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remote sensing
Article
From Point Cloud Data to Building Information
Modelling: An Automatic Parametric Workflow
for Heritage
Mesrop Andriasyan 1 , Juan Moyano 2, * , Juan Enrique Nieto-Julián 2 and Daniel Antón 3,4
1 Department of Architecture, Built Environment, and Construction Engineering,
Politecnico di Milano. 31 Giuseppe Ponzio Street, 20133 Milan, Italy; mesrop.andriasyan@polimi.it
2 Departamento de Expresión Gráfica e Ingeniería en la Edificación, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería de
Edificación, Universidad de Sevilla. 4A Reina Mercedes Avenue, 41012 Seville, Spain; jenieto@us.es
3 Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Facultad de Geografía e Historia,
Universidad de Sevilla. Doña María de Padilla Street, 41004 Seville, Spain; danton@us.es
4 The Creative and Virtual Technologies Research Laboratory, School of Architecture, Design and the Built
Environment, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK
* Correspondence: jmoyano@us.es

Received: 4 March 2020; Accepted: 25 March 2020; Published: 29 March 2020
Abstract: Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a globally adapted methodology by government

organisations and builders who conceive the integration of the organisation, planning, development
and the digital construction model into a single project. In the case of a heritage building, the
Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM) approach is able to cover the comprehensive
restoration of the building. In contrast to BIM applied to new buildings, HBIM can address different
models which represent either periods of historical interpretation, restoration phases or records of
heritage assets over time. Great efforts are currently being made to automatically reconstitute the
geometry of cultural heritage elements from data acquisition techniques such as Terrestrial Laser
Scanning (TLS) or Structure From Motion (SfM) into BIM (Scan-to-BIM). Hence, this work advances
on the parametric modelling from remote sensing point cloud data, which is carried out under the
Rhino+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD combination. This workflow enables the automatic conversion of
TLS and SFM point cloud data into textured 3D meshes and thus BIM objects to be included in the
HBIM project. The accuracy assessment of this workflow yields a standard deviation value of 68.28
pixels, which is lower than other author’s precision but suffices for the automatic HBIM of the case
study in this research.
Keywords: parametric modelling; Scan-to-BIM; cultural heritage; point cloud data
1. Introduction
1.1. General Framework

In the engineering sector, Building Information Modelling (BIM) is considered both an opportunity
and a challenge. BIM entails significant time, economic resources and training of the human team, but
it also changes the current hiring processes in the development and achievement of engineering and
architectural projects. This effort is rewarded with the amount of skills and results that come from
applying the BIM technology. Nevertheless, in the field of historic buildings, the use of BIM is limited
because of the particularities and characteristics of the heritage, but its presence in the scientific literature
is improving. The Heritage or Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM) approach, which
addresses a comprehensive and interdisciplinary management model in the field of heritage, combines
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094; doi:10.3390/rs12071094 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing

Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 2 of 22
aspects of geometric variables in a digital environment from 3D models to alphanumeric variables

with the incorporation of knowledge and metadata of the object. The scientific literature gathers
efforts to achieve the effective application of BIM technologies to heritage [1–5]. The HBIM enables the
digital reconstitution of heritage assets [6,7] by considering their actual geometrical alterations [8,9].
In addition, diverse simulations can be performed on these models, such as structural behaviour
assessment [6,10–12], sustainability [13,14], restoration decision criteria [3], Scan-to-BIM [5–18], safety
at work [2], among others; that is, multitude fields of knowledge and implementation environments use
these technologies. In this regard, however, Bassier et al. [19] highlighted the difficulty in exchanging
data between diverse software and BIM platforms due to compatibility issues, especially with structural
behaviour assessment applications.
The HBIM has reached public and private institutions, as well as end-users and professionals in
the fields of heritage and construction. This implies the need for guidance and standards in BIM for
heritage, which led Historic England [20] and BuildingSmart [21] to publish their BIM manuals. The
creation of 3D digital models in the BIM environment is one of the most important parts of this process.
Commercial products in architecture started in the late 1980s, e.g., Nemetschek Allplan® [22] and
Graphisoft ArchiCAD® [23], the latter being funded by Gábor Bojár and István Gábor Tari in Budapest,
Hungary, in 1982 to develop 3D modelling software and compete with AutoCAD® [24]. One of the
greatest achievements of BIM software is the integration of a programming environment under the
Geometric Description Language (GDL) [25] that allows the creation of parametric objects [26]. These
parametric objects allow the creation of 3D geometries such as walls, slabs, floors, columns and stairs,
but they are not adaptable to the morphological irregularities sometimes existing in walls and columns
of historical buildings.
In contrast, the creation of parametric objects not included in BIM libraries generally require
significant time to be modelled or are included in the catalogues of distribution companies. In any case,
the issue of not representing the geometrical transformations of historic building components over
time prevails. Consequently, great efforts are and must be made in order to reproduce the geometric
singularity of the built heritage. To do this, remote sensing point cloud data acquisition techniques
such as Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) and Structure From Motion (SFM) or photogrammetry
become essential to represent the heritage geometries into BIM. In the scientific literature, this is
called the Scan-to-BIM method or process. Multiple scientific works [27–29] develop HBIM projects
from point cloud data, but do not fully represent the geometrical alterations of the assets [30–33].
The reason for this is that certain BIM platforms, e.g., ArchiCAD®or Autodesk Revit® [34], enable
the insertion of 2D drawings in PDF format. There are other works that addressed mesh or point
cloud conversion algorithms to improve 3D elements in newly constructed buildings [35–38] and
heritage buildings [8,9,27,39]. Nieto-Julián et al. [5] produced parametric objects with geometrical
alterations and further information under the HBIM approach. In this regard, a current debate is the
data storage into the HBIM project, such as texture, coating materials, thermal images, structural and
conservation information, among others [40]. These data are or should be an essential part of the
HBIM, but geometry modelling is certainly an important stage [41].
In view of the above, despite the aforementioned existing incompatibilities between diverse
software, there is a need for automating the conversion of point cloud data into BIM. In this sense,
although analogous applications could be used for the research aim, this paper explores the potential
of the rather recent Rhino+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD combination to present a novel workflow to
automatically produce and transfer 3D geometries and their attributes from TLS or SFM point clouds
with controllable density to BIM entities with embedded information of the assets. This allows heritage
conservation professionals and users without specific knowledge of remote sensing data and 3D/BIM
modelling to implement the workflow for heritage.
This paper is structured as follows: once the research problem and the aim are described, related
works in the topic are presented. Next, the methodology comprises the definition of the case study;
the algorithm-based workflow and other existing algorithms; the improvement of the algorithm for
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 3 of 22
building components edges; the validation of the methodology via accuracy assessment, the interface
features and the texture generation. The workflow implementation within the BIM environment is
then described. Finally, the results are discussed, and the conclusions and future work are presented.
1.2. Related Work

