1s bok dtc my wi Pele and ihe 9 ands Heo Rar : rs Het and Kay yds hin ‘aay Randy, lteter Me ‘hy Ng nel "eet genie Rech aga, and ee CHAPTER 1 An Overview of Crime and Criminology 11996, ogi refugees Majed ALTimimy, 28, and Latif A-Husan 34, mamed the daughters aged 13 and 14, ofa flow nai refuge Lincoln, Nebraska. The marriages took place acording to Muslin custom, and eerything seemed fo be going wel fra while unt one of te gis rn away andthe concerned father and her husband reported it tthe police ‘twas at tis pont that American and Iraqi noms of legality and morality clase head-on Unde Nebraska kaw, people under 17 years od cannot many so both grooms and the gs father and mother wee csted and charged with variety of ces fom child endangerment to statutory re ‘Aczoding to antag woman interaewed by the police (hase marred at 12 nag both gins were excited and happy bout the wesking The hag communty was shocked that these men faced upto SO yearn pion fr ther octions, as Would hhave been eae generatens of Americans who wee legally permitted to matty ars ofthis age Themen were setenced to 4106 years in prison and paroled in 2000 with condition tha the have no contact withthe ‘wives "Thus something that ‘segally and moray pemsblem one cuiture con be severely punished Inancther Were he actors of these men child sex ‘abuse or simply unremarkable mantal sex? Which culture nght? Can we realy asksuch question Is aq clture “more ‘ight thon Arencan culture given thot manyng gio that age wos permissible hee oo at one te? Mest important for 2 ppeses, now can crmnciogss hope to sty rime scericaly what costes crime le tote and lace? ieee) Understand the dificlty of defining cime and the difference between crime and cninalty ow the diference between mala in se and mala prohbta cnmes Understand the egal process required to “oily” become cma Realize ow thinking about cme and ciminalty is ime and culture bound Understand what thear is, bow 5 formulated, and how teary facts in selec Be aware ofthe oe of eclogy in cuminology Understand the elatonship between theory and pole in ciminology+ What Is Criminology? ‘The Ioth-century American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne opens his famous book Tho Scarlet ‘eter with these words of wisdom: “The founders ofa new colony, whatever Utopia of haan ‘tue and happiness they might orginally project, have invariably recognized among thet caus practic necessties to allt a poron ofthe virgin soll asa cemetery, and another po sion s the site of« prison’ (2003, p ), Hawthorne is reminding us of ewe things we cant svoid—death and human vce—and that we must make provisions ox bat, Peps bese ‘mninals reveal humany' dase, people are drawn endless moves snd television shows that explore the darker ste of human nate (wasnt Breaking Baus Waker White much mene fnteresting as methamphetamine peddle than asx high school chemistry teacher. Iota ack br fiscinatng side ofthe human characte that cnsclogy explore Criminology san interdsciplinary scence that gathers and analyzes data on various ‘aspects of criminal, delinquent, and general ansisoctl havior is differen fom the isin of eriminal justice, which s concemed with how the criminal justice system investigates rosecues nd contls or supervises individuals who have commited ernesCriminelogy examines why thos indivi corti cree that go them ensnared in the cial te system in the fst place. As with all scenic disciplines the goal eizclogy sto unclear ss subject matter anlto determine how that understanding can bene scl tn puss of hoe “understanding, criminologists ask questions such athe flowing, Why do crime rates vary from time to time and fom culture to culture? * Why are some individuals more prone to commiting crime dhan others? Why do crime rates vary across ages, Renders, and racial/ethnir groups? + Why are some harmful acts riminalized and not other? + What can we do to prevent crime? By a scientific study of crime and criminal bchavic we mez that criminologists use the sclentific method o try to answer their questions rather than just philosophizing about thew. from ther armchairs, The sinc meciod is atool fo separating wah om ence demarca, {evidence for any conclusions erminologists arsve at. Evidence is obtained by formating beypotheses derived from theory that are rigorously tested wit data in sucha way that cere following the same method can replicate the study. By following the scientific racthod, criminologists hope to build body of verified knowledge that may help policymakers sod police and correctional officals in their bate aginst crime, What Is Crime? ‘The term criminal can and has been applied to many types of behavior, some of whic nell ‘of os have been gully of a some tie in ou ves. Wein ll think el ac tht wef gb be criminal bute nor aes that should net be criminal tae. The lio thing that ers or anther at iferen nes and at diferent places may consider be ermies in very lange och ‘only afew being define as criminal by the law in the Unked States a this tne Despite sae iicuies, we need a definition of crime inorder to proceed. The mnt often quoted efnhaon 's tha of Paul Tappan (947), wo dfioed cvimeas an intentional atin violation ofthe cena Jas comated without defense or excuse, and penalized by the sate” (p00. A ces thas sn actin violation