Fiber-Optic Sensors: Technology & Applications

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which
can be read by an observer or by an instrument. A sensor is a device which receives and
responds to a signal. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output
changes when the measured quantity changes. Sensors that measure very small changes
must have very high sensitivities. Sensing and measuring is one aspect of information
generation that will become an increasingly important activity in the coming years.
Introduction:
An Fiber-Optic Sensor is the sensor that uses optical fiber either as the sensing element
i.e. "Intrinsic Sensors", or as a means of relaying signals from a remote sensor to the
electronic-circuit that process the signals i.e. "Extrinsic Sensors". Optical fibers have many
uses in remote sensing.
Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, no electrical
power is needed at the remote location, many sensors can be multiplexed along the length
of a fiber by using light wavelength shift for each sensor and sensing the time delay as
light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a
device such as an ‘Optical Time-Domain’ reflectometer and wavelength shift can be
calculated using an instrument implementing optical frequency domain reflectometry.
An Fiber-Optic Sensor measures a physical quantity based on its modulation on the
intensity, spectrum, phase, or polarization of light traveling through an optical fiber. This
device converts light rays into electronic signals. Similar to a photo-resistor, it measures
physical quantity of light and translates it into a form read by the instrument. Optical
sensors have a variety of uses. They are found in everything from computers to motion
detectors. For example, when the door to a completely darkened area such as the inside of
a copy machine is opened, light impacts the sensor, causing an increase in electrical
productivity. This will trigger an electric response and stop the machine for safety.
Distinction is often made in the case of fiber sensors as to whether it acts externally or
internally on the fiber. Where the transducers are external to the fiber and the optical
fiber simply registers and transmits the sensed data or quantity, they are termed
‘extrinsic sensors’. Where the sensors are embedded in or are part of the fiber and for this
type, there is often some modification to the fiber itself, the sensors are termed as
‘intrinsic sensors’.
Fiber-Optic Sensors are immune to electromagnetic interferences because they do not
conduct electricity and can be used where there is high voltage electricity or inflammable
material such as jet fuel. Fiber-optic sensors can be designed to withstand high
temperatures as well.
Fiber-Optic Sensors have been one of the most benefited technologies of the remarkable
developments, which are achieved by optoelectronics and fiber-optic communications
industries. Primarily, a fiber-optic sensor works by modulating one or more properties of a
propagating light wave, including wavelength, phase, intensity and polarization in

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response to the environmental parameter being measured [1]. Today, fiber-optic devices,
including fiber gratings, play a major role in optical communication sensor applications,
which include civil, mechanical, electrical, aerospace, automotive, nuclear, biomedical and
chemical sensing technologies [2]. Figure 1 shows a simple kind of Fiber-Optic Sensor.

Figure 1 : A simple kind of fiber-optic sensor.

Fiber-Optic Sensors have been used in various applications ranging from monitoring of
natural structures for prediction of seismic vibrations, earthquakes or volcanic activity [3]
to medical systems like blood oxygen monitoring [4]. For structural applications, they are
used for strain sensing and damage detection [5-7]. Fiber-Optic Sensors are also used for
sensing temperature, pressure, rotation, velocity, magnetic field, acceleration, vibration
[8-11], chemical [12-14] and biological species[16-17], pH level, acoustic waves,
environmental [18] sensing and many other physical parameters.
A Fiber-Optic Sensor is a device through which a physical, chemical, biological or other
measurand interacts with light guided in an optical fiber or guided to an interaction
region by an optical fiber to produce an optical signal related to the parameter of interest.
It measures anything which alters the properties of light. The Fiber-Optic Sensor is
diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. 2. Light beam is taken to a modulation region using
optical fiber and modulated therein by physical, chemical, or biological phenomena, and
the modulated light is transmitted back to a receiver, detected, and demodulated.

Figure 2 : A basic fiber-optic sensor system consists of an optical fiber and a light
modulating arrangement.

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01. Working Principle of Fiber-optic Sensors:

Figure 3 :Working principle of Fiber-optic sensors.

An optical fiber sensing system is basically composed of a light source (Laser, LED, Laser
diode etc), an optical fiber; a sensing or modulator element or transducer (which
transduces the measurand to an optical signal), an optical detector and the processing
electronic unit (oscilloscope, optical spectrum analyzer etc.).

Figure 3 : General structure of Optical Fiber Sensor System

The principle of operation of an FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR is that the transducer modulates

some parameter of the optical system (intensity, wavelength, polarization, phase, etc.)
which gives rise to a change in the characteristics of the optical signal received at the
detector. Figure 5 and 6 shows the working principle and general structure of the fiber-
optic sensor systems.