Optimising BIM using parametric tools is an issue addressed in the scientific literature.
Khaja et al. [42] used parametric tools such as Dynamo [43], an integrated Visual Programming
tool from Revit, to demonstrate its potential for automatic population in BIM models. In this
line, Rahmani et al. [44] assessed the environmental aspects of the models. (“Data Acquisition
and Visualization for IEQ Assessment: A case study of daylight field measurement - White
Rose Research Online”) worked on statistical simulation on indoor environmental quality, and
Rahmani et al. [44] addressed a performance optimisation scenario based on BIM called ‘BPOpt’
(BIM-based performance optimization).
Most scientific papers on HBIM from point cloud data build these models through manual
processes, as in the case study of the Church of Santa Maria at Portonovo (Ancona, Italy) [27]. Here,
the objects do not represent the morphological properties from the point clouds; they are created with
existing parametric models, but this approach is already described by Murphy et al. [28]. This is also
the case of the work by Bassier et al. [29], who reconstructed the portico of the Saint-Jacobs Church
(Leuven, Belgium) from an ideal model—without morphological variations—using 3D meshes for
later finite element analysis (Finite Element Method, FEM [45]). Barazzetti et al. [46] worked in this
line in Castel Masegra in Sondrio, Italy. Sztwiertnia et al. [40] created the HBIM project of the Wang
Stave Church in Karpacz, Poland, and identified the difficulty of creating geometric shapes from point
cloud data. Progress on adapting complex shapes to parametric elements is respectively made by
Antón et al. [8], and Nieto, Antón and Moyano [5]. The former authors converted the point cloud
data into as-built 3D solid objects as IFC entities to become part of the HBIM project, which enables
the accurate analysis of the heritage city [9] by considering the geometrical alterations of the assets.
The latter [5] used Boolean operations within the ArchiCAD®BIM platform to implement and manage
structural deformations on walls. Therefore, this paper advances on the problem of representing
diverse aspects such as structural deformations in the parametric objects, materials through textures,
process changes in construction techniques and deformations over the course of time.
Procedures to create 3D parametric objects from point clouds should be mentioned.
Barazzetti et al. [47] considered a semi-automatic approach, as it required successive steps to reach
editable parametric objects starting from non-uniform rational B-splines (NURBS) and converted
into solids. Recent work [48] developed a new workflow for mesh modelling towards HBIM, for
which Autodesk Revit (BIM) and Dynamo are used to explore new HBIM features. However, several
studies [49,50] implement these tools for specific objects, but not for building construction units. Finally,
the work by Tommasi et al. [51] brings together diverse software in the market for reverse engineering
in BIM applied to historical elements, whereas Pocobelli et al. [52] integrated organised moisture data
into spreadsheets and associated it with parametric objects development through Dynamo.
In addition, there are different reconstruction methods in the scientific literature [53–61], most of
which use the Delaunay triangulation [54]. Surface reconstruction is the process of rebuilding geometry
from the scanned point cloud. Ideally, the reconstructed surface mesh should have all the mesh faces
matching the initial geometry from which the scan was taken.
In this paper, in order to create a new workflow to transfer point cloud data into the BIM
environment, a pseudo point cloud structure with controllable density is created from the combination
of Rhinoceros [62], Grasshopper [63]—a visual programming language for Rhinoceros—and ArchiCAD.
The TLS and SFM data are then converted into textured 3D meshes. The important step is to avoid
workflows with complementary software such as Cloudcompare [64], MeshLab [65] or Geomagic [66].
In this workflow, different algorithms are tested for meshing and automatic texture mapping onto
the parametric objects. The process consists of converting the numerical model (point cloud) into
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 4 of 22
Remote Sens. 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

‘Morph’ elements (for walls and vertical surfaces) and meshes (for floors or horizontal surfaces). Next,
format),
these 3D thus inheriting
objects their dimensional
are automatically transformed andinto
texture
BIM properties. In addition,
parametric objects (GSMthe file accuracy and
format), thus
quality of the model’s parameters are evaluated to verify their consistency with an
inheriting their dimensional and texture properties. In addition, the accuracy and quality of the appropriate scale.
Regarding
model’s BIMare
parameters operability
evaluated with TLS ortheir
to verify SFMconsistency
data, the latest
withversions of Graphisoft
an appropriate scale. ArchiCAD ®
[23] and Autodesk
Regarding BIMRevit [34] allow
operability withtoTLS import
or SFMthese point
data, the clouds in TXT or
latest versions XYZ file formats.
of Graphisoft ArchiCADThis
enables the BIM creation by fitting the morphological alterations under diverse
® [23] and Autodesk Revit [34] allow to import these point clouds in TXT or XYZ file formats. This modelling
approaches.
enables However,
the BIM creationthis paper the
by fitting advances on the automatic
morphological alterationsconversion of point
under diverse cloudapproaches.
modelling data into a
parametricthismodel
However, by defining
paper advances shapes through
on the automatic conversion mathematical
of point cloud functions [51] under
data into a parametric the
model
Rhino+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD software combination. This workflow interconnects
by defining shapes through mathematical functions [51] under the Rhino+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD algorithms
capable of
software modelling 3D
combination. objects
This so that
workflow the latter can
interconnects be interoperable,
algorithms which
capable of contributes
modelling to scientific
3D objects so that
knowledge in this field.
the latter can be interoperable, which contributes to scientific knowledge in this field.
1.3. Case Study: The Main Patio Of The Casa De Pilatos

1.3.
This research
This research isis based
based onon aa case
case study
study selected
selected for
for its
its characteristics:
characteristics: a complex morphology
morphology and and
existing deformations in walls, columns and ledges, visible
existing deformations walls, columns and ledges, visible to the naked eye. to the naked eye. This, together
together with its
its
two-level porticated structure, makes the Casa de Pilatos suitable as a case study for the
two-level the aim
aim of
of this
this
research.
research. The Casa de Pilatos is the former Palace of the Adelantados of Andalusia, in the
the Adelantados of Andalusia, in the historic historic
centre of
centre of Seville,
Seville, Spain
Spain (Figure
(Figure 1).1). The building consists of spaces spaces arranged
arranged and
and transformed
transformed overover
time, among
time, among which
which the the main
main patio
patio stands
stands out.
out. The combination of Mudejar,
Mudejar, Gothic
Gothic and
and Renaissance
Renaissance
styles reveals
styles reveals the
the architectural
architectural richness
richness of of this
this space.
space. Additionally, the the patio
patio has
has overcome
overcome diverse
diverse
modificationsdue
modifications duetotothethe expansion
expansion needs
needs as aas a Hispanic-Muslim
Hispanic-Muslim playground
playground [67].
[67]. As As mentioned
mentioned above,
above,
the the existing
existing pathologies
pathologies are tilt inare tiltand
walls in walls andand
columns columns and deflection
deflection in ledges,
in ledges, mainly duemainly due to
to the natural
the natural over
subsidence subsidence
time. over time.
Figure 1. View
Figure 1. View of
of the
the main
main patio
patio of
of Casa
Casa de
de Pilatos.
Pilatos.
2. Methodology
2. Methodology
2.1. The Issue of the Scan-to-HBIM Approach
2.1. The Issue of the Scan-to-HBIM Approach
As mentioned above, BIM platforms allow to import point cloud data directly, so there is no need
to useAs mentioned [62]
Rhinoceros® above, BIM
at an platforms
earlier allow
stage. The to import
import point cloud
is conducted usingdata directly, so there
the interoperability is for
tool no
need to use Rhinoceros® [62] at an earlier stage. The import is conducted using the interoperability
files with topographic coordinates, and then converting the point clouds into mesh objects. These text
tool must
files for files with of
consist topographic
rows of datacoordinates,
containingand then
three converting
numerical the (X,
entries point clouds
Y and into mesh objects.
Z coordinates). Next,
These text files must consist of rows of data containing three numerical entries
the user has to create and align the historic building components referring to the point cloud. Only (X, Y and Z
coordinates). Next, the user has to create and align the historic building components referring to the
point cloud. Only by using the floor/slab tool is the geometry automatically adapted into mesh-like
parametric objects, leaving the option to modify the Z coordinate. In contrast, this procedure is only
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 5 of 22