of criminal lw for which a punishment is prescribed the person commit fing ks have inended to do so and mat have dene so without egaly acceptable defease ot justification. “Tappis dfirton is stil eal one that seminds us tha the sate, and only the state, has ‘the power to define an acta criminal. ypothescall a society could eradicate crime tomorrow ‘Snply by canceling al of ts criminal atutes, Ofcourse this Would nc eliminate the behavior specified by te law as cimes in fat, the behavior would doubles increase since the behavior ‘could no longer be officially punished. While itis abso think that any sie would try tosoleits crime problem by eliminating its criminal statutes, legisative bodies ae costly revising, adding wo, ane deleting rom ther eiminal utes, Crime as a Moving Target ‘Aine evr ve is sowed sometins vie. Tete ae neous examples fas decd sche ioe couty bong tlre deen expec carina dem rst inthe gee tthe begining of hs capes. We min onal urate or froin on is och Kl i ble > and earl gi de gt but in 885 o sai the Uied Sees dan age conser above 12 Gretna, 200) as sho ay wahin these ae oni time wel aati cures, Cl he Farina Nucoses Act of 1H thers er few ea exticion inthe United Stas on the ae ion ors of ms rg aan heroin and cc, allowing te Haron At, ay Cogs became coiled anes ad thle ard pasesion rine ans ran new ln einiolwn ceted oer. rer pas Gt cites, een that bee sre ries fo cies. nel he ure is Spee Cot vai oda ors tein uence ais eo apna cent ‘posses Likewise, bring the Aver ig ad sets coscqucnes na 9 when ‘he Supreme Court led ant ag burning tes uncon utoa n Tea. bnson. Wat ‘ontiues sei then canbe dnc nor ato xen by he as x years As longs human sci emai vere adja, there wlalwaye be moving ae of aces wa hep fornia sce, 6 wel sigan for deciinalzaton 1 what contues cme dfs across me and pice, how can criminologists hope to agree ona sci cpl mean ral Behav Selec abou alan tnieral sutenens stb defined phenomena tons, he is ls DNA, he ls Shemodyamks, photos cmt nt ened or cated Geen by sce atcand he la accning lea csc elo psec Bat what weil eine” eps moving around an bec ides ome cena ave Jared impose o sence swat not ea ee "at hese einlogt ae sing tt crn ia scl contrac pheamenon hat lack aya bjt een sind no exten rae an doce couse, ina ul ens everyting sec conse Nate oes at evel betel os sored ln rea aeledpuags wo Pumas to fr het, Sat constacon means ning ore tha humans have peeves phenomenon, ned tnd categorized according 6 ‘Se elasaory rl tat mes ne othe snes ad dfceces among the thge being clad Mot dation scenes ot aay they were we woul be ae Loma sense faye Categories tae enpily ang ft ol are se 0 impose cre on he dv of human expences aegunens ei abt at Row ‘berate one Chapter & da Onno of ies mio |34 | eimiaty me esos Crime as a Subcategory of Social Harms So, what car we say about crime; how cam we concen ‘would agree ae logkl, consent, and corespoad si nd done, crime a subcategory of all itn ways that tes os people hic veo ete Whe aso emacs that age nS gs ks ‘every sous hing ke aS harm ash eto ea ee Sere ae ik coer anyones buses oer than eaters they tke pase npr oy ‘een in public the peson indulging in dose things crates no anncyare ets eas ‘Social (as oppose o privat) harmfl cs are those deemed oben need of eguation {Gf Realh stands ae postion), but net by ie criminal law except unter exe iramsance Prvte wrongs Gch as somone reneging on conic ate scaly eon an osu sot equi the hey hand teen aw Sach wget eel oy {ec law in which the wronged ary ihe plain) rather tan the sae tas etic, Ante defend does ne isk pivation of his crber ery ifthe pal preva Farther along the contimium we ind category of harmful acs eonsored 9 scaly Zar that they come under the scope ofthe criminal justice sytem. Even hte we ae al Sitemed wih be prcblem of human jugmeatin determing wt pcs ots ucegey father al along the ine stoking was once actualy conser ates hein ae og ronmental conditions were simply ct of lie abou wk judgments, but hat does not necessary reer the categorizations airy. ‘Th harm cause by criminal acivty is financially and emesionlly very cost. The motional pln an slfesng bore by crime victims obvi inpoable goat foe ‘many estimates ofthe financial harm are available. Mos estimates focus on te cone of ‘running the criminal justice system, which includes the salaries and benefits of percscan themaintenance cows of balding fies, jul, prisons, sony) end equprien ee Teams nlerms. Added to hese ross are the css asoited with each ee Ee regs ost pet incident muliplied by the be of incident as reported tothe polices Athen ae, ‘combined are estimates ofthe rectconts oem. {The indinect costs of crime must also be considered as pat of the burden, These costs ‘cide all manner of surveillance and security devices, protective devices (une alan vices, and the produetvty and taxes lost of mment sources, MeCollister, Freeh, and Bing ;Pproximately $15 blion in economic losses to Incarcerated individuals, From a varity of gave (@o0) estimate that each year cinereus n “Kins and 79 bilion in goveznent expenditures on pace psclion,fal ssoegd Rites and corrections The tangibie and intangible financial cst per murder in tina $5982997 and pet rpe tis $240.76. These igure do not mle si sevre petal cel ‘emotional costs ovens andthe files, Beyond Social