CHAPT ER 33

Techniques of Integration III:

Integration by Partial Fractions
N ( x)
We shall give a general method for finding antiderivatives of the form ∫ dx, where N(x) and D(x) are
D( x)
N ( x)
polynomials. A function of the form is called a rational function. (N(x) is the numerator and D(x) is
D( x)
the denominator.) As examples, consider

x −1 x3 − x
∫x 3
+8
dx and ∫ x+2
dx

Two restrictions will be assumed, neither of which limits the applicability of our method: (i) the leading
coefficient (the coefficient of the highest power of x) in D(x) is +1; (ii) N(x) is of lower degree than D(x). A
quotient N(x)/D(x) that satisfies (ii) is called a proper rational function. Let us see that the restrictions (i)–(ii)
are not essential.
N ( x) 2x3
EXAMPLE 33.1: Consider the case where is . Here, our first restriction is not satisfied. However,
D( x) 5 x 8 + 3 x − 4
note that

2x3 dx = 1 ∫ 8 23x
3
∫ 5x 8
+ 3x − 4 5 x + 5x− 4
5
dx

The integral on the right side satisfies restrictions (i) and (ii).

is 2 x2 + 7 . Here, our second restriction is not satisfied. But we can

N ( x) 5
EXAMPLE 33.2: Consider the case where
D( x) x +3
divide N(x) by D(x):

2 x 5 + 7 = 2 x 3 − 6 x + 18 x + 7
x2 + 3 x2 + 3

2 x 5 + 7 dx = 1 x 4 − 3x 2 + 18 x + 7 dx
Hence, ∫ x2 + 3 2 ∫ x2 + 3

and the problem is reduced to evaluating ∫ 182x + 7 dx, which satisfies our restrictions.
x +3

A polynomial is said to be irreducible if it is not the product of two polynomials of lower degree.
Any linear polynomial f (x) = ax + b is automatically irreducible, since polynomials of lower degree than
f (x) are constants and f (x) is not the product of two constants.
Now consider any quadratic polynomial g(x) = ax2 + bx + c. Then

g(x) is irreducible if and only if b2 − 4ac < 0

279
 280 CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III

To see why this is so, assume that g(x) is reducible. Then g(x) = (Ax + B)(Cx + D). Hence, x = −B/A and
x = −D/C are roots of g(x). The quadratic formula

x = −b ± b − 4 ac
2

2a

should yield these roots. Therefore, b2 − 4ac cannot be negative. Conversely, assume b2 − 4ac ≥ 0. Then the
quadratic formula yields two roots of g(x). But, if r is a root of g(x), then g(x) is divisible by x − r.† Hence,
g(x) is reducible.

EXAMPLE 33.3:
(a) x2 + 4 is irreducible, since b2 − 4ac = 0 − 4(1)(4) = −16 < 0.
(b) x2 + x − 4 is reducible, since b2 − 4ac = 1 − 4(l)(−4) = 17 ≥ 0.

We will assume without proof the following fairly deep property of polynomials with real coefficients.

THEOREM 33.1: Any polynomial D(x) with leading coefficient 1 can be expressed as a product of linear factors of
the form x − a and of irreducible quadratic factors of the form x2 + bx + c. (Repetition of factors is permitted.)

EXAMPLE 33.4:
(a) x3 − 4x = x(x2 − 4) = x(x − 2)(x + 2)
(b) x3 + 4x = x(x2 + 4) (x2 + 4 is irreducible.)
(c) x4 − 9 = (x2 − 3)(x2 + 3) = (x − 3 )(x + 3 )(x2 + 3) (x2 + 3 is irreducible.)
(d) x3 − 3x2 − x + 3 = (x + l)(x − 2)2

Method of Partial Fractions

N ( x) N ( x)
Assume that we wish to evaluate ∫ D( x) dx , where
D( x)
is a proper rational function and D(x) has leading
coefficient 1. First, write D(x) as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
Our method will depend on this factorization. We will consider various cases and, in each case, we will
first explain the method by means of an example and then state the general procedure.

