e l i e s f o r i t s m e a n i n g on l i t e r a l s t a t e m e n t s

o f s p o r t i n g e v e n t s , t h e b r a n d ' s s p o n s o r s h i p of t h e s e e v e n t s , a n d
media coverage. It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t w h e n e v e r t h e

p o t e n t i a l f o r " a b e r r a n t d e c o d i n g " a r i s e s i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
more e s o t e r i c r e f e r e n t s i g n s / r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s ( e . g , , reference
to f i n e a r t and r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i n a n c i a l s t r u c t u r e s of t h e

production of professional sport), t h e s y n t a g m a t i c ' r e l a t i o n s of

adwork a l w a y s c o n t e x t u a l i z e or o v e r c o d e s u c h r e f e r e n c e w i t h t h e
l i t e r a l s t a t e m e n t of t h e b r a n d ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h o l e i s u r e

a c t i v i t y o f mass c o n s u m p t i o n of e n t e r t a i n m e n t ( i . e , , viewing

sport).
 The a n a l y s i s of t h e a d s u b s a m p l e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e "Young

A d u l t Maleu m z r k e t h s s r e v e a l s d t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m o r e c l o s e d

t e x t u a l designs. The o n l y e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s t r e n d a r e found i n

H o t ---
--- Rod m a g a z i n e ads. I n 3Yu3w2iser King* t h e ad e n c o d e r h a s i n
mind a n o d s 1 r e a d e r . T h i s r e a d e r is d e f i n e d by h i s a s s o c i a t i o n

w i t h t h e American h o t r o d community. T h e c u e i n g o f t h e r e a d e r by

t h e r e f e r e n c e s a n d t h e mode o f a d d r e s s e m p l o y e d i n t h e t h e a d

does not suggest any one c u l t u r a l predisposition, but rather

i m i t a t e s t h e mode o f a d d r e s s a n d r e f e r e n c e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e

e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t s and i n o t h e r automotive p r o d u c t a d s which

a t t r a c t t h e less c u l t u r a l l y and s o c i a l l y homogeneous a u d i e n c e t o

t h e publication. I c a n o n l y a s s u m e t h a t D8Arcy Hacflanus B nasius

Ltd. h a s c l a s s i f i e d t h e jjpg Rpd a u d i e n c e u n d e r t h e q a Y o u n g A d u l t

Eale" m a r k e t c a t e g o r y f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r m a r k e t d e f i n i t i o n .

I n t h e i n t e n t i o n a l functions and audience p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

t h e ad t e x t , s B u d w e i s e r K i n g s , t h e p h a t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e

B u d w e i s e r team d r i v e r a s h e c o m m u n i c a t e s t o t h e r e a d e r (soaeone

that respects t h i s voice of authority), is subsumed, a s a

referent sign, by t h e r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e Budweiser

p r o d u c t message. T h i s i s a c l o s e d t e x t u a l a d d e s i g n format

a n a l y z a b l e by t h e work t h e r e a d e r m u s t d o i n s u p p l y i n g

e x t r a t e x t u a l knowledge. The m e s s a g e g a i n s i t s w e a n i n g f o r t h z
r e a d e r by t h a t r e a d e r ' s pre-established interest in the activity

t h e l ' B u d w e i s e r K i n g TeamN r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p e a k s a b o u t and

i n t e r e s t t h e re3der h a s i n b e i n g p a r t of t h i s c o m m u n i t y w h i c h

t h e message o f f o r s , a s well. T h i s p h a t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e a d o r
its s u g g e s t i o n o f conmunal i n t e r s s t becoxes a r e f e r e n t of t h e

r a c i n g d i s c o u r s e and a s p s c i f i c c u l t u r a l s i g n p o s i t i v e l y

s i g n i f y i n g t h e product. T h e a3 t e x t is c l o s e d b e c a u s e o f t h i s

s p e c i f i c c u e i n g i n mode of s d d r e s s .