02. Classification of Fiber-Optic Sensors:

Fiber optic sensors are classified under three categories:
(i) The sensing location,
(ii) The operating principle, and
(iii) The application.

4.1 Classification of fiber-optic sensors according to the sensing location:

Based on the sensing location and operation mode, Fiber-Optic Sensors are categorized
under two titles (see Figure ). [19-20]

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 (a) Extrinsic Fiber-optic Sensors.
(b) Intrinsic Fiber-optic Sensors.
In an extrinsic FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR, the fiber-optic is simply used to carry light to and
from an externally sensing optical device. In this cases, the fiber-optic just acts as a means
of getting the light to the sensing location. In an intrinsic fiber-optic sensor one or more of
the physical properties of the fiber-optic undergo a change (see Figure 7). Perturbations
act on the fiber and the fiber in turn changes some characteristic of the light inside the
fiber.
4.1.1 Intrinsic Sensors.
In an intrinsic sensor, the fiber-optic itself is the sensing element. The light transmission
takes place in the fiber itself as transducer. The light beam does not leave the optical fiber
but is changed whilst it contained within it.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other
quantities by modifying an optical fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the
wavelength, intensity, phase, polarisation or transit time of light in the optical fiber. In
the simplest type of fiber-optic only a simple source and a detector are required. A
characteristically useful feature of intrinsic fiber-optic sensors is that they can, if required,
provide distributed sensing over very large distances.
Temperature can be measured by using a fiber-optic that has evanescent loss that varies
with temperature, or by analyzing the Raman scattering, Rayleigh Scattering or Brillouin
Scattering. Electrical voltage is sensed by non-linear optical effects in specially doped
fiber, which alters the polarization of light as a function of voltage or electric field. Angle
measurement sensors can be based on the sagnac effect. Special fibers like long-period
fiber grating (LPG) optical fibers are used for direction recognition. Optical fibers are used
as laser microphone contained hydrophone systems with more than one hundred sensors
per optical fiber cable have been developed for sonar and seismic applications. Hydrophone
sensor systems are used by the petroleum industry as well as navies. Both bottom-
mounted hydrophone arrays and towed streamer systems are useful.
A fiber-optic based microphone and headphone are useful in areas with strong electrical or
magnetic fields, such as communication amongst the team of people working on a patient
inside a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machine scanning or during MRI-guided
surgery.
FIBER-OPTIC SENSORs for measuring temperature and pressure have been developed
for downhole measurement in dredging in oil wells. The fiber-optic sensor is well suited for
this environment as it functions at temperatures too high for semiconductor sensors.
Optical fibers can be made into interferemetric sensors such as fiber-optic gyroscopes,
which are used in the aircrafts and in some car models for navigation purposes. They are
also used to make hydrogen sensors.
The FIBER-OPTIC SENSORs have been developed to measure co-located temperature
and strain simultaneously with high accuracy using fiber Bragg gratings. This is useful

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when acquiring information from small or complex structures. [22] Fiber Bragg grating
sensors are also well suited for remote monitoring as they can be interrogated at nearly
250 km away from the monitoring station using an optical fiber cable. Brillouin
scattering effects can also be used to detect strain and temperature over large distances up
to 120 kilometers.[23-24]
4.1.2 Extrinsic sensors:
In an extrinsic sensor, the fiber-optic simply transports light to or from the sensing
element. In this, the fiber-optic carries the light from source and to detector, but,
modulation occurs outside the fiber-optic transducer.
Extrinsic fiber-optic sensors mostly use a multimode type optical-fiber cable to
transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber-optical sensor, or an electronic sensor
connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to
reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. For example, the temperature, measured
inside aircraft engines by an optical-fiber and the radiation is transmitted to a
radiation pyrometer located outside that jet-engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in
the same way to measure the internal temperature of electronic transformers, where the
extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible.
Extrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors provide excellent protection to measurement of signals
against noise corruption. Unfortunately, many conventional sensors produce electrical
output which must be converted into an optical signal for use with fiber-optic, which
reduces result quality. For example, in the platinum resistance thermometer (PRT), the
temperature changes are translated into resistance changes. Therefore, a PRT must have
an electrical power supply. The modulated voltage level at the output of the PRT can be
injected into the optical fiber via conventional transmitter. This makes complications in
the measurement process and so, the low-voltage power cables must be routed to the
transducer.
Extrinsic sensors are used to measure physical quantities like vibrations, revolutions,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, temperature etc.