Case I
D(x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

EXAMPLE 33.5: Find ∫ 2dx .

x −4

In this case, D(x) = x2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2). Write

1 = A + B
( x − 2)( x + 2) x − 2 x + 2

It is assumed that A and B are certain constants, that we must now evaluate. Clear the denominators by multiplying
both sides by (x − 2)(x + 2):

1 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 2) (1)

First, substitute −2 for x in (1): 1 = A(0) + B(−4) = −4B. Thus, B = − 14 .

Second, substitute 2 for x in (1): 1 = A(4) + B(0) = 4A. Thus, A = 14 . Hence,

1 =1 1 −1 1
( x − 2)( x + 2) 4 x − 2 4 x + 2

†
In general, if a polynomial h(x) has r as a root, then h(x) must be divisible by x − r.
CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III 281

So, ∫x 2 (
−4 ∫ 4 x−2 4 x+2 4 )
dx = 1 1 − 1 1 dx = 1 ln | x − 2 | − 1 ln | x + 2 | + C
4

= 14 (ln | x − 2 | − ln | x + 2 |) + C

= 14 ln x − 2 + C
x+2

( x + 1) dx
EXAMPLE 33.6: Find ∫ .
x3 + x 2 − 6x
Factoring the denominator yields x(x2 + x − 6) = x(x − 2)(x + 3). The integrand is x +1 .
x ( x − 2)( x + 3)
Represent it in the following form:

x +1 =A+ B + C
x( x − 2)( x + 3) x x − 2 x − 3

Clear the denominators by multiplying by x(x − 2)(x + 3):

x + 1 = A(x − 2)(x + 3) + Bx(x + 3) + Cx(x − 2) (2)

Let x be 0 in (2): 1 = A(−2)(3) +B(0)(3) + C(0)(−2) = − 6A. So, A = − 16 .

Let x be 2 in (2): 3 = A(0)(5) + B(2)(5) + C(2)(0) = 10B. So, B = 3
10 .
Let x be −3 in (2): −2 = A(−5)(0) + B(−3)(0) + C(−3)(−5) = 15C. So, C = − 152 .

Hence, ∫x
( x + 1) dx
3 (
= − 1 1 + 3 1 − 2 1 dx
+ x 2 − 6 x ∫ 6 x 10 x + 2 15 x + 3 )
= − 16 ln | x | + 103 ln | x + 2 | − 152 ln | x + 3 | + C

General Rule for Case I

A
Represent the integrand as a sum of terms of the form for each linear factor x − a of the denomina-
x−a
tor, where A is an unknown constant. Solve for the constants. Integrating yields a sum of terms of the form
A ln |x − a|.

Remark: We assume without proof that the integrand always has a representation of the required kind. For
every particular problem, this can be verified at the end of the calculation.

Case II
D(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which occur more than once.
(3x + 5) dx
EXAMPLE 33.7: Find ∫x
− x2 − x + 1
3 .
First factor the denominator:†
x3 − x2 − x + l = (x + l)(x − l)2

Then represent the integrand 3x + 5 as a sum of the following form:

x 3 − x2 − x + 1

3x + 5 = A + B + C
x 3 − x2 − x + 1 x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1)2

†
In trying to find linear factors of a denominator that is a polynomial with integral coefficients, test each of the divisors r of the constant
term to see whether it is a root of the polynomial. If it is, then x − r is a factor of the polynomial. In the given example, the constant
term is 1. Both of its divisors, 1 and −1, turn out to be roots.
 282 CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III

Note that, for the factor (x − 1) that occurs twice, there are terms with both (x − 1) and (x − 1)2 in the denominator.
Now clear the denominators by multiplying both sides by (x + l)(x − 1)2:

3x + 5 = A(x − l)2 + B(x + l)(x − 1) + C(x + 1) (1)

Let x = 1. Then 8 = (0)A + (2)(0)B + (2)C = 2C. Thus, C = 4.