I n c o m p a r i s o n o r i n t ~ r t e x t u a lr e f e r e n c e t o t h e mass

a d v e r t i s i n g d i s c o u r s e c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n mass m a r k e t m e d i a , t h e s e

ads i n Hi& Rqd u s e c o n v e n t i o n a l s y n t a g m a t i c a d w o r k s t r u c t u r e s .

I n f a c t , t h i s i s t r u e n o t o n l y o f a l l t h e B u d w e i s e r a d s i n HI&

Rqq, b u t a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e s a l m o s t a l l t h e a d v e r t i s i n g t h a t

appears i n t h e publication. The r e a s o n f o r t h i s t y p e o f

s y n t a g r n a t i c s t r u c t u r e ( t o some e x t e n t o p e n ) is b e c a u s e o f t h e

v a r i e d c u l t u r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e m e d i a segaent's

readership. These predispositions, particularly i n habitual

m e d i a u s e (e.g., e v e r y t h i n g from car magazines, to sports

broadcast, t o "girlie" magazines), d o not p r e f e r any one

repertoire of discourses t h a t culturally define an audience

formation. T h e a d e n c o d e r a u s t employ media r e f e r e n c e s and

a d v e r t i s i n g modes o f a d d r e s s t h a t w i l l b e u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y

d e c o d e d b y t h e lowest coinmon d e n o m i n a t o r o f t h e v a r i e d HI& Rid

readership.
T h o s e a d s t h a t h a v e a p p e a r e d i n g&&pnp& L p g ~ ~ o qh ,g e r s a n d

a n d &&figq gtqqg h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s t h e b e s t

e x a m p l e s of t h e c l o s e d t e x t u a l a d d e s i g n f o r m a t . A t the

a n a l y t i c a l l e v e l of syntagmatic connections, the cultural signs

communicated i n t h e s e a d s o p e r a t e t o g e t h e r i n form-oriented

p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t s t r u c t u r e i n t o prominence, the aesthetic

 f u n c t i o n of the ad. I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e message i s i n t e r p r e t e d

a s o n e h a r m o n i o u s o r whole s i g n c o n n e c t e d by t h e c u l t u r a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e of i t s form a s r e f e r e n t . Through v i s u a l
p h o t o g r a p h i c and c o l o u r 2 i s t o r t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , Surrealist
a e s t h e t i c c o d s s of d i s t o r t i o n s i n o b j e c t s c a l e a n d o b j e c t
replacements, and hnrmeneutic s t r u c t u r e s , the final
p r o d u c t - s i g n s o f t h e ad become u n i f i e d r e f e r e n t s o f e x t e r n a l
d i s c o u r s e s consumed i n t h e youth media m a r k e t p l a c e . The
a e s t h e t i c f u n c t i o n s of t h e v i s u a l c o d i n g of t h e s e a d s r e f e r t h e
y o u t h a u d i e n c e t o album c o v e r and pop a r t p o s t e r d e s i g n consumed
s i n c e t h z s i x t i e s by y o u t h c o n s u m e r s . On t h i s b a s i s , t h e p h a t i c
f u n c t i o n o f these a d s a p p r o p r i a t e t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p
-
-
between t h s c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e r s of v i s u a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t and

music-related commodities ( e s p e c i a l l y v i s u a l album c o v e r a r t ) ,

r
-
- t h e s o c i a l value of t h e "fantasy/realityW confrontation connoted

i n t h e s e messages, and t h e audiences' p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n t o t h e

messages. The q u e s t i o n o f t h e youth a u d i e n c e s t e x t r a t e x t u a l
C c o m p e t e n c e i n t h e s e r e f e r r e d media o f f e r s l i t t l e d o u b t , g i v e n

t h e ad encoders' k n o w l e d g e , of t h e e x t r e m e s u c c e s s of m u s i c
commodities i n t h e youth marketplace.
The emotive f u n c t i o n of t h e s e youth ads are based i n t h e

h e r m e n e u t i c f u n c t i o n of t h e a d s . D e p i c t i o n s of p e o p l e , o b j e c t s
and s e t t i n g s i n v i t e t h e r e a d e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a p u z z l e or

discovery i n t h e s u r f a c e "closed" s t r u c t u r e , The i n t e n t i o n and

a r r a n g e m a n t of t h e s e p u z z l i n g s t r u c t u r e s a v o i d " a b e r r a n t
d e c ~ d i n g "o n c e t h e s o l u t i o n i s f o u n d and t h e i n t a n d e d
 r e a l i z a t i o n is a c h i e v e d ( u s u a l l y humourous e m o t i o n a l resonance),