Construction: The Stationary Core Crimes Few People would argue that an act is notably categorized o ot seriously harmful is univesally condemned. tat i there i core of offenses defined as wrong vanes ay vate an ae societies in which so-called bono lings azecultualy accepted, but this does nc conte the contesion that murder is nhezenty wrong, Even in countries in which the practice exis, honor killing is coniay tothe law although is rarly prosecuted or is tested lente iit i omar killings typically involve filles mvdering thelr dsughtes, mostly because they have “dishonored” the family by engaging in unsanctioned seul relationship or because hey ae romancally involve with someone the family's cue deems undestable, ‘Ciminologiss cll these universally condemned crimes mata in se Cinherently evi”, (times tha are time and culture bound are described as mala probibtta (evil because they are prolubited?, Buc how can we know that an acts inherently had? The litmus es for determining a mal in e crime is that no one except under the most bipare of circumstances would want 1 be victimized by one (See Box 1D. While millions of people seek to be "icimized” by prosiutes, deug dealers, and bookies, noone wants to be murdered, ped, robbed, or have ther property stolen. Being victimized by sch actions evokes physiclogical reactions anger, heiplesiness, sadness, depression, a desie for revenge in all cultures and ‘woul do so even if the acts were so punishable by law or custom, Mala in se crimes engage these emotions not because some legate body has defined them as wrong but because they haramer at our deepest concerns. Evolutionary scientists propose that these bun emotions! ‘mechanisms exist because ma in se rimes threatened the sural and reproductive success jaw ras iri | ‘four dlstant ancestors the ultimate concerns ofall sexvalyreprodacing animal) and that they function to srongly motivate people to try to prevent such acts rom occuring and punishing them f they do (Manique, 2003, Walsh, 2000, ring would certarly pass sich a test But what ‘ifthe cannes dimer wes a wing cm ad the coun. ‘nym which te cannibal ard his tin ved had no kaw fertrdng canntalsm? Ths Siang sat of iis exes 1m etenburg in cenal Germany n 2001, Germanys ow Hannibal Lec, one Arman Mates, had acersed ong Seetrg oles for saute and consumption Among ‘he over 200 reps Mewes recsved was neal fn BemndJurgen Brandes (a sucess stare ergneet) stan, “lam your mat” Mewes and Brandes wdedaped {har aezrent, and Mees taped he subsequent ing ard buthetng of Brandes, Brandes state the tape tat bg ten wou bee utrent of my ream." ‘The prosecuton in ths case argued fora conacton of muse and “dstrtng be pes of the ded.” which would havo gen Mates «life sentence The defense handed Meives an B 1280 son sentence in Janury ‘f 2008 Hower, te eosecuten spend the cas, ad on rete Memes wes coved of murder and setenced tolfe mprsonment In conan lay countres such ashe Unted Stats, Memes would have been convicted of murder berause ‘ne person cannot gv acter the consent ol him or heryou can ge your consent mary things, but nt ‘tvs What Momes conmtiod was cll 2 mala in 36 cra, and Brandes consent dosnt change tat aa ‘The behav of kath men wes obvusly bare, an us bacawse we find instances m which people co wae be etimzad by ais that 999% ofthe ela humans wuld find repuarant doesnot change the inherent bones trove sets.0 | crag te oes Maia in Sans Ma Subsets ofa Harms Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship of core crimes (malin se to acts that have been arbitrarily defined (mala prohibit) as crimes and all harmful acts that may potentially be cximinaized The figure is inspired by John Hagan’ (1985) effort to diingulsh berween “eal ‘times and “socially constructed” arbisary crimes by examining the tree highly inerelated conoepts of consensus he degree of public agreement onthe sesness cf an a0, the severly ‘ef penalties atached tan a, andthe evel of arm attaches to an ac, Criminality Pethaps we can avoid altogether the problem of defining crimes by studying individuals who commit predatory harm acts, regardless ofthe legal satus ofthe acts. Crimisogits do chs ‘hen they study criminality, Ceieinality is clinial or cient term ater tha a legal one and one that can be defined independently of legal definitions of crimes, Cime tan intentional ‘cof commision or omision conzrary tothe lw and ia property of soy criminality is ‘property of individuals that signals te wilingnesso coms erimes and othes harmful acs CCeiminaliy is tat that es on a continuum ranging fom sin to sociopath ani composed fof mixture of oer tals such as callousness, lw empath, impulveness nd negtive eto "ionaiy that aso vary greatly among people. People can use and abuse others for persia pain regardless of whether the means used have been defined as ermal isthe propensty todo this that defines criminality independent ofthe labeling ofan act as a crime or ofthe person being kely defined asa criminal Defining riminaliy as continuous tratacknowedges that there eno sharp line separating individuals with respect to this ati is nota trait that one has or doesnot have. Just about everyone at some point in ife has commited an ae or twin vito of the lw, pethaps even ‘mala in se act. But that Joes make us al criminal cid the tern