Let x = −1. Then 2 = (4)A + (0)(−2)B + (0)C = 4A. Thus, A = 12 .
To find B, compare the coefficients of x2 on both sides of (1). On the left it is 0, and on the right it is A + B.
Hence, A + B = 0. Since A = 12 , B = − 12 . Thus,

3x + 5 = 1 1 − 1 1 +4 1 2
x3 − x 2 − x + 1 2 x + 1 2 x − 1 ( x − 2)

Therefore,
(3x + 5) dx
∫x = 1 ln | x + 1 | − 12 ln | x − 1| + 4 ∫ dx 2
3
− x2 − x + 1 2 ( x − 1)

By Quick Formula I,

dx = ∫ ( x − 1)−2 dx = −( x − 1)−1 = − 1
∫ ( x − 1) 2
x −1

(3x + 5) dx
So,
∫x = 1 ln | x + 1| − 12 ln | x − 1| − 4 1 + C
3
− x2 − x + 1 2 x −1

= 12 ln | x + 1| − 4 + C
| x − 1| x − 1

( x + 1) dx
EXAMPLE 33.8: Find ∫ .
x 3 ( x − 2)2

( x + 1)
Represent the integrand in the following form:
x 3 ( x − 2)2

( x + 1)
=A+ B + C + D + E
x 3 ( x − 2)2 x x 2 x 3 x − 2 ( x − 2)2

Clear denominators by multiplying by x3(x − 2)2:

x + 1 = Ax2(x − 2)2 + Bx(x − 2)2 + C(x − 2)2 + Dx3(x − 2) + Ex3

Let x = 0. Then 1 = 4C. So, C = 14 .

Let x = 2. Then 3 = 8E. So, E = 83 .
Compare coefficients of x. Then 1 = 4B − 4C. Since C = 14 , B = 12 .
Compare coefficients of x2. Then 0 = 4A − 4B + C. Since B = 12 and C = 14 , A = 167 .
Compare coefficients of x4. Then 0 = A + D. So, D = − 167 .

( x + 1)
Hence, = 7 1+1 1 +1 1 − 7 1 +3 1 .
x 3 ( x − 2)2 16 x 2 x 2 4 x 3 16 x − 2 8 ( x − 2)2

Thus, ∫ x ((xx+−12))
3 2 dx = 7 ln | x | − 1 1 − 1 12 − 7 ln | x − 2 | − 3 1 + C *
16 2 x 8 x 16 8 x−2

= 7 ln x − 4 x +2 1 − 3 1 + C *
16 x−2 8x 8 x−2
CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III 283

General Rule for Case II

A A2 Ak
For each repeated linear factor (x − r) that occurs k times in the denominator, use 1 + +. . .+
x − r ( x − r )2 ( x − r)k
as part of the representation of the integrand. Every linear factor that occurs only once is handled as in
Case I.

Case III
D(x) is a product of one or more distinct irreducible quadratic factors and possibly also some linear factors
(that may occur more than once).

General Rule for Case III

Linear factors are handled as in Cases I–II. For each irreducible quadratic factor x2 + bx + c, place a term
Ax + B
in the representation of the integrand.
x 2 + bx + c

( x − 1) dx
EXAMPLE 33.9: Find ∫ .
x( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 2)
Represent the integrand as follows:

( x − 1)
= A + Bx2 + C + Dx2 + E
x( x 2 + 1)( x 2 + 2) x x +1 x +2

Clear the denominators by multiplying by x(x2 + l)(x2 + 2).

x − 1 = A(x2 + l)(x2 + 2) + (Bx + C )x(x2 + 2) + (Dx + E )x(x2 + 1)

Multiply out on the right:

x − 1 = (A + B + D)x4 + (B+ E )x3 + (3A + C + D)x2 + (2C + E )x + 2A

Comparing coefficients, we get:

2A = −1, 2C + E=1, 3A + 2B + D = 0, C + E = 0, A+B+D=0

So, A = − 12 . From 2C + E = 1 and C + E = 0, it follows that C = 1 and E = −1.