Again, t h i s hermeneutic s t r u c t u r a i n t h e ad depends f o r its

p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n by t h e r e a d e r o n e x t r a t e x t u a l k n o w l e d g e o f i t s

p r a c t i c e d c o d e s i n y o u t h h u ~ o u ra e d i a ( e . g . , g q t i p g q l I,,gggmq

and ' S a t u r d a y N i g h t L i v e t ) a n d i n ' t o n g u e - i n - c h e e k ' album c o v e r

imagery. I n t h l s y o u t h humour media d i s c o u r s e a c o m m e n t a r y

through p l d y s u l d l s t o r t a o n s o f t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l and media

f o r m s t y ~ i f yt h e e x p r e s s i o n o f s o c i a l v a l u e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s o f

youth, I n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n of p l a y f u l l y d i s t o r t i n g r e a l i t y ,

these ads attempt t o recall an experience f o r the reader -- that

of mngug&nq t h e m e a n i n q f u l m e d i a m e s s a g e s i n c u l t u r a l
consumption p r a c t i c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e a d v e r t i s i n g system. This

- i n t e n t i o n a l e n c o d i n g s t r a t e g y is w a d e c l e a r i n t h e s e a d s b y t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e s e a d l a y o u t s a r e o f f e r e d by t h e m a r k e t e r s o f

B u d w e i s e r a s p u r c h a s a b l e commodities ( p o s t e r s ) . A s we1 1, t h e s e

ads g e n e r a l l y cue t h e youth audience's c u l t u r a l preference tor

n o v e l t y by c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l ad m e s s a g e s c o m m u n i c a t e d

i n t r a d i t i o n a l media,

Ths audience p r e d i s p o s i t i o n for something d i f f e r e n t and

a l t e r n a t i v e e x h i b i t s a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y of c l o s e d n e s s

e f f e c t e d by t h e e n c o d e r o f t h e s e Budweiser ads. This strategy

h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e c o n s c i o u s d e s i g n of t h e c o n a t i v e

f u n c t i o n of t h e s e a d s , The a d d o e s n o t a d d r e s s t h e r e a d e r and

d i r e c t h i s a t t e n t i o n through l i t e r a l s t a t e m e n t s of t h e w r i t t e n

t e x t o r through adwork comparisons of t h e p r o d u c t and o t h e r

c u l t u r a l s i g n s set a p a r t i n t h e ad. Instead, t h e s e a d s make t h e

r e a d e r c h o o s e a n a p p r o p r i a t e p o i n t of e n t r y i n t o t h e i r complex
h e r m e n e u t i c s t r u c t u r e s . As s t a t e ? i n t h e a n a l y s i s , t h i s entry

i n t o t h e a d s s s u ~ g e s t e dp e r s p z c t i v e i s u s u a l l y c o n n o t e d b y a
c h a r a c t 2 r ( s ) who, through h l s p o i n t of view i n t h e scene,
d i r e c t s t h e readers* a t t e n t i o n t o particular hermeneutic clues.
By suqjesting t h a t t h e reader survey things i n t h e ad a s t h e