would become vitally synonymous wit being human, The points, we areal uated somewhere on the criminality ‘contin ists our eights range foe the wly sew the truly tall Some ae so exteme it height ta any reasonable pessoa would cll them "ul" Likewise, a small uber of incvcals have violated so many criminal strates over such a Jong peri atime that few would question the appropriateness of calling them “rina Thus, bth eight and criminality can be thought ‘fas exising slong continuum, eventhough the words we use often imply that people's eights Core Offenses | High consensus, Malan se ‘evore pana, igh lovl of hare AllCrines | Lowhnederate consenaue, Malain 2 anc | iownmoderate perales, mala promsita | tow to moderate harm All Social Harms ‘Stato regulated but | Harms ratty ermina iw | Suto tho purviow of Alt Haare. {he criminal Most orate maners, | use rare ste rcavonton' | symm and criminal tendencies come in dscrotecaeyoresGalLshont, criminal/ooneciinaD. In ether swords, ust as helghe vases in ine gradations soto does involvement in ese ‘The Legal Making of a Cr gars fay criminal rats, 0 one i “fay” criminal unt he or she has been defined astuchby the law, which makes necessary o brie discuss the process ofacving at that ‘eintion. The legal answer tothe question "Who is rimieal” is that he o she is someone ‘vo has commited a crime and has been judged guilty f having done so, Before the law can rope alla person criminal, tas go through series of acsons governed by well-defined fog ues guiding the seis business of offal labeling s persona criminal. The upcoming section, An Excursion Through the American Criminal Justice Sytem, shows the processing of S ruspest inthe American criminal sie system from arrest to ta and beyond, lasted in gure 12. What Constitutes a Crime? Corpus delet isa Latin term meaning “body ofthe cme" and refers wo the elements ofan at that must be present in ede o legally define x asa crime. all cies have thei own speesicee- ments, which ae the esentialconitent parts that define the act as eriminal, In adkleson 0 their specicelements al rmes share asc ofgencral elements principles ndering andl supper ing the specific elements. There ate five principles tobe salisied before a person is oficialy” labled. criminal, but in acca Ris ony necessary forthe sate to prove actus usa mens rete sai corp dele The other peincipes are typeallyasomataly proven inthe course proving actus cus an mens e2, Actus ress means “gully 2" ad tees to the principle that a person must commit some for bidden act or acglect some mandatory act before he oF she can be subjected to inal sanctions. In effet, this principle of law means that people cannot be eiminaly prosecuted foe thinking something o being something, only for dosng somezhing. This preven gover ments fom passing laws criinaliaing statuses and systems of thought they don't ike. For instance, although drunlen behavior may be a punisable crime, beng an alcoholic cannot ‘be punished because “beng” something isa sates, not an act. Mens ren means “guity mind” and refers to whether or not the suspect had a wrongl purpose in mind when carping aut the actus reus For instance, although receiving stolen ‘property 6 ciminal offense, i you were Duy 2 sen television se from an aequainiance ‘without knowing it had been stolen, you would have lacked mens rea and would not be subject 0 prosecution. If you sere 10 be prosecuted the sate would have to prove hat you [know the television was sole, Negligence, recklesiness, or carelessness that results in Some harmful consequences, eventhough no intended, doesnot excuse sch ehatoe for cme nal prosection under mens rea. Condtions that may preclude prosecution unr this pin ciple ate sel-defense, defense of others, youthfulness (a person under 7 years of age cannot be held response), insanity Calthaigh being found insane does not preclude confinement, and extreme dures or coercion. Concurrence means that the act (actus reus) and the mental sate Gnens rea) concur in the sense tat the ciminal inlenion aenates the ciminal ac. For instance, if John sets ‘0 wi his tools to burglatize Mary's apartment and takes her TV, he has fused the guyind wih the wrongful at and has therefore coramited burglary: Howeve, assume Joh Tal MAY ame fends who habinally vist each others apartment unannounced One doy john dees to wat Mary, find her not at home, and walls inane nen decees shy he cou sell Marys TV for drug money, Although the los wo Marys the sme we bed see nario, inthe later instance John cannot be charged with burglary because fe did ox cae her apartment by fore or au, the eucaleeaent nec to say sucha charge, lee Gz. the concurence of guilty mind and wrongful act ocsutted afr lawful ent so he fe only charged with theless serious crime Garation refs (0 the necessty to establish a causal lnk berween the ciminal set and fhe turn suflered. This causal lnk must be proximate, no himate Suppose Tony seareh, rank in a Knife fit. Being macho, Frank atends othe wound himselr Tee weeks eae the wound becomes severely infected and rests in his death, Can Tony be chaged aah [Runde Aunough the wounding le to Fran’ death (he ukimate cause), Pans desea {oye seriousness of his inary was the most proximate ease uf is death The quercon they ass in cases ike hs i, "What would any