Figure 3 :Schematic showing the general design scheme of

(a) Extrinsic fiber-optic sensors. (b) Intrinsic fiber-optic sensors.

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The distinguished characteristic of the extrinsic sensors is that the sensing takes place
outside the fiber as shown in Fig. 7(a). The optical fiber is only used as the means of light
delivery and collection. The propagating light leaves the fiber in a way that can be
detected and collected back by another or the same fiber. Intrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors are
differ from extrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors, where light does not have to leave the optical
fiber to perform the sensing function as shown in Fig. 2(b).
In intrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors, the optical fiber structure is modified. The fiber-optic
itself plays an active role in the sensing function, i.e. modulation of light takes place inside
the fiber-optic to measure a particular parameter [29-33].
Extrinsic Fiber-Optic Sensors can be found in schemes such as Fabry-Perot
interferometers which utilize only some of the advantages optical fibers offer over
competing technologies. Intrinsic optical fiber sensors such as fiber-optic gyroscope, fiber
Bragg gratings, long period gratings, micro-bend and coated or doped fiber sensors utilize
most of the advantages offered by the technology. Intrinsic systems can be embedded into
composite structures. This has attracted attentions of many researchers.
4.1.3 Comparison of Extrinsic & Intrinsic Fiber-optic sensor:

Extrinsic Fiber-optic sensors Intrinsic Fiber-optic sensors

Less sensitive More sensitive

Less expensive More expensive

Easily multiplexed Tougher to multiplex

Ingress/ egress connection problems Reduces connection problems

Easier to use More elaborate signal demodulation

Applications- temperature, pressure, liquid Applications-rotation, acceleration, strain,

level and flow. acoustic pressure and vibration.

Figure 4 Extrinsic and Intrinsic FIBER-OPTIC SENSOR

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4.2 Classification of fiber-optic sensors based on the application.
The Fiber-Optic Sensors are classified as follows:
(a) Physical sensors: Used to measure physical properties like temperature, stress, etc.
(b) Chemical sensors: Used for pH measurement, gas analysis, spectroscopic studies,
etc.
(c) Bio-medical sensors: Used in bio-medical applications like measurement of blood
flow, glucose content etc.

4.3 Classification of fiber-optic sensors based on the operating system.

Based on the operating principle or modulation-demodulation process, a Fiber-Optic
Sensor is classified as :
(a) Intensity based fiber-optic sensors.
(b) Wave length ( or Frequency) modulated fiber-optic sensors.
(c) Phase Modulated Fiber Optic Sensors.
(d) Polarization Modulated Fiber Optic Sensors.

03. Examples of Fiber-optic Sensors:

A fiber-optic A.C./D.C. voltage sensor in the middle or high voltage range (100–2000 V)
can be prepared by inducing measurable amounts of Kerr nonlinearity in single mode
optical fiber by exposing a calculated length of fiber to the external electric field [25]. The
measurement technique is based on ‘polarimetric’ detection where, high accuracy is
achieved in a hostile industrial environment.
High frequency (5 MHz–1 GHz) electromagnetic fields can be detected by induced
nonlinear effects in fiber with a suitable structure. The fiber-optic used is designed such
that the Faraday and Kerr effects cause considerable phase change in the presence of the
external field. With appropriate sensor design, this type of fiber-optic can be used to
measure different electrical and magnetic quantities and different internal parameters of
fiber material.
Electrical power can be measured by a specially structured bulk fiber ampere sensor
coupled with proper signal processing in a polarimetric detection scheme [27].
Fiber-optic sensors are used in electrical switchgear to transmit light from an
electrical arc flash to a digital protective relay to enable fast tripping of a breaker to
reduce the energy in the arc blast.
Fiber Bragg grating based fiber-optic sensors significantly enhance performance, efficiency
and safety in several industries. With FBG integrated technology, sensors can provide
detailed analysis and comprehensive reports on insights with very high resolution. These
type of sensors are used extensively in several industries like telecommunication,
automotive, aerospace, energy, etc. Fiber Bragg gratings are sensitive to the static
pressure, mechanical tension and compression and fiber temperature changes. The
efficiency of fiber Bragg grating based fiber-optic sensors can be provided by means of