c h a r a c t e r ( s ) does, t h e a n c o d e r c o n n o t e s a s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e
i d e n t i t y of t h e c h a r a c t e r ( s ) and r e a d e r . I n ' r a i n i n g Bud*,
' s i d e c a r Buds, 'jock S u d s , ' c a m p i n g * , *Bud l u s t g a n d ( 3 - d Budg
t h e d i r e c t i n g c h a r a c t e r s a r e a l l y o u n g wen e v i d e n t l y i n v o l v e d i n
l i f e s t y l e a c t i v i t i e s t h e r e a d e r may p r e f e r . I n t h i s sense, they
r e p r e s e n t the r e a d e r s ' l i f e s t y l e community i n t e r e s t s and s u g g e s t
a model r e a d e r w i t h p a r t i c u l a r e x t r a t e x t u a l c u l t u r a l
preferences. The fact t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s are u s u a l l y t h e o n l y
o n e s who p e r c e i v e t h e S u r r e a l i s t s c e n e c o n n o t e s , a s well, a
s h a r i n g o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e way of p e r c e i v i n g r e a l i t y b e t w e e n
t h e s e c u l t u r a l l y i n d e x i c a l c h a r a c t e r s and t h e youth r e a d e r . This
c o n a t i v e f u n c t i o n of t h e a d s c o n t r a s t s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l a d w o r k
a p p e a l s b y t h e a b s e n c e of t h e u s u a l p e r s u a s i v e r h e t o r i c of
c o n v e n t i o n a l ad t e x t s ( t h e s e a d s u s u a l l y d i r e c t t h e r e a d e r s *
a t t e n t i o n c o n t i n u a l l y b a c k to t h e p r o d u c t a n d stress t h e p r o d u c t

q u a l i t i e s or ' o b v i o u s v a l u e a ) , a n d b y t h e i m p r e s s i o n of
i n t e r p r e t i v e f r e e d o m r e n d e r e d by t h e s e y o u t h m a r k e t a d d r e s s e s .
T h i s s t u d y h a s s h o w n how m a r k e t s t r a t e g y a n d m e d i a
production s t r u c t u r e s i n f l u e n c e d e s i g n s and c u l t u r a l s i g n s
a p p l i e d by e n c o d e r s i n a d v e r t i s e m e n t s . In c o m p a r i n g m l r k e t
s e g m e n t h t i o n a n d mass m a r k e t c o n t e x t ~ d v e r t i s e r n e n t st h e s t u d y

h a s found t h a t seqementation ads r e f e r t h e r e a d e r from c u l t u r a l

s i g n s i n t h e ad t o s p e c i f i c r e f e r u n t s y s t e m s , w h i l e mass m a r k e t

a d s c o n n o t e m o r e g e n e r a l r e f e r e n t systems i n p r o d u c t

signification. As n e l l , t h e segrnzntation ads displayed c u l t u r a l

s i g n s r r a n q n m e n t s t h a t meant a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of i n v o l v e m e n t b y

a p a r t i c u l a r typ? o f r e a d e r f o r t h e intended or proper

s i q n i f i c a n z ~t o 5 2 t a k e n from t n e m e s s a g e . These f i n d i n g s

recommend a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e v i t a l r o l e o f m a r k e t i n g a n d

e s p e c i a l l y , m a r k e t e r s 9 u n d e r s t a n d i n g and u s e o f t h e media

marketplsce i n t h e s t r a t e g i e s of designing advertisements, For

those a d v e r t i s i n g audiences t h a t are c u l t u r a l l y predisposed t o

p a r t i c u l a r l i f e s t y l e and media consumption i n t e r e s t s ,

a d v e r t i s e r s u s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s i n t h e i r messages t h a t a r e

p o s i t i v e l y consumed by and s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r

audience formations.

I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s t h e i n f l u e n c e of m a r k e t , and,

therefore, m e d i a s e g m e n t a t i o n grows, we a r e l i k e l y t o w i t n e s s

t h e g r o w i n g s p e c i f i c i t y of r e f e r e n t s y s t e m s a n d c l o s e d t e x t u a l

forms i n ads, A l o n g w i t h this t e n d e n c y of a d s p e c i f i c i t y i n

address, i t is e x p e c t e d t h a t adaen w i l l b e e v e n Bore r e l i a n t o n

t h e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of m e d i a f o r m s a n d c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s t h a t t h e

media commodity i t s e l f s i g n i f i e s t o p a t r o n i z i n g r e a d e r s s i t u a t e d

i n known a u d i e n c e f o r m a t i o n s . T h i s i s why t h e s e m i o t i c s o f

a d v e r t i s i n g must a t t e a p t t o i n c o r p o r a t e a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b o t h

the t r u e e n c o d i n g s t r u c t u r e s i n f l u e n c e d b y m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i s s
and t h e r e a l c o n ; t i t u t i o n of t h e r e a d e r i n t o m e d i a a u 3 i e n c e

formations. T h i s s t u d y h a s made the f i r s t s t e p s i n this new

direction.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A r n a s o n , H. H. H i ~ J g g y of M ~ j e g nAyJ. s e c o n d e d i t i o n , N e w York:
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1978.