reaseahle person do Ms serge Hou aac tht the retonabe pera would fave sought mele! west Thi bes the case, Tony canot be changed with homicide; the ut he could be chagged we aggravated assault, {iar refers to the negative impact a crime has ether to tte vita ort the general values of the community: Although the han caused by the cmindl acti offen obntoce the Roe caused by many so-called "vicimles" crimes is cen less cbvioun aough some cn ‘aes can use more social harm in the long aun than may ermes with oboe eating “+ An Excursion Through the American Criminal Justice System 7 best way expan the proces of becoming ga ermal isto fellow the procesing of ‘ony cases rom anes toil and beyond. Tht re many pelts at which the aeted pees spay e hurd of he criminal jasice conveyor bt vate Uetonary deci ofa ee fesiminal use ficial. This process vars n some speci tom sate ostte fat hea ciples wader the specifics are uniform. Mesented her ar he Sager anil prec ie ‘ost common among our 3 ate court systems, EES Rony spect fist enters the criminal justice sytem by ares, Wen @ person has been legally detained t answer ermal charges, he or she las been tifeste Sore ant nsf on the ass of an artes warant, which sa lic document sig Oya age ‘cn te bass of evidence presented by Law enforcement indicing thatthe tenon sonar, the warrant has probably commited a crime, The warrant authors the pues ws eels a Besson can be topped onthe bass of an ofc suspicion and shed fora weapon, Ie oe she canner be anexed on the bass of suspicion alone. tis onl aftr an one he Pe th Ammendnent ight aginst selfncrimination comes nt ply because ofthe gravity ofthe xine the nk the suypect pases 10 the communi or he Sl phar fan ty ed ys emt pee ‘within We aspects means, oe sy Jota rege rt ge sa actualy been commited, whether or ot tere are reasonable prunes Pave he legal The uso proving he ley ofthe spect amet n Seca ont pon poss it pny ee ply heigl ove he seg Prosecutor’ cise mt icc nr grt hk ee Creo ees) fe and jury. The grand fry, aed © Usage rom he peat —— Pole office takes suspes ito custody A ery Suspoct ete the ‘minal justee system by restrt juris nominally an investigatory body and buffer baween the awesome power of the state and is cizens, but some see i as 2 historical anacwonism that serves only pros fecutoial purposes. The grand jury is composed of eizenschasen fom voter oc automobile episcaion Iss and numbers anywhere fom 7 10 23 membes, rewignment Semed with an indctment (or an énformation in states not requiring grand jury proceeding), the prosecutor fles the case agains the accused in felony court (at Shy called a dst, superio, or common pleas cour), which sets a date for arraignment. ‘he arlgnment proceeding is he frst me a defendant has tho opportunity 0 respond to the charges again him o her. after the charges are read to the defendant, he or she must then enter a formal response to them, known a a ples. The plea altermativs ae put, not, ily, or n0 contest A guy pia is usally the result ofa pes bangin agreement conchded Defore the aralgnmen. Abou: 90% of al felony cases inthe United Sates are setled by plea ‘banains in which the sate estes some bene to defendant, such ae reduced chasges, fa exchange for thet cooperation. By pleading guilty, defendants give up thee sight to be proven gully “beyond 2 reasonable doub” thei ight against eFneriminaio, and the ight to appeal Ano uy” plea results in a date being et fr a “guy or "no contest plea resus a ae being set for sertencing, “The rial A wal by 2 jury of one's peers 2 Ssth Amendment sight snd isan examination ofthe facts of cave y 2 judge ora jury forthe purpore of reiching a gment. The il fn adversatal process piting the prosecutor aginst the defense attorney, with each side ty ing to “vanquish” che other. Thre is no sense that each side interested in seeking tith Or fusice inthis eomalyparssan proces ri the task ofthe jude to ensare that both sides play by the rules. The prosecution’ job isa lie more dificult the defense’ since H must "prove beyond a reasonable doubt" thatthe accused is indeed guiky. Except in states that allow for non-unanimous jury decisions, the defense need only plant the seed of reasonable outs in the mind of one stubborn juror to upset the prosecutions cas, Having head thefts ofthe cas, and having been insuctel by the gen the principles fw pertaining to the jury charge with reaching avert. The jury's verde may be ky or not guilty, or fit cannot reach a verdict a “hong” fr), the adge may declare a mista. ‘hung ry resus in ether dismisal ofthe charges by the prosecutor or ina ret 1Fthe vert oily, in most cases the judge will delay sentencing to allow time fora presentence investigation ‘porto be prepared, Iisa th point of convieion (or envering pea of gully) that he peson, oily becomes cia ‘Probation Presentence investigation eports (PSD are prepaed by probation officers and contain a variety of information about the crime and the oftender’s background (criminal record, eduction and work hisiony, manta status, substance abuse, and attude)- On the bass of this information, the probation ofce offers a seatencing recommendation The most imporant fetes influencing these recommendations are cre seriousness and the defen dans criminal history. A jdge may plice the offender on probation, the most