Robbins & Judge

Organizational Behavior
13th Edition

Motivation
Motivation Concepts
Concepts

6-1
Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation

Three key elements:

1) Intensity – How hard a person tries

2) Direction – Efforts channeled toward organizational goals
3) Persistence – How long a person can maintain effort

6-3
Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation

The result of the interaction between the individual

and the situation.

The processes that explain an individual’s intensity,

direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining
a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

6-4
 Motivation
Motivation and
and Individual
Individual Needs
Needs
 Motivation
– The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach
organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to
satisfy some individual need
 Need
– An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear
attractive

8–5
Early
Early Theories
Theories of
of Motivation
Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do
form the basis for modern theories and are still used
by practicing managers.

1) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2) Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
3) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
4) Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
5) McClelland’s Theory of Needs

6-6
 Early
Early Theories
Theories Of
Of Motivation
Motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)
 There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need
becomes satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

1. Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex (Wages)

2. Safety: physical safety (Benefits/Pension)
3. Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship (Friendly Co-Workers)
4. Esteem or Ego: achievement, status, and attention (Promotions,
Recognition, and Rewards)

5. Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment (Meaningful work)

8–7
Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is
substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions
Higher Order – Individuals cannot
move to the next higher
Internal level until all needs at
the current (lower) level
are satisfied
Lower Order
External – Must move in
hierarchical order

6-8
Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs

8–9
Alderfer’s
Alderfer’s ERG
ERG Theory
Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.

Three groups of core needs:

1. Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
2. Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
3. Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
Removed the hierarchical assumption
– Can be motivated by all three at once
Popular, but not accurate, theory

6-10
Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY (Douglas
(Douglas McGregor)
McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work,
lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and
must be directed and coerced to
perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, seek
responsibility, are capable of making
decisions, and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to a goal.
McGregor’s
McGregor’s Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY
 Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically
negative) and Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
 No empirical evidence to support this theory.

6-13
 Herzberg’s
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory

• Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites

but separate constructs

Extrinsic and Intrinsic and

Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

6-14
Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory (Frederick
(FrederickHerzberg)
Herzberg)

Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while
extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.

Hygiene Factors
Factors—such as company policy and administration,
supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job,
placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will
not be dissatisfied.
David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs
Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation
The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly and
in relation to a set of close personal relationships.
standards, to strive to
succeed.

nPow
Need for Power
The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise. nAch nAff
McClelland’s
McClelland’s Three
Three Needs
Needs Theory
Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow)
 The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three
needs.
 Hard to measure

6-19
McClelland’s
McClelland’s Three
Three Needs
Needs Theory
Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch):
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.
– High Achievers (10-20% of U.S. Population)
 Want to do things better
 Desire rapid and unambiguous feedback
 Desire personal responsibility
 Intrinsically motivated
 Believe in a 50/50 chance for success
 Avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very
difficult tasks (intermediate degrees of risk)
 Not good supervisors

6-20
 Performance
Performance Predictions
Predictions for
for High
High nAch
nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,
avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus.
– Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory

6-21
 Contemporary
Contemporary Theories
Theories of
of Motivation
Motivation
 Self-Determination Theory
 Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Self-Efficacy Theory
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social
Learning Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory

Copyright © 2011 Pearson

7-22 Education, Inc. publishing
as Prentice Hall
 Self-Determination
Self-Determination Theory
Theory
People prefer to feel they have control over their actions,
so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel
more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will
undermine motivation.
Major Implications for Work Rewards
– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
– Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards
– Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation
– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible
rewards reduce it

See E X H I B I T 7-4
See E X H I B I T 7-4
Copyright © 2011 Pearson
7-23 Education, Inc. publishing
as Prentice Hall
Modern
Modern Theories
Theories of
of Motivation
Motivation
1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
2. Goal-Setting Theory
 Management by Objectives (MBO)

1. Self-Efficacy Theory
 Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social
Learning Theory
1. Reinforcement Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Expectancy Theory

6-24
Cognitive
Cognitive Evaluation
Evaluation Theory
Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
•Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been
previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease
the overall level of motivation.
Cognitive
Cognitive Evaluation
Evaluation Theory
Theory
 The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither
extremely dull nor extremely interesting.
 Major Implications for work rewards
– Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
– Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards
– Pay should be non-contingent on performance
– Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible
rewards reduce it
 Self-concordance
• When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are
consistent with personal interests and core values (intrinsic
motivation), then people are happier and more successful

6-26
Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback,
lead to higher performance.