Earthes, R. glgmhnts qf z s g l p & p q y . London: J o n a t h a n Cape, 1967.

" s e e r a d v e r t i s i n g : Cominq t h r o u q h f o r y o u , " C o n s u m e r B g ~ o r t s,

(July, 1 9 8 3 ) , p 3 4 3 -352.

Rerger, J. ggys qf S g g i ~ q . Hammondsworth: Penguin, 1972.

C l a r k e , D. "The S t a t e o f C u l t u r a l T h e o r y : A R e v i e w of P a s t a n d
P r e s e n t F a s h i o n s , " A&erna&e Bplts, IV (1980), 109-127.

C l a r k e , J. " S t y l e , # t f i g ~ j s t p g c g'FFgqqqh B?&ppug. e d i t e d b y S.

H a l l , a n d T. J e f f e r s o n . London: H u t c h i n s o n , 1 9 7 5 .

" C r e a t i v e R e s e a r c h r e s e a r c h must g e t t o g e t h e r t o r e a c h youth,"

----------
Advertising &qg, ( A p r i l 9, 1 9 7 3 ) , 63,
D 9 Amico, R. ##Desirea n d t h e C o ~ a o d i t yP o r n , " ws, XXXV (l978),
204-223.

D 8 A r c y MacManus & n a s i u s Ltd., l e t t e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e beer

m a r k e t , ( H a r c h 15, 19831, b y F r e d Molter.

D a r w i n , C. Pg $be E Z P I ~ S S ~ ~~f~ ~hS b E & ~ f i . s a ~ B B ~

-------
Animals. London: J o h n Burray, 1872,

Denisoff, S. Solid GqAq. Hew Brunsuick:Transaction Inc., 1975.

D o u g l a s , M. "The S o c i a l C o n t r o l of Cognition: Some F a c t o r s i n

J o k e P e r c e p t i o n . " Bgp, 111, 361-376.

D o u g l a s , H., a n d I s h e r w o o d , B. Z~P sf &gas. New York:

P e n g u i n , 1978.

D y e r , G. 49xertiSipg 98 w l p m % a 9 d l e Hew York: Retheun, 1982.

ECO, U. " T o w a r d s a Semiotic foqsiry i n t o t h e T e l e v i s i o n
iqessage," Paper g i v e n a t Conference; HThe S t u d y Group f o r
t h e s e t t i n g up of a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h model on
t h e t e l e v i s i o n aodi4uc2e: r e l a t i o n s h i p , " Peruga, rtaly:
u n i v e r s i t y o f PerUga*'{Qct. 1 9 6 5 ) 101-129.
----------*----- T h e o r y _of Ssni_o_tsjgs. ~ l o o r n i n . j t o n , I n d i a n a : Injiana
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1370.

____-_____._-_
T h e ----
Role of &hg W a d g y . London: Hutchinson, 1979.

Eliot, T.S., * t ! l a r n l e t . t l SqlectfQ gsqgyp. L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r ,

1332, ~ n n i s , 8 . an? C o x , K. PJqgkg&&~g cl8ssics. B o s t o n :
A l l y n a n 3 Bacon, Lnc., 1977. Inc., 1977.

Gage, 2. 4 ' ? r o s p e c t i n g t h e o f f - c a a p u s g o l d mine," Iiqyig&isjnq

Age, ( R u g . 2 , 1 9 8 2 ) ' m-12 - m-14,

S a l b r a i t h , J. K., 3'2 &ff&uggr Sgc&gry. r e v i s e d e d i t i o n , L o n d o n :

H a s i s h H a m i l t o n , 1970.