common se tence in the United Sates today. A probation sentence isa suspended comment to prison, snd if at any time during their probationary period offenders do not abide by the imposed probation conditions (consisting of «variety of general and olfonderspecic cncliions), they ‘may lace revocation of probation acd the imposition ofthe origal prison sentence, Probation cfcers supervise and monitor offender’ behavior and asrute that all conditions of proba ion ate adhered to. Probation officers thus function as both sil workers and lw enforce ment officers, someaines conflicting roles that officers may fine dificutto recone i | i i i i i i i i i | i E ? i i i sen St, 1098 ‘Sequence of Events Leading toa Person eng Labeled » cr The ether oe 0Toe Sith fusraries the fit otal by an impart jy. Incarceration I the veenc pond for 3 ony conviction sxe form of leas son th ge ae plo eect lender tpt.» re couny er lan program, The ltr sw opt ve leat vai pr 28 supplements to probation orders. vines parole officers, whose job is almost identical to that of probation officers, su - Pe oe ree tia difference between probation and parole is that probationers aze under the supervision + A Short History of Criminology The Supernatural Era imiolgy ins young spline aug mans hae pcb bes “ san hve proabiy been hearing abot rie fds ats ee en thy Ba ks ad cbseved thes esi thom. Wha an how hough abut ead tials wl a alee hing inthe past wa strong Swe te alanine cr th Tse a td oy ode cinlogt thik sb mean mia In preset days explanations fabalbckasr ere tenets eigenen nur, Disaeus natu res ah famines and fools wer sen a Gite pnisiment rane ranges, andra wee consider be pomeste by ei spits. The standart of innocence fr an acs person wae Fern facne src of ordeal such asbeing bound bad and fet and thrown nto het ease 2 ed the ode hich few, any, ever did), he or she was considered under (rheaceem and theo nnocent. Ale ies, vital was wes San Gack protection) andthe person was executed (Drapkin, 98. ‘The Renaissance the Realsuce was peti ating approximate fm 1450 01600 thats change thine cern fm he pore Gat center sopemctratim the Mile ges mee Daa cece doe poacher peas eb and fers tothe rodbcowey ofthe thinking ade aan aenien Greeks ‘The seiences and ars were becoming importante printing press sons ahd Chridopher Columbus “discovered” Ameria during this period. shot the Maree gun o ols human thinking away fom the absolute aon of received opinion fd oma away tha would even aly edo the modern scientific method. Ma during this mes beled atthe human caracer and penonaiy ae tanspares phys ppesanee Pert dom was epaematzed by an alan py named Giambacisa della Por, who Seitoped theory of human pemonalty calle phylogeny in S58, Poa clams that the uy Toso apeartnce parca of he fae coat revel ranch bout a pesos personaly ae ‘hdiice Theves for instance, were sad to have lage psn sharp vison ‘The Enlightenment [Another major thrust toward the emergence of the modern sword was the Enlightenment, fered approximately from 1650 {fo 1800. H might be sad that she Reraissance provided a key tothe suman mind and the Enlighten pent opened the door. Whereas theRenabwance sassocated with fdvances in ar, erature music, land philosophy, the Enlighten mantis associated with advances {n-mithematics, scence, and the ‘dnity 3rd worth ofthe nda as exemplified by 2 concern for fan rigs. This conceen fed 3 sefoms in criminal asc systems tivoughout Europe, a process given a major push by Cesare IBecacra’s work On Crime and Panishovet that ushered in the ovale classic schoo- The cs ‘Sal school emphasized hun Tatjonality and free will in its ‘planation ecinal behavior (os re eV (ne of Gambatsta Dota Portas iletaters. Phystgonomiss were fascinated by ne apport satis ome sepa faces wth serena ee yo eciaraaome14 | Gente ses The Indust 3! Revolution and the Age of Science Modern criminclogy began to take shape inthe 1th century withthe increasing ft tht sei. tence could provide answers for everything. This period saw the huenessing ofthe fore of nature to bul ad operate the great machines that drove the Industal Revolution aod the ‘des ma in bcogy by Cares Darwns wos on evan. Ciminclogy saw the ging ofthe socal pontistcool dg ts pool Theos echo eat ‘abounded. The basic idea behind phrenology tn m inaed nthe xn atarre e pars eating ies coma a oe haps ona tel hight epi afta tas dc ee Soa aliens om tnpay Meigs ws made Cate loninaos hey fase fc bona Ce ths pn vee ed wah mening sing adage eee Seti: The main tng ko colt adanthar ge nc inaegne ofa ech henna snyder ee In St prt and aac wee ea eae a ‘The cary cassicl and poskvit thinkers ave discussed at length in Chaps 4. a The Progressive Era 30 -caled Progressive Era (about 1890 10 1920) used in new socal ideologies and new ‘ways of thinking about crime Iwas an eva of liber! unions, women, and other dsadvantaed groups of poo (fy Igy tuned away from what was disparage 2s "hog deteeninin wiki aphid {hat nothing could be done to reform criminals, cultural or social detenminisn Irbeharion ‘used by what people experince in their environments, it was thought that al wc hate effors 0 bring about social reform as pe struggled for recognition. Cimino. sine is 8 the Chicago schoo of social ecology, were formule mie sain tbery was another srvtiralicaltual hey thal