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central wavelength adjustment of light emitting source in accordance with the current
Bragg gratings reflection spectra [28].
04. Advantages of Fiber-optic Sensors :
Comparing with the conventional electrical and electronic sensors, fiber-optic sensors
(Fiber-Optic Sensor) have inherent superiorities that are difficult to achieve by others,
such as:
(i). Insensitivity to electromagnetic interference and inability to conduct electric current.
(ii). Remote sensing: it is possible to use a segment of the fiber as a sensor gauge with a
long segment of another or the same fiber conveying the sensing information to a remote
station. Optical fiber transmission cables offer significantly lower signal loss, as compared
to signal transmission in other sensors, and can maintain a high signal to noise ratio
(SNR).
(iii). Small size and light weight: Optical fibers are intrinsically small-size, which helps
when building a compact system and suitable for installing or embedding into structures.
(iv). Operation in hazardous environments: Optical fiber sensors can work under extreme
conditions like high temperature, high pressure, corrosive and toxic environments, high
radiation, large electromagnetic, highly inflammable medium and other harsh
environments.
(v). High sensitivity and wide bandwidth: A Fiber-Optic Sensor is sensitive to small
perturbations in its environment.
(vi). Distributed measurement: An optical fiber communication network allows the user to
carry out measurements at different points along the transmission line without significant
loss when the signal passes through it. This provides a method to monitor, control and
analyze the parameters over an extended length or area.
(vii). The passive dielectric characteristic: As Fiber-optic is unable to conduct electric
current, it eliminates the conductive paths in high voltage environments.
Some of the Advantages of optical fiber sensors over Conventional Electronic Sensors are:
 Freedom from electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference.
 Inherent safety and suitability for extreme vibration and explosive environments.
 Tolerant of high temperatures (>1450 C) and corrosive environments, Greater
Sensitivity.
 Lightweight and compact size.
 Multifunctional ability.
 Multiplexing capabilities.
 Resistant to harsh environment.
 Wide Dynamic Range.
 Remote sensing capability.

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  Multifunctional sensing capabilities such as rotation, acceleration, electric and
magnetic field measurement, temperature, pressure, acoustics, vibration, linear and
angular position, strain, humidity, viscosity, chemical measurements.
 Large Bandwidth.

05. Disadvantages of Fiber-optic Sensors:

Some of the disadvantages of using optical fiber sensors are:
 Detection systems may be complex and expensive.
 High cost.
 Unfamiliarity to the end user. Especially, skilled operator is required.
 Requirement for precise installation procedures.
 Development of usable measuring systems is complex.

06. Applications of Fiber-optic Sensors:

Fiber-optic sensors are used in several areas, specifically:
 Mechanical Measurements such as rotation, speed, acceleration etc.
 Electric field and magnetic field measurement,
 Temperature, pressure, flow rate, acoustics vibration, linear position-angular
position, strain, humidity, viscosity and chemical measurements.
 Electrical & Magnetic Measurements, electromagnetic field measurement etc,
 Chemical & Biological Sensing.
 Monitoring the physical health of structures in real time.
 Buildings and Bridges: Concrete monitoring during setting, crack length and its
propagation speed monitoring, spatial displacement measurement, neutral axis
evolution, creep and shrinkage type long term deformation monitoring, concrete-
steel interaction and post-seismic damage evaluation etc.
 Tunnels: Multipoint optical extensometers, convergence monitoring, shotcrete /
prefabricated vaults evaluation and joints monitoring damage detection.
 Dams: Foundation monitoring, joint expansion monitoring spatial displacement
measurement, leakage monitoring and distributed temperature monitoring.
 Heritage structures: Displacement monitoring, crack-opening analysis, post-seismic
damage evaluation, restoration monitoring, and old-new interaction.
 Detection of fluid Leakage.

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 Bio-Sensors.
A bio-sensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of an analyte that combines a
biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological element. (
e.g. tissues, micro-organisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids,
etc.) is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts (binds or
recognizes) with the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be
created by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element (works in a
physicochemical way;optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, electrochemiluminescence etc.)
transforms the signal resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological
element into another signal (i.e., transduces) that can be more easily measured and
quantified. The bio-sensor reader device with the associated electronics or signal
processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user friendly
way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device, however it
is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive
element (holographic sensor). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured
to suit the different working principles of bio-sensors.