by using the floor/slab tool is the geometry automatically adapted into mesh-like parametric objects,
possiblethe
leaving using the wall
option tool if the Z
to modify point cloud is In
coordinate. inserted in the
contrast, thismodel without
procedure any possible
is only transformation. In
using the
this way, the user is able to identify existing deformations, but these are not implicit
wall tool if the point cloud is inserted in the model without any transformation. In this way, the userin the parametric
3Dable
is model. In addition,
to identify thedeformations,
existing mentioned parametric
but theseobjects
are notare included
implicit in BIM
in the libraries
parametric 3Dasmodel.
standardIn
objects. Inthe
addition, order to solveparametric
mentioned this issue, this paper
objects areaddresses
included intheBIM
automatic
librariescreation of parametric
as standard objects. Inobjects
order
(assolve
to mesh, morph
this issue,and
this library objects) from
paper addresses point cloud
the automatic data under
creation the combination
of parametric objects (asofmesh,
Rhinoceros,
morph
Grasshopper
and and ArchiCAD.
library objects) from point The result
cloud is editable
data under themesh parametricofobjects
combination able to Grasshopper
Rhinoceros, contain metadataand
and an identification label (ID). Concerning the morph objects, these elements have
ArchiCAD. The result is editable mesh parametric objects able to contain metadata and an identification no geometric
limits(ID).
label and Concerning
are created so thethat the import
morph objects,ofthese
special shapeshave
elements fromno other programmes
geometric is avoided.
limits and are created so
that the import of special shapes from other programmes is avoided.
2.2. Data Collection
2.2. Data Collection
The emergence of new digital technologies has revolutionised the documentation of
The emergence
architectural of newheritage.
and cultural digital technologies
Their originhas revolutionised
is the the documentation
field of reverse engineering given of architectural
the need to
and
monitor serial manufacturing processes, thus controlling the dimensional quality of the productserial
cultural heritage. Their origin is the field of reverse engineering given the need to monitor [68].
manufacturing
From the outset, processes, thus
the digital controlling
technology the dimensional
entailed quality cost,
a high economic of thebut
product [68]. Fromofthe
the emergence outset,
low-cost
the digitalmade
software technology
accurateentailed a highboth
techniques economic cost,and
affordable but the emergence
suitable of low-cost
for creating software
geometrical made
heritage
accurate
models. techniques both affordable and suitable for creating geometrical heritage models.
In this
thisresearch,
research, diverse
diversesurveying
surveyingmethods
methodswerewere
used to collect
used the data,the
to collect such as classic
data, such surveying
as classic
techniques—laser meter and flexometer
surveying techniques—laser meter and to measure interior
flexometer to measurewallsinterior
thicknesses—and TLS for the patio.
walls thicknesses—and TLS
The range
for the andThe
patio. therange
accuracy
andof TLS
the make itofideal
accuracy TLSformakemeasuring historic
it ideal for buildings
measuring [69]. buildings
historic Consequently,
[69].
this technologythis
Consequently, wastechnology
used in this wasresearch
used intothis
carry out the
research totwo-stage 3D survey:
carry out the two-stage i) 3D
the survey:
patio, where
i) the
three
patio, stations (scanner
where three positions)
stations (scanner were set to create
positions) were set thetoXYZ global
create coordinate
the XYZ global system,
coordinateandsystem,
ii) the
galleries,
and ii) thewith four stations
galleries, in the
with four cornersinby
stations thecorners
the galleries.
by Photographs
the galleries. were also takenwere
Photographs using thetaken
also laser
scanner
using the to laser
produce a RGBtopoint
scanner clouda (Figure
produce 2). The
RGB point TLS (Figure
cloud device was a Leica
2). The TLSScanStation
device was C10, with
a Leica
120 m range and
ScanStation C10,awith
4-megapixel
120 m rangecameraandto colourise the cloud.
a 4-megapixel The to
camera scan registration
colourise (scan alignment)
the cloud. The scan
was conducted
registration using
(scan Leica Geosystems
alignment) Cyclone®REGISTER
was conducted 360 softwareCyclone®
using Leica Geosystems [70]. The error alignment
REGISTER 360
accuracy
software reached
[70]. The3error
mm in the patioaccuracy
alignment and 5 mm in the galleries.
reached 3 mm in theThepatio
dataand
used5 for
mmthis research
in the wasThe
galleries. the
TLS
datapoint
used cloud
for thisinresearch
.e57 format.
was the TLS point cloud in .e57 format.
Figure 2. View of the main patio of Casa de Pilatos.
2.3. Point Cloud Meshing Workflow

2.3. Point Cloud Meshing Workflow
The reconstruction algorithm is designed in such a way that an end user who does not need to
The reconstruction algorithm is designed in such a way that an end user who does not need to
know or understand the entire workflow should be able to obtain results from it with a low amount
know or understand the entire workflow should be able to obtain results from it with a low amount
of effort. The workflow is between the traditional Scan-to-BIM method, which requires significant
of effort. The workflow is between the traditional Scan-to-BIM method, which requires significant
manual work, and completely automated AI-oriented methods that take the manual design control
role from the architect or any other BIM operator.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 6 of 22
manual work, and completely automated AI-oriented methods that take the manual design control
role from the architect or any other BIM operator.
This workflow, using Grasshopper and Volvox [71] to process the point cloud and reconstruct
This workflow,
Remote Sens. 2020, 11, using Grasshopper
x FOR PEER REVIEW and Volvox [71] to process the point cloud and reconstruct
6 of 23
surfaces, consists of 3 scripts (Figure 3). The objects generated are later exported to ArchiCAD through
surfaces, consists of 3 scripts (Figure 3). The objects generated are later exported to ArchiCAD
thethrough
recent ArchiCAD+Grasshopper
Thisrecent
the workflow, live connection.
using Grasshopper
ArchiCAD+Grasshopper and
liveVolvox [71] to process the point cloud and reconstruct
connection.
surfaces, consists of 3 scripts (Figure 3). The objects generated are later exported to ArchiCAD
through the recent ArchiCAD+Grasshopper live connection.
Figure3.
Figure 3. Automatic
Automatic parametric
parametricworkflow.
workflow.
Figure 3. Automatic parametric workflow.
Theinterface
The interfacerequires
requires user
userinput
inputtoto
useuse
cutting objects
cutting to remove
objects segments
to remove from the
segments cloud.
from theAfter
cloud.
The interface requires user input to use cutting objects to remove segments from the cloud. After
the subset
After the is selected, further subselection based on proximity takes place. This operation decreases
the subset
subset isisselected,
selected, further
further subselection
subselection based based on proximity
on proximity takes
takes place. Thisplace. This
operation operation
decreases
the complexity
decreases the of the model
complexity of theand increases
model and homogeneity,
increases which is important
homogeneity, which is for subsequent
important for surface
subsequent
the complexity of the model and increases homogeneity, which is important for subsequent surface
reconstruction.
surface reconstruction.
reconstruction.
2.4.2.4. Study
Study Model
Model
2.4. Study withan
with
Model anArtificial
withArtificial Point
Point
an Artificial Cloud
Cloud
Point Cloud
During
During thethe
During
development
development
the development of theof algorithm,
thealgorithm,
of the
algorithm,
anan an artificial
artificial
artificialpoint
point
pointcloud
cloud
cloudwith
with adjustable
withadjustable
adjustable parameters
parameters
parameters waswas
was created.
created.
created. Point
Point clouds
clouds
Point of a floor
of aoffloor
clouds sector,
sector,
a floor two
sector, two
two walls
walls
wallsandand a column
anda acolumn
columnwere were created
werecreated
created to to replicate
to replicate scenarios
scenarios
replicate scenarios
such assuch
such thethe
as horizontal
as horizontalandand
the horizontal vertical planes,
vertical
and planes,
vertical and
and
planes, volumetric
volumetric
and volumetric objects
objectsscanned,
objects scanned,respectively.
scanned, respectively. A
respectively. A splitting
splitting or
A splitting
clippingor system
or clipping
clipping issystem
systemthen
is established;
then the user
established;
is then creates
thethe
established; user
user cutting
creates
creates objects
cutting
cutting (plane/box/sphere)
objects
objects (plane/box/sphere)
(plane/box/sphere) intointo
the the
into Rhino
the
Rhino 3D
Rhino space
3D and
space the
and dynamic
the dynamicpipeline reads
pipeline them
reads them in real-time
in real-time
3D space and the dynamic pipeline reads them in real-time (Figures 4 and 5). (Figure
(Figure 44 and
and Figure
Figure 5).
5).
Figure 4. Artificial
Figure 4. Artificialcloud
cloudsetup.
setup.
Figure 4. Artificial cloud setup.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 7 of 22
Figure5.5.Subset
Figure Subsetwith
witha aclipping
clippingplane.
plane.
Several
Severalcropping
croppingobjects
objectscan
canbebecombined
combinedininsuch
suchaaway
waythat
thatififthe
theobjects
objectsintersect
intersecteach
eachother,
other,
the
theintersection
intersectionpoint
pointset
setisisused
used(Figure
(Figure6).
6).Otherwise,
Otherwise,the
theunion
unionofofseparately
separatelycropped
croppedpoint
pointsubsets
subsets
isisconsidered.
considered.
Figure 6. Subset with a sphere and extrusion object.