emerged scott late seo ‘hi theory was doubles infhuenced strongly by the American experience ofthe Great Dooce, sionand bythe excision of Afcan American fom any ates of Asnercan sore, "The period fiom the 950s trough the eaty 1970 saw considerable dieser action with ihe gone srctural approach, which many viewed as proceeding asf invite wens aie dnwlevant to explaining criminal bohavit. Giminologieal heey moved towstd negrnaee Peychology and sociology during this ptiod and stongly emphasized the toponte ot Section, Col theres wer high popular shiv mm casa eer addressed in Chapter 7, meses The Critical Period ‘Because the later par ofthis period was tine of great chil unrest in he ined States the aft Vienam Wat cl gs, women’, and gay rights movement also saw the menos ‘of several tbeores, such as couie theory that were highly etal of Anerean soe es sheores extended o enter works of Maris criminologists, who teed o believe tha the cnly real cause of crime Was capitalism, These theories provide litle new in ters of ove under nding of street” criminal behavior, but hey dd spark an interest in white-collar crime and fowls were made by the powerful and applic aginst the powerless. These theories are tedressed in Chapter 8 Peshaps in eesponse to these theodes, snd perhaps because of mew orservative mod nthe United States, deers wath the arial tae for fee will and atonal ityembedded in them reemoyge inthe 160. These Were rational choice an routine actives heer, discussed in Chapter The Modern Period The ate 1990 anc early 200s saws resurgence of bosocal theories, These theories view behav socas the result of biologie factors ineracting with past and present environmen’. Biosocal theres have been cn the perp of ciminclogy since its ginning but have been hampered by perceptions of them as driven by an lier! agenda and by the inal t get nse the nyseres of hereditary and the working ofthe brain. The rly spectacular advances in the ‘eration techniques eg, brsn scan methods $10 check swabs to test DNA) the peneic tux] newoscenaes over th: las three decides have made these things les nti, an socal Scienss ae increasingly realizing that thee is nating iberal abou eengaizng the biology bass of oman na ly, Cullen, and Hall 2007) noe thatthe mas demic developments in cence come mot ‘len frm new observational teclnigues rather than new developments in theory. No scence advances without the technology atts disposal o plumb ts debs, Many chemists inthe ate Ioth cenury refused ro accept the existence of atoms, but chemistry advance by leaps and pounds winen the ascipine 362 whole finally accep the stoma theory of mate we ae even able see atoms With a scanning tunneling microscope, invented in 1980. Criminology [s Ina position today similar o that of ‘chemists 150 years ago. The concept, methods, and measuring devices avilable tous today may do for the progeess of criminology what piyses ci for chemistry, ‘what chemistry did for biology, and ‘what biology is doing for psychology. Exceptionally ambitious longadinal suds carried out over decades in concer with ‘medical snd biological scientists, such as ‘the Dunedin Nultidscipinary Heath and Development Study (Moffitt 1993), the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent ‘eal (dry, 2003, 2nd che National Youth Survey (Menard, Mihalic, & Huizinga, 2001 are able to gather a wealth of genetic neurological, physiological, psychological, and sociological daa, Paus 2010 dicusser Tour evolving long-term studies that are Drain imaging 400 16 2.00 subjects ata tie and collecting lange volumes of behavioral and cognitive data eg, socioeconomic cats, maternal smoking and drinking, Chapoe 1 & An Dverdow af Come ns Cong | 15 — Function Magnetic Imaging aR machines can a ea lt about the “unctoning ofthe {ran and how that net reat behavStressful ie events, antisocial behavog also cal “+ The Role of Theory in Criminology (Phen oH theDepesn anki nant e-em banker Wil Ston why eed an, Suto ele ame Dts whee rey nine By ee Sam ws ofing they epaing anksty Ime ptscmrashintete ey ‘ein tpt nth ppt nd evar aos ye pan lle en bear ghana fewal ckorwnlnne ee oe ‘a phenomenon such as crime are linked together i ‘coal decnne causes disease, rminologis ae interested in Jistas there aes factors relate to becoming, nay lead o criminal behavior. The fist step ial, causes iso discover correlates related to the phenomenon of ings (we ell them factors ot variable) ar covelaed, we have to ogther i, ifone ofthe variables changes (goes up or down) when the finding oars ht case etna eave thee are aay of ska ta ‘hain feng tthe Geeenon of incest To acer we deine they vary ovherate changes Tie gene the moe hogy document comet of iil behavior ee ese Ler hous of tes tough te wel, some Lancair re eee Si zt, conser repor song gener dienes a ora econ ed nee | set th cine he este iferene (in Wald, 2009 lnchereone ene no ‘ne eateory ofthe gender variable erale oma) the prevalence annonces of cere eos | dcamataly. However, eablishing tl sede i such a wrong colt ferme 3 the real callenge Of eoure varables an vary together coincidentally rather than easly, When we const ad comes between rnin behaves Some ether actor tempting o astm ha something aus going om Dut correlation suggestion does not stabi Resting the tendency op ® causal concsons fram