From 3A + 2B + D = 0 and A + B + D = 0, we get 2A + B = 0. Since A = − 12 , B = 1.

From A + B + D = 0, – 1
2 + 1 + D = 0. So, D = – 12 .

( x − 1) x +1
= − 1 1 + x2 + 1 − 2 2
1
Thus, .
x ( x + 1)( x + 2)
2 2
2 x x +1 x + 2

Then the antiderivative of the left side is equal to

− 1 ln | x | +
2 ∫ xx dx
2 + dx − 1 x dx −
+1 ∫ x +1 2 ∫ x + 2 ∫ x + 2
2
dx
2 2

= − 1 ln | x | + 1 ln( x 2 + 1) + tan −1 x − 1 ln( x 2 + 2) − 1 2 tan −1 ( x / 2 ) + (constant).

2 2 4 2
 284 CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III

Case IV
D(x) is a product of zero or more linear factors and one or more irreducible quadratic factors.

General Rule for Case IV

Linear factors are handled as in Cases I–II. For each irreducible quadratic factor x2 + bx + c that occurs to
the k th power, insert as part of the representation of the integrand.

A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 A x + Bk
+ +... + 2 k
x 2 + bx + c ( x 2 + bx + c)2 ( x + bx + c) k

Find ∫ 2 x2 + 32 dx.
2
EXAMPLE 33.10:
( x + 1)

Let 2 x2 + 32 = Ax2 + B + Cx2 + D2 . Then

2

( x + 1) x + 1 ( x + 1)

2x2 + 3 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 1) + Cx + D = Ax3 + Bx2 + (A + C )x + (B + D)

Compare coefficients: A = 0, B = 2, A + C = 0, B + D = 3. Hence, C = 0, D = 1. Thus,

2 x 2 + 3 dx = 2 1
∫ (x2
+ 1)2 ∫ x 2 + 1 dx + ∫ ( x 2 + 1)2 dx
= 2 tan −1 x + ∫ 1 dx
( x 2 + 1)2

In the second integral, let x = tan q. Then

1 sec 2 θ dθ
∫ (x 2
+ 1) 2 dx = ∫
sec 4 θ
= ∫ cos 2θ dθ = 12 (θ + sin θ cosθ )

(
= 1 θ + tan
2
θ
) (
= 1 tan −1 x + 2 x
tan 2 θ + 1 2 x +1 )
2 x 2 + 3 dx = 5 tan −1 x + 1 x + C
Thus,
∫ (x 2
+ 1)2 2
2 x2 + 1

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Find ∫ x − 3x − 2x − 1 dx.
4 3
1.
x −x
The integrand is an improper fraction. By division,

x 4 − x3 − x − 1 = x − x + 1 = x − x + 1
x3 − x 2 x3 − x 2 x 2 ( x − 1)

We write x + 1 = A + B + C and obtain

x 2 ( x − 1) x x 2 x − 1

x + 1 = Ax(x − 1) + B(x − 1) + Cx2

CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III 285

For x = 0, 1 = −B and B = −1. For x = 1, 2 = C. For x = 2, 3 = 2A + B + 4C and A = −2. Thus,

x 4 − x 3 − x − 1 dx = x dx + 2 dx + dx − 2 dx
∫ x3 − x 2 ∫ ∫ x ∫ x2 ∫ x − 1
= 12 x 2 + 2 ln | x | − 1 − 2 ln | x − 1| + C = 12 x 2 − 1 + 2 ln x + C
x x x −1

x dx
2. Find ∫ ( x + 2)( x + 3) .
Let x = A + B . Clear the denominators:
( x + 2 ) ( x + 3) x+2 x+3
x = A(x + 3) + B(x + 2)

Let x = −2. Then −2 = A. Let x = −3. Then −3 = −B. So, B = 3.

x dx 1 1
∫ ( x + 2)( x + 3) = −2 ∫ x + 2 dx + 3∫ x + 3 dx
= −2 ln | x + 2 | + 3 ln | x + 3 | + C = − ln(( x + 2)2 ) + ln(| x + 3 |)3 + C