Factors influencing the goals–

performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task
characteristics, and national culture.

Self-Efficacy
The individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
 Basic Premise:
• That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback,
lead to higher performance
 Difficult Goals:
• Focus and direct attention
• Energize the person to work harder
• Difficulty increases persistence
• Force people to be more effective and efficient
 Relationship between goals and performance
depends on:
• Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
• Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
• Culture (best match is in North America)
6-28
 M a na ge m en t
v e s ( M B O )
by Objecti
n v e rti n g o v e r all
 Emphasizes co es into
n al o bje c t iv
organizatio r ind iv id u al
e s f o
specific objectiv at are
d m e m b e rs th
units an
ible, ve rif iab le , and
tang
measurable

7–29 © 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Management
Management by
by Objectives
Objectives
Management by Objectives (MBO)
•A program that encompasses specific goals,
collectively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress.
Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.
2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.
3. An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
4.
4. Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback

7–30 © 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives

Overall
Overall
organizational
organizational
objectives
objectives

Divisional
Divisional
objectives
objectives

Departmental
Departmental
objectives
objectives

Individual
Individual
objectives
objectives

7–31 © 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives

7–32
 Management
Management by
by Objectives
Objectives
 Organizational objectives translated to specific objectives
for each level (division, department, individual)
 Lower-level managers participate in setting their own goals
 Results in hierarchy of objectives that links one level to the
next
 If all individuals achieve goals, organizational objectives will
be attained

7–34 © 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.

All rights reserved.
 Linking
Linking MBO
MBO and
and Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)

7–35
 Why
Why MBO’s
MBO’s Fail
Fail

 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results

 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities

7–36 © 2005 Prentice Hall Inc.

All rights reserved.
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory Relationship
Relationship
Perceived Employee’s
Ratio Comparison Assessment

*Person A is the employee, and Person B is a relevant other or referent.

8–39
Adams’
Adams’ Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-
inputs of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is
no tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
– Under-rewarded states cause anger
– Over-rewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation
into equity

6-40
Adams’
Adams’ Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
1)
1) Self-inside
Self-inside
2)
2) Self-outside
Self-outside
3)
3) Other-inside
Other-inside
4)
4) Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity
Equity Theory’s
Theory’s “Relevant
“Relevant Others”
Others”

 Can be four different situations:

– Self-Inside
• The person’s experience in a different job in the same
organization
– Self-Outside
• The person’s experience in a different job in a different
organization
– Other-Inside
• Another individual or group within the organization
– Other-Outside
• Another individual or group outside of the organization

6-42
 Adams’
Adams’ Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
Equity theory
– Employees perceive what they get from a job situation
(outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and
then compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-
outcome ratios of relevant others.

• Inputs
a) Effort
b) Experience
c) Education
d) Competence

• Outcomes
a) Salary levels
b) Raises
c) Recognition
8–43
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the amount
and allocation of rewards among
individuals.

Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the
process to determine the
distribution of rewards.
 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory (Vroom)
(Vroom)
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

– A theory of motivation that an individual tends to

act in a certain way (effort), in the expectation that
the act will be followed by given outcome
(performance-reward), and according to the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

8–49
 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory (Vroom)
(Vroom)

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

– Effort-performance
• The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance
– Performance-reward
• The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to
the attainment of a desired outcome
– Attractiveness
• The importance placed on the potential outcome or
reward that can be achieved on the job.

8–50
Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory (Vroom)
(Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends
on the strength of an expectation that the act will be
followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of
the outcome to the individual.

Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the

performance success in getting reward in employee’s
success reward eyes

6-51
 Global
Global Implications
Implications
Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Order of needs is not universal
– McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and
performance concerns – not universal traits
– Adams’ Equity Theory
• A desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former
communists
Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
– There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal

6-54
Summary
Summary and
and Managerial
Managerial Implications
Implications
 Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland, Herzberg)
• Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior

 Goal-Setting Theory
• While limited in scope, good predictor

 Reinforcement Theory
• Powerful predictor in many work areas

 Equity Theory
• Best known for research in organizational justice

 Expectancy Theory
• Good predictor of performance variables but shares many of
the assumptions as rational decision making

6-55