Goffman, E. Ggqmgg Advertiggmg@. London: ~ a c ~ i l l a n1 ,9 7 9 .

Guiraud, ?. Semip&qgy. London: R o u t l e d g e & Kegan P a u l , 1375.

Hall, S. " E n c o d i n g a n d D e c o d i n g t h e T e l e v i s i o n D i s c ~ u r s e . Paper

~
f o r t h e C o u n c i l of E u r o p e C o l l o q u y o n " T r a i n i n g i n t h e
C r i t i c a l R e a d i n g of T e l e v i s i o n Language;** U n i v e r s i t y o f
L e i c e s t e r , S e p t . , 1973.

---------- . " C u l t u r e , t h e Media and ' t h e f d e o l o g i c a f E f f e c t * , " i n

ggltgrg 329 ggMia, E d i t e d b y ,
Curran, Woollacott, and ,
Gurevitch, London: Open U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977.

---------- . w E n c o d i n g / D e c o d i n g . w CuAtgy& m d i a , i,gqqgqqe, E d i t e d

b y S. H a l l , D. H o b s o n , A . Lowe, a n d P. Willis. L o n d o n :
H u t c h i n s o n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1981,

---------- . * * R e c e n t D e ~ e l o p m ? n t s ,g~ y ~ ~ g g gQe4isr

, &399gpgg.
E d i t e d b y S , H a l l , D. H o b s o n , A. Lowe, a n d P. Willis,
London: H u t c h i n s o n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1981,

R e n d r i c k s , W. 0 . "Open a n d C l o s e d Texts." Sgg&pt&cq, X X X V , 3 / 4 ,

1 9 8 1 , 364-378.
Yulin-Salkin, 2. l t . 9 s d i a c 3 o l - b u t n o t t h e c o l l 2 g e c r o u d . "
----------
A d v e r t i s i n g Rig, ( A u q . 2 , 1 3 8 0 ) , m-12 - m-14.

K i r k e b y , H. " T r a c k i n g t h e o f f - c a m p u s crowd." h i y g g i i ~ & n gAge ,

( A p r i l 28, 1 9 8 0 ) , s - 1 9 - s - 2 2 .

Kline, S . l*Ima-Je:; or' H e l l - b ~ i n q : Y a r k e t S e g m e n t s a n d Use T y p ~ s

3 n d a S t u d y of C a n a a i a n P l a q a z i n e A d s 1910-1980.1* P a p e r
presented 2 t t h s Lsarned Society j o i n t s e s s i o n on
a d v e r t i s i n q c o n d u c t e d by t h e C a n a d i a n C o m m u n i c a t i o n
A s s o c i a t i o n and th? Canadian Sociology and Anthropoloqy
A s s o c i a t i o n , V a n c o u v s r , ( J u n e 4, 1983).

K o t f e r , P. Bpgkgtlqg Flpngqgmg~$. New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e Hall,

1976.

Kress, G. R. structuralism a n d P o p u l a r C u l t u r e , " A ~ ~ r p g c h e&ps

-- u l a r-------
P o ~---- Culture. a o l w i n g G r e e n , Ohio: Bowling G r e e n
U n i v e r s i t y P o p u l a r P r e s s , 1976.

---------- . " I c o n s o f the M a r k e t p l a c e . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e

R e s e a r c h Symposium; wConsutner's I n f l u e n c e o n P u b l i c and
P r i v a t e Consumer P o l i c y , " Smygehus, Sweden, ( S e p t , , 1982).

Levi-Strauss, C. The Sprqqe Egg@. London: Weidenfield and

Nichof s o n , 1966.

_---------*-------- Totemism. N e w York: Penguin, 1973.

Leymore, V. L. Hiddgq Myth, London: Heinemann, 1975.

HcCabe E n g l i s h , M, " C o n s e r v a t i v e c o n s u m e r t y p i f i e s new

generation." A d v e r t i e n q Age, ( A p r i l 2 8 , 1 9 8 0 ) . s - 1 - 3-4.