( x + 3)3
= ln +C
( x + 2)2

x2 + 2
3. Find
∫ x( x + 2)( x − 1) dx.
Let x2 + 2 = A + B + C . Clear the denominators:
x( x + 2)( x − 1) x x + 2 x − 1

x2 + 2 = A(x + 2)(x − 1) + Bx (x − 1) + Cx (x + 2)

Let x = 0. Then 2 = −2A. So, A = −1. Let x = −2. Then 6 = 6B. So, B = 1. Let x = 1. Then 3 = 3C.
So, C = 1. Hence,

x2 + 2 1 1 1
∫ x( x + 2)( x − 1) dx = − ∫ x dx + ∫ x + 2 dx + ∫ x − 1 dx
( x + 2)( x − 1)
= − ln | x | + ln | x + 2 | + ln | x − 1| + C = ln +C
x

∫ ( x + x2)(+x1− 1)
3
4. Find 3 dx.

Let x3 + 1 = A + B + C + D . Clear the denominators:

( x + 2)( x − 1)3 x + 2 x − 1 ( x − 1)2 ( x − 1)3

x3 + l = A(x − 1)3 + B(x + 2)(x − l)2 + C(x + 2)(x − 1) + D(x + 2)

Let x = −2. Then −7 = −27A. So, A = 277 . Let x = 1. Then 2 = 3D. So, D = 23 . Compare coefficients of x3. Then 1 = A + B.
27 . Compare coefficients of x . 0 = −3A + C. Since A = 27 , C = 9 .
Since A = 277 , B = 20 2 7 7

x3 + 1 dx = 7 ∫ 1 dx + 20 ∫ 1 dx + 7 ∫ 1 2 dx + 2 ∫ 1 3 dx
Thus, ∫ ( x + 2)( x − 1) 3
27 x + 2 27 x − 1 9 ( x − 1) 3 ( x − 1)

= 7 ln | x + 2 | + 20 ln | x − 1| − 7 1 − 1 1 +C
27 27 9 x − 1 3 ( x − 1)2
 286 CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III

x 3 + x 2 + x + 2 dx.
5. Find ∫ x 4 + 3x 2 + 2
x4 + 3x2 + 2 = (x2 + l)(x2 + 2). We write x 4+ x +2 x + 2 = Ax2 + B + Cx2 + D and obtain
3 2

x + 3x + 2 x +1 x +2
x3 + x2 + x + 2 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 2) + (Cx + D)(x2 + 1)
= (A + C )x3 + (B + D)x2 + (2A + C )x + (2B + D)

Hence A + C = 1, B + D = 1, 2A + C = 1, and 2B + D = 2. Solving simultaneously yields A = 0, B = 1, C=l, D = 0.

Thus,
x 3 + x 2 + x + 2 dx = 1 x
∫ x 4 + 3x 2 + 2 ∫ x 2 + 1 dx + ∫ x 2 + 2 dx
= tan −1 x + 12 ln( x 2 + 2) + C

x 5 − x 4 + 4 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 8 x − 4 dx.
6. Find
∫ ( x 2 + 2)3
We write x 5 − x 4 + 4 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 8 x − 4 = Ax + B + Cx + D + Ex + F . Then
( x 2 + 2)3 x 2 + 2 ( x 2 + 2)2 ( x 2 + 2)3

x5 − x4 + 4x3 − 4x2 + 8x − 4 = (Ax + B)(x2 + 2)2 + (Cx + D)(x2 + 2) + Ex + F

= Ax5 + Bx4 + (4A + C)x3 + (4B + D)x2 + (4A + 2C + E)x
+ (4B + 2D + F)

from which A = 1, B = −1, C = 0, D = 0, E = 4, F = 0. Thus the given integral is equal to