Figure 6. Subset with a sphere and extrusion object.
After the selection is performed, further subsampling based on proximity in RTree [72] is performed
After
to reduce thethe selection
point is performed, further subsampling based on proximity in RTree [72] is
quantity.
performed to reduce the point
The algorithm then analyses quantity.
the shape and planar deviation of the selected cloud subset. If the
The algorithm then analyses
subset is within the planarity thresholdthe shape andby
specified planar deviation of the selected
the operator/user/architect, it iscloud
then subset.
treated If
asthe
a
subset is within
quasi-planar the planarity
surface. The fittingthreshold specified by
plane is calculated andthe operator/user/architect,
a Delaunay it is thenmethod
surface reconstruction treatedisas
a quasi-planar
used to produce surface. The fitting
a mesh object. plane is
The fitting calculated
planes and
vertical tiltaangle
Delaunay surface
is used reconstruction
to determine whethermethod
it is a
is used to produce a mesh object. The
vertical or horizontal structure (Figure 7).fitting planes vertical tilt angle is used to determine whether it
is a vertical or horizontal structure (Figure 7).
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 8 of 22

Remote
RemoteSens.
Sens.2020,
2020,11,
11,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 88of
of23
23
Figure 7. Planar subset surface reconstruction.
On the other hand, in case the selected subset is a volumetric collection of points, a ball-pivot
algorithm and several post-processing
Figure mesh cleaning procedures are performed to produce 3D
Figure7.7.Planar
Planarsubset
subsetsurface
surfacereconstruction.
reconstruction.
shapes (Figure 8).
Post-processing
On
On the other of the
hand, meshthe
in case includes:
selected removing
subset is faces adjacent to
a volumetric non-manifold
collection edges,
of points, removing
a ball-pivot
Onthetheother
otherhand,
hand,inincase
casethe
theselected
selectedsubset
subsetisisaavolumetric
volumetriccollection
collectionofofpoints,
points,aaball-pivot
ball-pivot
duplicate
algorithm
algorithm faces,
and correcting
several naked edges,
post-processing meshfilling the
cleaningholes (as much
procedures as
are possible)
performed and
to rebuilding
produce 3D normal
shapes
algorithm andand several
several post-processing
post-processing mesh mesh cleaning
cleaning procedures
procedures areare performed
performed to to produce
produce 3D3D
vectors.
(Figure
shapes 8).
(Figure 8).
shapes (Figure 8).
Post-processing
Post-processingof ofthe
themesh
meshincludes:
includes:removing
removingfaces
facesadjacent
adjacenttotonon-manifold
non-manifoldedges,
edges,removing
removing
duplicate
duplicate faces, correcting naked edges, filling the holes (as much as possible) and rebuildingnormal
faces, correcting naked edges, filling the holes (as much as possible) and rebuilding normal
vectors.
vectors.
Figure 8. Volumetric subset surface reconstruction.