M c C r a c k e n , G., a n d P o l l a y , R, " A n t h r o p o l o g y a n d t h e S t u d y of
A d v e r t i s i n g , " U n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , D e p a r t m e n t of
A n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d D e p a r t m e n t of H a r k e t i n g , B u s i n e s s a n d
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Vancouver, U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia,
1983.

Harley, D.
. E d i !t *eTd e xbtys , R e a d e r s , S u b j e c t s . " Cgl&g~s, ?lgl&s, tggggugf
S. H a l l , D. H o b s o n , A. LOW?, a n d i?, Willis.
 London: Yutchinson University Library, 1991.

P o l l 3 y , R. " A m e r i c a n M a g a z i n e s , A d v e r t i s i n g a n d t h e C o n s u m e r
C u l t ~ r e .W~ o~r k i n g p a p e r n o . 8 3 1 , F a c u l t y of Com!nerce a n d
8 u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia,
Vancouver, 1981.

---------- ,"The C o r n r n u n i c a t i ~ no f i u l t u r s : A m e r i c a n A l v e r t i s i n g
3 n 3 t h e S t r u c t u r e of Values.** P a p e r p r 2 s e n t e d a t t h s
Learned S o c i a t y H a e t i n a s j o i n t s e s s i o n o n a d v e r t i s i n g
c o n d u c t e d by t h e C 3 n a d l a n Communication A s s o c i a t i o n and
t h e C a n a d i a n A s s o c i a t i o n of A n t h r o p o l o g y a n d S o c i o l o g y ,
Vancouver, 1983.

S a h l i n s , M. "On t h e S o c i o l o g y o f P r i m i t i v e E x c h a n g e . " S t g g g &qg

---------
E c o n o m i c s , E d i t e d b y M. S a h l i n s . C h i c a g o : A l d i n l , 1972.

C u l t u r e ---
________-_-___-_-- P r a c t i c a l ------
a n d --------- Reason. Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y of
C h i c a g o Press, 1976.

S c h u d s o n , 8 . * ' C r i t i c i z i n g t h e C r i t i c s of A d v e r t i s i n g : T o w a r d s a
S o c i o l o g i c a l V i e w o f W a r k e t i n g . " &diq, gg&~~gg qqd
------
S o c i e t y , 111, ( l 9 8 l ) , 3-16.

Schwartz, T. TFg Bl~~ggsiyg ghgyd, Mew York: A n c h o r P r e s s , 1973.

S c i t o v s k y , T. Thg J p y & g ~E~~ o g p g y . New York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y

P r e s s , 1976.

S o m i n e r s , M . "The E v o l u t i o n of M a r k e t i n g T h o u g h t a n d I t s
l m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e S t u d y of A d v e r t i s i n g . " Paper
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e j o i n t s e s s i o n of t h e C a n a d i a n
Communication A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e Canadian Sociology and
A n t h r o p o l o g y A s s o c i a t i o n of the L e a r n e d S o c i e t y
C o n f e r e n c e , Vancouver, U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia,
( J u n e 4, 1 9 8 3 ) .

Sunila, J , 1 4 M o v i e a n d l p a d s d o best o n r a d i o , t ~ , ~k *
lyg
. gtjsd&g
Veron, E. q f I d e o l o g y 3 n d t h e Social S c i e n c e s : A Communications1
A ? ~ r o s c h . ~ 'ssmiothc, 111, i , ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 5 7 - 7 1 .

W i n s h i p , J. " ' H a n d l i n g S e x ' i n A d v e r t i s i n g O 1 *ag&&q, C y J t g g ~

------
S o c i e t y , 111, i, (l98l), 56-71.

"Youth H a r k e t Diverseom Adclrtisinq A p , ( A p r i l 28, l98O), s-2,

Yovovich, 8 . G. " P l a y i n g H i d e and S e e k , " A d y e g & i s & ~ q , (Aug.
2, 1 9 8 2 ) , m-6 - m-9.