( x − 1) dx x dx x dx dx + 4 x dx
∫ x2 + 2
+ 4∫ 2
( x + 2)3 ∫ x 2 + 2 ∫ x 2 + 2
= − ∫ ( x 2 + 2)3
By Quick Formula II,
x dx 2 x dx 1
∫x =1
+ 2 2 ∫ x2 + 2 2
2 = ln( x 2 + 2)

and by Quick Formula I,

x dx
∫ (x = 1 ( x 2 + 2)−3 (2 x) dx = 12 (− 12 )( x 2 + 2)−2 = − 1 2 1 2
2
+ 2)3 2 ∫ 4 ( x + 2)

x 5 − x 4 + 4 x 3 − 4 x 2 + 8 x − 4 dx = 1 ln( x 2 + 2) − 2 taan −1 ⎛ x ⎞ − 1
So, ∫ ( x 2 + 2)3 2
2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ( x 2 + 2)2 + C

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

In Problems 7–25, evaluate the given integrals.

dx = 1 ln x − 3 + C
7. ∫x 2
−9 6 x+3

x dx
8. ∫x 2 = 1 ln ( x + 1)( x − 4)4 + C
− 3x − 4 5

x 2 − 3x − 1 dx = ln x1 2 ( x + 2)3 2 + C
9. ∫x 3
+ x2 − 2x x −1
CHAPTER 33 Techniques of Integration III 287

10. ∫x
dx = 1 ln x + 1 + C
2
+ 7x + 6 5 x + 6

x 2 + 3x − 4 dx = x + ln ( x + 2)( x − 4)4 + C
11. ∫x 2
− 2x − 8

x dx
12. ∫ ( x − 2) = ln | x − 2 | − 2 + C
2
x−2

x4 4 + 1
13.
∫ (1 − x) 3 dx = − 12 x 2 − 3x − ln(1 − x)6 −
1 − x 2(1 − x)2
+C

dx = ln x
14. ∫x 3
+x x2 + 1
+C

x 3 + x 2 + x + 3 dx = ln x 2 + 3 + tan −1 x + C
15.
∫ (x 2
+ 1)( x 2 + 3)

x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 3 dx = 1 x 2 + ln x
16. ∫ x 3 − 2 x 2 + 3x 2
x2 − 2x + 3
+C

2 x 3 dx
17.
∫ (x = ln( x 2 + 1) + 2 1 + C
2
+ 1)2 x +1

18.
∫ ( x 2 + 4) 2 2
2 ()
2 x 3 + x 2 + 4 dx = ln( x 2 + 4) + 1 tan −1 x + 4 + C
x2 + 4

x 3 + x − 1 dx = ln x 2 + 1 − 1 tan −1 x − 1 x + C
19.
∫ ( x 2 + 1)2 2
2 x2 + 1

x 4 + 8 x 3 − x 2 + 2 x + 1 dx = ln x 3 − x 2 + x − 3 + 2 tan −1 ⎛ 2 x − 1 ⎞ + C
20. ∫ ( x 2 + 3)( x 3 + 1) ( x + 1)2 x +1 3 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠

x 3 + x 2 − 5x + 15 dx = ln x 2 + 2 x + 3 + 5 taan −1 ⎛ x + 1 ⎞ − 5 tan −1 ⎛ x ⎞ + C
21. ∫ (x 2
+ 5)( x 2 + 2 x + 3) 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠

x 6 + 7 x 5 + 15x 4 + 23x 2 + 25x − 3 dx = 1 − 3 + ln 2 x + 1 + C

2
22.
∫ ( x 2 + x + 2)2 ( x 2 + 1)2 x2 + x + 2 x2 + 1 x +x+2

= 1 + 1 ln e −x 3 + C
x
dx
23. ∫e 2x
− 3e x 3e x 9 e
(Hint: Let ex = u.)

sin x dx 1 + cos 2 x
24. ∫ cos x(1 + cos 2
x)
= ln
cos x
+C (Hint: Let cos x = u.)

(2 + tan 2 θ )sec 2 θ ⎛ ⎞
25. ∫ dθ = ln |1 + tan θ | + 2 tan −1 ⎜ 2 tan θ − 1 ⎟ + C
1 + tan 3 θ 3 ⎝ 3 ⎠