Post-processing of the mesh includes: removing faces adjacent to non-manifold edges, removing
2.5. Processing
duplicate Delaunay
faces, Meshes
correcting naked edges, filling the holes (as much as possible) and rebuilding
normalAsvectors.
Delaunay meshingFigure 8. Volumetric
always subset surface
outputs convex reconstruction.
geometry, post-processing is performed to cull
the extra parts which most of the time are distinguished by having longer edges. The threshold input
2.5.
2.5. Processing Delaunay
Delaunay Meshes
Meshes
2.5.Processing
Processing
option is givenDelaunay Meshes
to the user to control the culling. This is particularly helpful in openings (Figure 9).
As
As Delaunay meshing always outputs convex geometry, post-processing is performed to cullcull
the
As Delaunay
Delaunay meshing
meshing always
always outputs
outputs convex
convex geometry,
geometry, post-processing
post-processing isis performed
performed to to cull
extra
the parts which most of the time areare
distinguished bybyhaving longer edges. The threshold input
theextra
extraparts
partswhich
whichmost
mostof ofthe
thetime
time aredistinguished
distinguished byhaving
havinglonger
longeredges.
edges.The
Thethreshold
thresholdinput
input
option
option is given to the user to control the culling. This is particularly helpful in openings (Figure 9).
option is given to the user to control the culling. This is particularly helpful in openings (Figure9).
is given to the user to control the culling. This is particularly helpful in openings (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Processed Delaunay mesh of windows.
Figure
Figure 9. Processed Delaunay
Delaunay mesh of
of windows.
Figure9.9.Processed
Processed Delaunaymesh
mesh ofwindows.
windows.
RemoteAdditionally,
Sens. 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the model in the galleries will consist of point cloud partitions at the same 99levelof 23
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 of 22
representing ceilings in each area. Here, their continuity is only maintained through the walls. If sub
Additionally, the model in the galleries will consist of point cloud partitions at the same level
selected at a certain level (Figure 10), the meshes can have all the intermediary Delaunay edges
representing ceilings
Additionally, theinmodel
each area.
in theHere, their continuity
galleries will consistisof
only maintained
point throughatthe
cloud partitions walls.
the sameIflevel
sub
deleted in one meshing process, i.e., the user can directly and individually generate the parts.
selected at a ceilings
representing certain level (Figure
in each 10), the
area. Here, meshes
their can have
continuity is onlyallmaintained
the intermediary
throughDelaunay
the walls. edges
If sub
deleted
selectedinatone meshing
a certain levelprocess,
(Figure i.e.,
10), the
the user
meshescancan
directly andthe
have all individually generate
intermediary the edges
Delaunay parts. deleted
in one meshing process, i.e., the user can directly and individually generate the parts.
Figure 10.
Figure ProcessedDelaunay
10. Processed Delaunay mesh
mesh of
of ceilings.
ceilings.
2.6. Crease
2.6. CreaseProcessing
Processing Figure 10. Processed Delaunay mesh of ceilings.
As the
As the user
user segments
segments thethe point
point cloud
cloud using
using objects
objects (e.g.,
(e.g., boxes),
boxes), itit is
is extremely
extremely complicated
complicated to to
2.6. Crease Processing
obtain the points that are specifically in the intersections of surfaces such as walls
obtain the points that are specifically in the intersections of surfaces such as walls or ceilings. This is or ceilings. This
As the user
is especially segments
common the point cloud using objects (e.g., boxes), it is extremelyand complicated to
especially common in in heritage
heritage buildings,
buildings, sincetheir
since theirstructure
structure canbe
can be deformed,
deformed, and thethe resulting
resulting
obtain the points
point cloud
cloud that are specifically
data samples
samples may be in the intersections
be dispersed
dispersed in the
the crease of surfaces
crease regions.
regions. such
orderas
In order towalls or ceilings.
overcome Thisthe
this issue,
issue, is
point data may in In to overcome this the
especially
architect common
or BIM in heritage
operator is buildings,
advised to use since their structure
overlapping selections. can
Thisbewill
deformed,
create and the
meshes as resulting
presented
architect or BIM operator is advised to use overlapping selections. This will create meshes as
point
in thecloud
upper data
halfsamples may
of (Figure be A
11). dispersed
separate in theofcrease regions. Inisorder to overcome this the
issue, the
presented in the upper half of (Figure 11). Apart
separatethepart
algorithm developed
of the algorithm to process
is developed crease
to process
architect
region or BIMtwo
between operator
adjacent is advisedsoto use overlapping selections. This will create meshes as
the crease region between twomeshes that
adjacent meshes there
so are
thatno shared
there or overlapping
are no faces.
shared or overlapping faces.
presented in the upper half of (Figure 11). A separate part of the algorithm is developed to process
the crease region between two adjacent meshes so that there are no shared or overlapping faces.
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Crease
Creaseprocessing
processing between
between adjacent
adjacent meshes.
meshes.
An oriented boundingFigure
box 11. Crease
of the processing
crease between
is created adjacentthe
to establish meshes.
working space. The faces that
fall into this bounding box from both meshes are culled. Based on the points inside the working space
An oriented bounding box of the crease is created to establish the working space. The faces that
a new mesh is generated again using the Delaunay triangulation with the fitted plane. The crease,
based on points from the cloud, is then created. The face normals are checked against the average
a new mesh is generated again using the Delaunay triangulation with the fitted plane. The crease,
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 10 of 22
An oriented bounding box of the crease is created to establish the working space. The faces that
a Remote
new mesh is generated
Sens. 2020, again
11, x FOR PEER using the Delaunay triangulation with the fitted plane. The crease,
REVIEW 10 of 23
normals
normalsofofthe thelarger
largermeshes
meshes to to
determine
determine which face
which belongs
face to which
belongs to whichmesh. In the
mesh. end,end,
In the as shown
as shownin
the
in lower half half
the lower of Figure 11, a11,
of Figure clean crease
a clean between
crease the two
between meshes
the two is produced.
meshes is produced.
InInorder
order to aid this process, collision events are tested for all potentialpairs
to aid this process, collision events are tested for all potential pairsand
anda aconnectivity
connectivity
graph
graphis is
drawn
drawn onto the the
onto 3D model
3D model(Figure 12). This
(Figure 12).shows the operator-architect
This shows which pairs
the operator-architect of meshes
which pairs of
should
meshes beshould
checked befor creasefor
checked processing.
crease processing.
Figure 12.Connectivity
Figure12. Connectivitygraph
graphbetween
betweenmeshes.
meshes.
2.7. Interface
2.7. Interface
Using the Human UI for Grasshopper [73] a custom interface was developed for the
Using the Human UI for Grasshopper [73] a custom interface was developed for the architect-
architect-operator to make use of the algorithm. The interface (Figure 13) is used for both input values
operator to make use of the algorithm. The interface (Figure 13) is used for both input values that will
that will determine how the algorithm works and output values that are useful for the user. This
determine how the algorithm works and output values that are useful for the user. This includes
includes controls for point cloud subsampling, proximity control for point culling, deviation to treat
controls for point cloud subsampling, proximity control for point culling, deviation to treat the
the selection as planar or volumetric, among others. Some parts of the interface are updated based on
selection as planar or volumetric, among others. Some parts of the interface are updated based on the
the subselection of points. If the subset is determined as planar, an input for Delaunay mesh edge
subselection of points. If the subset is determined as planar, an input for Delaunay mesh edge average
average length multiplier is given to control how much of the long edge faces will be culled. If the
length multiplier is given to control how much of the long edge faces will be culled. If the subset is
subset is determined as volumetric, the input is given for the ball-pivot radius multiplier. Optional
determined as volumetric, the input is given for the ball-pivot radius multiplier. Optional smoothing
smoothing of the mesh may be also performed, which will not increase the mesh face or vertex count.
of the mesh may be also performed, which will not increase the mesh face or vertex count.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 11 of 22
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Interface.
Interface.
2.8.
2.8. Automatic
Automatic Creation
Creation Textures
Textures
Point
Point cloud
cloud data
data can
can also
also contain
contain information
information about
about thethe colour
colour of of the
the objects
objects scanned.
scanned. This data,
included in the points, is also transferred through the algorithm. However,
included in the points, is also transferred through the algorithm. However, the ArchiCAD- the ArchiCAD-Grasshopper
live connection
Grasshopper does
live not allowdoes
connection the transfer
not allow ofthe
colour or texture
transfer information
of colour or texturewith morphs so
information far.morphs
with This is
because texturing
so far. This is becausein ArchiCAD
texturing in is ArchiCAD
not carried is out
notbycarried
manual outcolour coding
by manual of individual
colour coding offaces of the
individual
morph object but by mapping a texture file onto the object. The latter requires
faces of the morph object but by mapping a texture file onto the object. The latter requires having an having an actual image
file of the
actual texture.
image file of the texture.
As
As building
buildingcomponents
componentsoften oftencontain
containflat-like
flat-likesurfaces
surfaces(walls,
(walls,slabs, etc.),
slabs, a texture
etc.), image
a texture imagecancan
be
used to map them with colour information. The study of the texture creation
be used to map them with colour information. The study of the texture creation was conducted on was conducted on scan
data
scan of a wall
data of asector
wall from
sectorthefrom
Casathede Pilatos
Casa de Palace.
Pilatos In Palace.
order toIntranslate
order to thetranslate
RGB colour the information
RGB colour
from the point cloud to a texture image file, the following procedures
information from the point cloud to a texture image file, the following procedures have been have been implemented: (1) a
fitted plane is calculated from the point cloud; (2) the points are projected
implemented: (1) a fitted plane is calculated from the point cloud; (2) the points are projected onto onto the plane; (3) given
that the points
the plane; are located
(3) given that theon points
the same areplane,
locateda bounding
on the same rectangle
plane,isa found
boundingto actrectangle
as the canvas
is foundof the
to
future texture image; and (4) the Voronoi [56] division method is used to divide
act as the canvas of the future texture image; and (4) the Voronoi [56] division method is used to the space into smaller
cells,
divide since the point
the space intodistribution
smaller cells, is since
not regular—diverse point densities
the point distribution exist. Each cellpoint
is not regular—diverse represents an
densities
area
exist.toEach
be filled with the colour
cell represents an areadriven
to beby the point
filled which
with the created
colour driventhatbycell
the(Figure 14). created that
point which
cell (Figure 14).
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 12 of 22
Figure 14. Voronoi division.
3. Results Figure 14.