There are many potential applications of bio-sensors of various types. The main
requirements for a bio-sensor approach
to be valuable in terms of research and
commercial applications are the
identification of a target molecule,
availability of a suitable biological
recognition element, and the potential
for disposable portable detection
systems to be preferred to sensitive
laboratory-based techniques in some
situations. Some examples are :

1. Glucose monitoring in diabetes patients, other medical health related targets,

2. environmental applications e.g. the detection of pesticides and river water
contaminants such as heavy metal ions,
3. remote sensing of airborne bacteria e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities,

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4. remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects
of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in
groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,
5. detection of pathogens,
6. determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation,
7. detection and determining of organophosphate,
8. routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic
acid as an alternative to microbiological assay,
9. determination of drug residues in food, such as antibiotics and growth promoters,
particularly meat and honey,
10. drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds,
11. protein engineering in bio-sensors and
12. detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins.

Smart sensors
 Sensor + Interfacing Circuit = Smart Sensor

Introduction:

A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the

physical environment and uses built-in computing
resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of
specific input and then process data before passing it on.
These devices are used for monitoring and control
mechanisms in a wide variety of environments including smart grids, battlefield
reconnaissance, exploration and a great number of science applications.

Compute resources are typically provided by low-power mobile microprocessors. At a

minimum, a smart sensor is made of a sensor, a microprocessor and communication
technology of some kind. The compute resources must be an integral part of the physical
design, a sensor that just sends its data along for remote processing is not considered as
smart sensor.

A smart sensor may also include a number of other components besides the primary sensor.
These components can include transducers, amplifiers, excitation control, analog filters
and compensation. A smart sensor also incorporates software-defined elements that provide

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functions such as data conversion, digital processing and communication to external
devices.

As technology becomes more dependent on the Internet, smart sensors that can detect
information from the physical world and perform specified instructions or relay the data to
other systems are becoming integral part of new smart product designs.

The smart sensors are capable of manipulation and computation of the sensor-derived
data. Smart sensors are capable of logic functions, two-way communication and making
decisions. A sensor producing an electrical output when combined with interfacing
electronic circuits is known as “Smart Sensor", it is a combination of both sensor and
actuator. It simply physical, biological or chemical input & converts it to the measured
value into a digital format.

Why Smart Sensors……? : Smart sensor enhances following applications:

 Self-calibration: Adjust deviation of o/p of sensor from desired value.

 Communication: Broadcast information about its own status.
 Computation: Allows one to obtain the average, variance and standard deviation for
the set of measurements.
 Multi-sensing: A single smart sensor can measure pressure, temperature, humidity,
gas flow and infrared, chemical reaction surface acoustic vapour etc.
 Cost effective: less hardware and reduction of repetitive testing make smart sensor cost
effective.

Components of Smart Sensors:

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(01) Network Capable Application Processor (NCAP):
Communications, Interface Control, Message Routing, TIM Discovery and Control, Data
Correction, Interpretation of TEDS Data, Message Encoding and Decoding

(02) Transducer Interface Module (TIM):

TEDS Storage, Analog Signal Conditioning, Triggering, Analog to Digital Conversion,
Command Processing, Data Transfer, Communications.

General Architecture of Smart Sensors: is given in the figure below:

Advantages of Smart Sensors:

01. Easy to design, use and maintain.

02. Small rugged packaging.
03. Minimum cost.
04. Single chip solution
05. Very small in size, less space in configuration,
06. Work with small signals.
07. Minimum interconnecting cable.
08. High reliability.
09. High performance.
10. Scalable -flexible system.

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Applications of Smart Sensors:

(01) Accelerometer:

It consists of the sensing element and electronics on silicon. The

accelerometer itself is a metal-coated SiO2 cantilever beam that
is fabricated on silicon chip where the capacitance between the
beam and the substrate provides the output signal.

(02) Optical sensor:

Optical sensor is one of the examples of smart sensor, which are used
for measuring exposure in cameras, optical angle encoders and optical
arrays. Similar examples are load cells silicon based pressure sensors.
(03) Infrared detector array:
It is developed at solid laboratory of university
of Michigan. Here infrared sensing element is developed using
poly-silicon.
(04) Integrated multi-sensor:
This chip contains MOS devices for signal conditioning with on
chip sensor.

Industrial Applications of Smart Sensors:

Structural monitoring: It is needed to detect damages of industrial infrastructure.

Geological mapping: It is needed mainly to detect the minerals on the geological areas.

Digital Imaging: interpretation of tunnel geology, Remote measurements of tunnel

response, etc.

Disadvantages of Smart Sensors:

 The smart sensor consists of both actuators & sensors, so it is more complexed than
other simple sensors.
 The complexity is much higher in the wired smart sensors, as a consequence the
costs are also higher.

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