Figure Voronoi division.
14. Voronoi division.
3. Results
3.1.
3. Transfer to BIM (ArchiCAD)
Results
3.1. Transfer to BIM (ArchiCAD)
The Grasshopper+ArchiCAD live connection allows the bilateral transfer of geometry between
3.1. Transfer to BIM (ArchiCAD)
them.The Since ArchiCAD works
Grasshopper+ArchiCAD live in a BIM environment,
connection allows ittheisbilateral
more rigid when
transfer representing
of geometry non-
between
The Grasshopper+ArchiCAD
rectilinear live connection
the meshesallows the bilateral transfer ofcontain
geometry between
them. Sincecomplex
ArchiCAD geometries.
works inAs suchenvironment,
a BIM generated
it is more with
rigid the
whenalgorithm many faces.
representing non-rectilinear
them.
There Since
are 3 ArchiCAD
main object works
types in ainBIM
(tools) environment,
ArchiCAD that canitdeal
is more
with rigid when
complex forms:representing
1) the Mesh non-
tool3
complex geometries. As such the meshes generated with the algorithm contain many faces. There are
rectilinear
operates complex geometries. As such the meshes generated with the algorithm containthat
many faces.
main object types (tools) in ArchiCAD that can deal with complex forms: 1) the Mesh tool operates the
the Delaunay meshing algorithm, but it only works in XY plane. This implies only the
There
flat are 3 main
horizontal object
parts cantypes (tools) in ArchiCAD
be represented that can deal may
with be
complex forms: 1) the Mesh tool
Delaunay meshing algorithm, but it onlyusing
worksthisin XYtool, which
plane. This implies useful for floors
that only and
the flat ceilings;
horizontal
operates
2) the can the Delaunay
Morph tool is moremeshing
flexible algorithm,
and but it only
corresponds tobe works
the mesh in representation
XY plane. Thisin implies thatusual
any other only the
3D
parts be represented using this tool, which may useful for floors and ceilings; 2) the Morph
flat horizontal
modelling parts
software, can be represented using this tool, which may be useful for floors and ceilings;
tool is more flexible however it is slower
and corresponds to than the ArchiCAD
the mesh Mesh in
representation tool;
any and 3) the
other Library
usual object tool
3D modelling
2)
is the
alsoMorph
flexible tool
in is more flexible
geometry andThe
creation. corresponds
library to the are
objects mesh GDLrepresentation
entities in any other
containing usualand
geometry 3D
software, however it is slower than the ArchiCAD Mesh tool; and 3) the Library object tool is also
modelling
texture. software, however
Notwithstanding, theitcolour
is slower
of thanvertexes
the the ArchiCAD
is not Mesh tool;through
preserved and 3) thetheLibrary
transferobject
of tool
mesh
flexible in geometry creation. The library objects are GDL entities containing geometry and texture.
is also flexible
geometry in geometry
to ArchiCAD. Onecreation. of The library objects are could
GDL entities containing geometrymeshand
Notwithstanding, the colour ofway overcoming
the vertexes this issue
is not preserved throughbethe treating
transfereach individual
of mesh geometry to
texture.
face as a Notwithstanding,
separate library theentity,
part colourasofinthe thevertexes
work by isPavlo
not preserved
Menshykh through
[74], butthe
thistransfer
approachof mesh
is not
ArchiCAD. One way of overcoming this issue could be treating each individual mesh face as a separate
geometry
suitable tomassive
for ArchiCAD. One
object way ofThe
meshes. overcoming
result of thisalgorithm
the issue could be treating each
implementation in individual
BIM is mesh
shown in
library part entity, as in the work by Pavlo Menshykh [74], but this approach is not suitable for massive
face as a15.
Figure separate library part entity, as in the work by Pavlo Menshykh [74], but this approach is not
object meshes. The result of the algorithm implementation in BIM is shown in Figure 15.
suitable for massive object meshes. The result of the algorithm implementation in BIM is shown in
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Study model of the Casa de Pilatos patio in ArchiCAD.
3.2. Assigning Semantic Data15.

Figure to Study
Objects
model of the Casa de Pilatos patio in ArchiCAD.
3.2. Assigning Semantic Data to Objects

Remote
Remote Sens.
Sens. 2020,
2020, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 13
13 of
of 23
23
The
The BIM
BIM environment
environment is is distinguished
distinguished among among 3D 3D modelling
modelling approaches
approaches by by the
the ability
ability to to assign
assign
rich
rich semantic
Remote Sens. 2020,data
semantic for
12, 1094
data for each individual object. This is useful in the AEC
each individual object. This is useful in the AEC (Architecture-Engineering- (Architecture-Engineering- 13 of 22
Construction)
Construction) industryindustry practices.
practices. Each Each object
object contains
contains information
information about about itsits construction
construction element
element
classification,
classification, object identifier,
object identifier, renovation
renovation cycle type, structural loads, etc. A similar function is
cycle type, structural loads, etc. A similar function is
3.2. Assigning Semantic Data to Objects
available
available in Rhinoceros environment, where
in Rhinoceros environment, where each each object
object is is able
able to to include
include associated
associated user-defined
user-defined
Key+Value
The BIM
Key+Value attributes.
environment
attributes. These
These attributes
attributes can
is distinguished be
be populated
can among 3D modelling
populated and
and have assigned
assignedbyvalues
approaches
have to
to them.
the ability
values The
to assign
them. The
information
information contained in the Rhinoceros object as a user attribute can be later translated to an
rich semantic contained
data for in
each the Rhinoceros
individual object
object. Thisas isa user
useful attribute
in the AEC can be later translated
(Architecture-Engineering- to an
ArchiCAD
ArchiCAD property.
Construction) industry
property. In
In the ArchiCAD
practices.
the ArchiCAD Each environment,
object contains
environment, however, the
the semantic
information
however, aboutdata
semantic are
are not
not simple;
its construction
data simple; some
element
some
are
are inherent
inherent to
classification, the
the specific
object
to identifier,
specific object type,
type, others
renovation
object are
are general
cycle type,
others structural
general and some
andloads,
someetc. (after the
the ArchiCAD
A similar
(after function is
ArchiCAD 20 update)
20available
update)
can
in be customised
Rhinoceros by
environment, the user in
where order
each to represent
object is able a tocertain
include
can be customised by the user in order to represent a certain kind of object associated phenomena.kind of object
associated associated
user-defined phenomena.
Key+Value
To
To establish
attributes. aa workflow
establishThese attributes
workflow of
of the
cantranslation
the be populated
translation of
of semantic
and have
semantic data
data from
from Rhinoceros
assigned attributes
values to them.
Rhinoceros attributesTheto ArchiCAD
toinformation
ArchiCAD
data, a
contained script was created to read the custom made ID field of the
data, a script was created to read the custom made ID field of the Rhinoceros object and useproperty.
in the Rhinoceros object as a user attribute can be later Rhinoceros
translated to object
an and
ArchiCAD use it
it as
as an
an
input
In the for the
ArchiCAD object attributes
environment, when creating
however, thethe object
semantic (Morph/Library)
data are
input for the object attributes when creating the object (Morph/Library) in ArchiCAD. This approach not in
simple; ArchiCAD.
some are This
inherent approach
to the
succeeds
specific to
to transfer
succeedsobject the
the semantic
type, others
transfer are general
semantic data;
data;and therefore,
some (after
therefore, the
the other parameters
the ArchiCAD
other parameters 20 can be
be set
update)
can set to
can be
to be transferred
be customised
transferred by in
in
the same
user manner.
in
the same manner.order to represent a certain kind of object associated phenomena. To establish a workflow
of the translation of semantic data from Rhinoceros attributes to ArchiCAD data, a script was created
3.3.
to Texture
3.3.read Creation
the custom
Texture Creationmade ID field of the Rhinoceros object and use it as an input for the object attributes
whenThe creating the object (Morph/Library) in ArchiCAD.texture This approach creation succeeds to transfer the semantic
The aforementioned
aforementioned automatic automatic methodmethod enablesenables texture image image creation regardless
regardless of of the
the point
point
data; therefore,
cloud composition. the other
As parameters
can be seen can
in the begiven
set toexample
be transferred(previous in the same14,
Figure manner.
Figure 16 and Figure
cloud composition. As can be seen in the given example (previous Figure 14, Figure 16 and Figure
17), aa portion
17), Texture
portion of
of the
the point
point cloud
cloud was was subtracted
subtracted due due to to the
the bench
bench in in front
front ofof the
the wall.
wall. This
This led
led toto aa
3.3. Creation
discontinuity of the cloud particles in that place. Nevertheless,
discontinuity of the cloud particles in that place. Nevertheless, the final image is complete. the final image is complete.
The population
aforementionedsampled automatic method enables texture image creation regardless of the point
The population size size sampled for for texture
texture creation
creation can can be be adjusted
adjusted to to obtain
obtain lowlow to to high
high resolution
resolution
cloud composition.
images. As can be seenhere in the givennot example (previous Figures 14, 16 andresolution
17), a portionthe of
images. However,
However, the the resolution
resolution here should should not be be misinterpreted
misinterpreted with with the
the pixel
pixel resolution of of the
the point
image. cloud was subtracted due to the bench in front of the wall. This led to a discontinuity of the
image. The The pixel
pixel resolution
resolution is is controlled
controlled separately
separately using using an an input
input parameter
parameter that that stands
stands for for the
cloud particles
height pixel in thatThe
amount. place. Nevertheless,
length derives thethe
from final image
ratio of is complete.
the bounding rectangle.
height pixel amount. The length derives from the ratio of the bounding rectangle.
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Low-resolution
Low-resolution texture
Low-resolution texture creation.
creation.
Figure 17. High-resolution texture creation.

Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 14 of 22
The population size sampled for texture creation can be adjusted to obtain low to high resolution
images. However,
Remote Sens. the
2020, 11, x resolution
FOR here should not be misinterpreted with the pixel resolution of14the
PEER REVIEW of 23
image. The pixel resolution is controlled separately using an input parameter that stands for the height
pixel amount. The length derivesFigure from 17.
theHigh-resolution
ratio of the bounding rectangle.
texture creation.
3.4.
3.4.Accuracy
AccuracyEvaluation
Evaluation
Once the meshing algorithm produced the geometry, it was worth assessing the meshing accuracy
Once the meshing algorithm produced the geometry, it was worth assessing the meshing accuracy
against the original subsampled point cloud. This was carried out in two sectors of the patio. First,
against the original subsampled point cloud. This was carried out in two sectors of the patio. First,
the 3D meshing of a wall sector, whose point cloud had a total of 24,399 points, and its mesh had
the 3D meshing of a wall sector, whose point cloud had a total of 24,399 points, and its mesh had 3943
3943 polygons and 2033 vertexes. Second, using a sample small mullion column in the patio, with
polygons and 2033 vertexes. Second, using a sample small mullion column in the patio, with a point
a point cloud consisting of 11,493 points, and a mesh with 1704 faces and 854 points. The geometry
cloud consisting of 11,493 points, and a mesh with 1704 faces and 854 points. The geometry
comparison was performed as per [8,9], using CloudCompare software to compute the cloud-to-mesh
comparison was performed as per [8,9], using CloudCompare software to compute the cloud-to-mesh
distances (Figures 18 and 19).
distances (Figure 18 and Figure 19).
Figure 18. Cloud-to-mesh point deviation in a wall sector.

The scale in both histograms is constant to ease comprehension. The abscissa axis represents
the distance intervals between the two 3D objects, and the ordinate axis shows the number of points
in each interval. The ‘zero’ deviation value on the X-axis represents the correspondence between
the objects compared—3D mesh and point cloud [8,9]. In other words, it is the interval in which the
distance between the mesh and the point cloud is null. A total of 2000 distance intervals were created
for the calculation; the higher the number of intervals is, the more accurate the number of points in the
‘zero’ value. The standard deviation (σ) was the statistical tool considered to assess the accuracy of the
meshing process. In this paper, σ was 68.28 points in the wall sector, and 28.13 vertexes in the sample
mullion column.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 15 of 22
4. Discussion of Results
Firstly, the choice of programmes and algorithm structure should be discussed. Given
that 3D modelling applications such as Rhinoceros and ArchiCAD are not intended for point
cloud processing, the operations performed in this research may be slower than if performed in
specific point cloud processing software. However, the live connection explored in this research
(Rhinoceros+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD) allows for linking visual programming to BIM in order to create
BIM entities in a complex case study, including flat-like and volumetric building components. Attempts
to make large amount of calculations at once may lead to crashes; therefore, in order to achieve a
more effective procedure, the algorithm is designed to work on a step-by-step basis through point
cloud subselection and processing. As a result, considering the aforementioned software limitations,
processing time is reduced, thus revealing the established workflow as an agreement between speed
and efficiency.
Secondly, it is worth discussing the different levels of parametrisation. BIM software normally
identify their tools and objects as being parametric, however that level of parametrisation is normally
bound to those specific objects. For instance, a table can have the drawer sizes parametrically adjusted
based on the tabletop dimensions. This is a parametric model but limited to the inherent parameters
of the given object. On the other hand, a more global parametrisation suggests that there is a
parameter-based connection not only inside one entity but also between different objects. In this regard,
the methodology presented here achieves various levels of parametrisation. Examples of object level,
multi-object level and global level parametrisations are given below:
• Surface reconstruction, which performs several calculations in order to obtain different parameters
for a selected subset of the point cloud.
• The detection of colliding pairs for crease processing described in section 2.6 is a
multi-object parametrisation.
• Global parameters: to determine the resolution of point clouds or the BIM objects type choice that
the reconstructed mesh will be translated to.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 16 of 22
With a view to avoid confusion with the terms parametric (model) and parametrisation, the BIM
entities in this paper (mesh/morph/GDL objects) should not be considered as purely parametric, but as
elements which depend on parameters at a certain level.
Thirdly, the performance of the workflow and the user interaction are discussed. The performance
depends on the meshing method. Delaunay algorithm in Grasshopper is generally faster and more
reliable than the ball-pivot method for point cloud 3D meshing, since the latter was not completely
stable in this research. This algorithm caused the programme to crash occasionally, which rarely
happened when cropped subsampled clouds contain less than 5000 points. The workflow was tested
on an HP Pavilion gaming laptop for performance.
The performance obviously depends on the resolution the user is working with. The higher it
is, the smaller portions are advised to be taken for meshing at a time. In this case study, the average
collection of points selected for meshing after tolerance culling ranged from 2000 to 10,000 points. In
this case, the workflow experienced negligible latency and the calculations took less than 0.5 seconds
to compute. The only process that would make the user wait for a short lapse could be the initial
point cloud down sampling. On the contrary, transferring the generated meshes into ArchiCAD takes
longer time (several seconds for a mesh with 2000 to 5000 points). The more objects that are present in
ArchiCAD through the live connection, the longer it will take at each subsequent step. The above led
to create a different script for the transfer stage only.
Next, this section is divided into three parts: user recommendations, methods for surface
reconstruction and accuracy assessment of the research outcomes.
4.1. User Recommendations

The algorithm has been tested in this research; several recommendations can therefore be provided
to ease the workflow:
• Every time the geometry is created, it is not necessary to send it to ArchiCAD in order to save the
data. The meshes are already saved in Rhinoceros, which means that the transfer to ArchiCAD
can be conducted every 5-6 steps or more.
• If working with architectural models, it is highly advisable to position the point cloud in such
a way that the least amount of subsampling operations is required. Moreover, it is advisable to
orient the cloud to the Cartesian system in Rhinoceros.
• It is easier to control the cropping objects in planar views (top, front, side) rather than in perspective.
• In certain cases, as in this case study, there may be long continuous surfaces such as walls. In the
case of heritage objects, the deviation from the fitted plane of those long continuous elements may
be extremely high if taken as one piece. In that case, the object may be reconstructed from several
pieces that can be determined by the user. This will ensure a better and faster workflow, especially
concerning the crease processing algorithm, resulting in seamless and smoother component joints.
4.2. Different Methods of Source Reconstruction

It is worth discussing the effectiveness of the aforementioned methods of reconstructing
surfaces [59–67]. Certain recently developed algorithms are capable of reconstructing surface efficiently
and with high quality of the output mesh. However, there is no implementation of such techniques into
the Grasshopper visual scripting environment. Creating Grasshopper components of those techniques
is out of the scope of this research; thus, only the methods available at hand were used. Some mesh
post-processing operations were developed to test the following set of methods. The algorithm is
working only with point positions, so the surface reconstruction can be performed from unoriented
point clouds. A point cloud subset was selected to test different methods available for meshing: the
fountain in the centre of the patio.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 17 of 22
4.2.1. Delaunay Meshing

The Delaunay meshing method is available within Grasshopper and is probably the fastest. It is
capable of processing large quantities of points within reasonable time frames. The flat-like parts of
the point clouds are reconstructed via Delaunay triangulation with some post-processing.
4.2.2. Ball-Pivot
The ball-pivot algorithm [75] is one of such available components used in this paper. It has
several advantages and drawbacks. As the radius of the pivot ball remains constant, the accuracy
of the yielded model highly depends on the uniformity of the point cloud. If the point cloud has
varying densities, which is generally true, the algorithm will fail to connect more distant points and
will overrun the closer ones. For this reason, a proximity culling of the points is performed prior to
running the ball-pivot algorithm on the point cloud. Although this will not increase the density in
the undersampled regions, it will decrease the oversampled region density, thus bringing the overall
densities closer to the mean. In order to determine the ball-pivot radius, random subsampling is
performed to test the average distance to the nearest 3 neighbouring points. The average of the values
is then taken as the base radius. The user is given a numeric control of a multiplier of this value to
refine the radius in the end.
4.2.3. Marching Cubes

Marching Cubes [76] is another surface reconstruction algorithm available within Grasshopper
via the Cocoon developed by David Stasiuk. The resulting reconstructed surfaces were not just thin
meshes but more like volumetric envelopes of the objects. In addition, the Marching Cubes algorithm
required more parameter inputs from the user, which is far from being automatic.
4.2.4. Voxelisation
Volvox includes the voxelisation meshing algorithm. This method was also tested during this
research. Although the resulting mesh highly resembled the initial object from which the points were
scanned, this method is inapplicable to heritage reconstruction since the final mesh does not represent
the scanned points accurately, and may lack crucial data.
Finally, Delaunay meshing was chosen to reconstruct the surfaces in flat regions and ball-pivot
was used for the volumetric ones.
4.3. Meshing Accuracy

In view of the results of the meshing accuracy evaluation, it is worth noting that, according to
Antón et al. [8], high values of the standard deviation account for high accuracy in the 3D meshing
process. The values obtained in this research (68.28 and 28.13 vertexes) are lower than the value
considered optimal by those authors; i.e., the accuracy is also lower. The extreme distance values
between the 3D objects are 0.04 m and 0.057 m, respectively. However, these values may be outliers,
since the starting populated intervals are those below approximately 0.02 m and 0.04 m, respectively.
It is also worth highlighting the symmetry in the data deriving from the accuracy assessment of the
wall sector, whereas the case of the mullion column shows a more irregular distribution (Figures 18
and 19). This could indicate a lower 3D meshing accuracy of the algorithm in volumetric components.
Consequently, all the above are limitations of this work, but also an opportunity to improve the
capabilities of the meshing algorithm in the future. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the aim of the
work by the aforementioned authors was to obtain the highest possible accuracy in their 3D heritage
models for HBIM by weighing the geometry generation and the mesh triangle amount, which has a
direct impact on processing time, computational resources and file size. Thus, the standard deviation
calculated in this paper can be accepted for the purpose of modelling the patio of Casa de Pilatos
in HBIM. Certainly, the model produced does not include complex decorative details yet, but the
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 18 of 22
automatic algorithm is able to represent the overall shape, volume and deformations of the historical
building components under the HBIM environment.
5. Conclusions
The scientific advance of this work consists of automating and validating the use of BIM in
heritage buildings with complex structures. Thus, researchers, architects and BIM operators can
identify geometric properties within the platform and represent, evaluate and inventory both structural
and pathological deformations of the assets.
In this paper, a new workflow is created to transfer point cloud data into HBIM using the
Rhinoceros+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD combination, thus avoiding complementary software such as
Cloudcompare, MeshLab or Geomagic. Here, starting from TLS and SFM data, a pseudo point cloud
structure with controllable density is created so that the point clouds are converted into textured meshes.
Although according to Facundo et al. [77] Autodesk Revit currently leads the ranking of use in
BIM publications in heritage, this software does not solve the problems of surface modelling [52] by
itself. In this sense, the Rhino+Grasshopper-ArchiCAD combination demonstrates the possibilities of
a new working scenario based on interoperability.
There is a huge potential of parametric modelling, which was described by Lee et al. [78] in 2006.
HBIM platforms need algorithmic designs to represent complex structures, and workflows like the
one developed in this research can become the next step in this knowledge area. It is in the hands of
BIM software developers to introduce these workflows to increase operability as the capabilities of
computers to manipulate massive point cloud data improve.
In this work, diverse algorithms such as Marching Cubes, Volvox, Delaunay and ball-pivot have
been tested to prove their effectiveness in modelling objects containing geometrical alterations. This
is an experimental work to achieve the conversion of TLS or SFM point cloud data into HBIM, thus
constituting semantically enriched parametric objects. The 3D meshing accuracy assessment of the
algorithm reveals its suitability to represent the overall features and geometrical alterations of the
elements modelled.
As mentioned above, not many surface reconstruction algorithms are available at hand in graphical
algorithm editors by the time this work was conducted. In the case of the advent of better surface
reconstruction tools, the workflow may adopt those new methods for better performance. The
ArchiCAD-Grasshopper live connection itself is a relatively new development; further functionalities
are therefore expected to be developed in the near future, which will improve the proposed workflow.
This may include the possibility of transferring textures directly into the objects, saving generated
objects in ArchiCAD in a dynamic manner, among others. This workflow will be used in future case
studies and more refinement will be carried out to improve the algorithmic performance.
Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, J.M.; methodology, M.A. and J.E.N.-J.; software, M.A., J.E.N.-J. and
D.A.; validation, D.A. and J.E.N.-J.; formal analysis, D.A.; investigation, J.M., M.A. and D.A.; resources, D.A.; data
curation, J.M. and D.A.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M., D.A. and M.A.; writing—review and editing,
J.M and D.A.; visualisation, M.A., D.A. and J.E.N.-J.; supervision, J.M.; project administration, J.M. and J.E.N.-J;
funding acquisition, D.A. and J.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by: 1) Universidad de Sevilla through VI Plan Propio de
Investigación y Transferencia (VIPPIT) grant number CONV-822 and PP2018-10628; and 2) Ministerio de
Economía y Competitividad (Spain) through Plan Estatal 2013-2016 Excelencia - Proyectos I+D, project
reference HAR2017-83474-P.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to the Administration of Casa de Pilatos for providing access to the building.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 19 of 22
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remote sensing

Abstract: Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a globally adapted methodology by government

Keywords: parametric modelling; Scan-to-BIM; cultural heritage; point cloud data

1.1. General Framework

Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094; doi:10.3390/rs12071094 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing

aspects of geometric variables in a digital environment from 3D models to alphanumeric variables

1.2. Related Work

Remote Sens. 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

1.3. Case Study: The Main Patio Of The Casa De Pilatos

Remote Sens. 2020, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

Figure 2. View of the main patio of Casa de Pilatos.

2.3. Point Cloud Meshing Workflow

Figure 6. Subset with a sphere and extrusion object.

Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 1094 8 of 22

Figure 7. Planar subset surface reconstruction.

Figure 8. Volumetric subset surface reconstruction.

Figure 9. Processed Delaunay mesh of windows.

Figure 14. Voronoi division.

3. Results Figure 14.

Figure 15. Study model of the Casa de Pilatos patio in ArchiCAD.

3.2. Assigning Semantic Data15.

3.2. Assigning Semantic Data to Objects

Figure 17. High-resolution texture creation.

Figure 18. Cloud-to-mesh point deviation in a wall sector.

Figure 18. Cloud-to-mesh point deviation in a wall sector.

Figure 19. Cloud-to-mesh point deviation in a wall sector.

4.1. User Recommendations

4.2. Different Methods of Source Reconstruction

4.2.1. Delaunay Meshing

4.2.3. Marching Cubes

4.3. Meshing Accuracy

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