coats th reson acs ig eae coasts between nt song creates ‘isthe business of theory. ms Bank robber Wie Suton a the courthouse for his tra What Is Theory? A theory i se oflogicaly interconnected Propositions explaining how abserved facts ‘within a domain of interest ae elated and fam which a number of hypotheses can be derived and este. Theories should provide Jogical explanations of sn area of terest by ‘jing he clscovered acts int 2 coberent patter. Not only should they be capable of mak Frasense of relevant empirical cts So far discovered, they should provide practical guidance ‘Bo Spears looking for yet undiscovered facts, This guidance takes the form of sexes oF igements can be logically deduced from the assertion of the theory called hypotheses, ‘Ghict are statements about relationships between and among Fictors we expect to ind based Shtke logic of eurtheoris, Theories provide the raw material the tens fr generating hypoth ies and iypeteses ppt oc fal to support theories by exposing them to empirical (based ‘nexperimentand observaion) testing Theories are devised to explain how a number of correlates may actualy be causally elated to ciinal behavior rather than simply associated with t. When we tlk of causes we do not pean that when X's present Y wl occur in a completely prescribed way. We mean tha when X [zpresent Ys certain probably of eccing and perhaps ony then Xs prsea alongwith fapor A,B and C.Crminnlogiss have never uncovered a necessry cause (a factor tt mist be ‘present for criminal behavior to occur and nthe absence of which cra behavior has never Secured) or slfiient case G factor that able © produce criminal behavior without being uemented by some other fact. “Theories ns bth help us to make sense of advert offs and even telus where to look foc mare fers. Weall use thoory every day tft diverse fats together. A detective confronted ‘vith numberof facts about a myaterous murder mast fie them together, even though their meaning and relatedness to one anothers ambiguous and pertaps even contadictoy. Using yeu of experience, waning, and good common sense the detective constrects a hear linking {ose fas together otha they begin w make some sense, to begin ol hei sory. An init theory derived from the avalable fats then goes the detective in the search for addionsl facts ins serie ofthis tre, then ths ould be trac” statements hiss whet scents tll ypexhesee! There may be many fale tart 8 cr tect nsntenpoets some ft, Fle to uncover others, and considers some to be reevart when they are not. Good detectives, lke od sinc, wl aus thei theery a5 new facts Warrant poor detectives and poor scientists ‘rl stand by theirfvored theory by ooking for more fs or by ignoring, downlaying, ing contrary fas tha come thee attention. What Is a Good Theory? ‘The physical and mural sciences enjoy a great del of agreement about what constitutes te core body of knowledge within their disciplines and thus have Fe competing theoces, especialy at the mos: general evel. Wen crminology, nd the socal/bchaviral sclences in general, tere flit agreement boa the nature ofthe paenomena we sil, and so we suffer an embarrass ment of theoretical ces (ce Table LD, Given the numberof crnological theories, students may be forgiven fr asking which one is true. Scientists never use the tem tru in scientific Ascouse rather, ey tend to ake which heer mos wel. itera for judging the merits of ‘Beory are summarized hee from His, Harte, and Walsh (2010) 1. Pradicive accuracy. & theory must not only be backward looking in the sense ‘Out it harmoniously fits known facts together, it must also be forwaré looking, telling researchers where they should find new facts. Tat is, a theory has merit and is usefol 10 the exten that ccurately predicted what i later observed it has generated a large nurn- ber of research hiporheses that have Supported i. This isthe mos imporcnterterion. 2. Predictive scope, This refers to the scope or range of the theory and thes the scope of range ef the hypotheses that can be derived feom it. That i, how mack ofthe empirical word falls under the explanatory umbrella of Theory A compared t how Chapter An Oveniew Gre an Crna [1718] Ciro Tre toeris much falls un ‘more complicated {Theory B. As the predictive scope of «theory widens, it ends to get 2. Simplicity Iwo competing theories are essentially equal in terms oft ‘citeria, then the less complicated one is considered more ‘elegant? “ 4 Fala anor ines proven te, bt muse sfubleor promi I ea sn sch coy el ea could possibly falsify i, then the theory is of litle use. Osean cence How to Think About Theories dlifferent theories deal with different levels of analy ilove ofan oon een ferent times, Conversely crime rates are found be related io the degiee of nehntclocien {704s in the sume society do not. To ansver questions about nivel "cores about indivi anc! sand groups we need soups General speaking question, : besasneed athe se kao ames whch ey wena ee tospun motile levals of eran sinc min ean icin ce _deasticaly from time to tine without aay corresponding change i th e1 a igi tal eronments must be the only causes of changing crime rates. What icc nein ett mmo Giieh Prosocal propensities) juire high levels of envitonmencal instiga eo om ‘Grimes, but some individuals engage in criminal behavior in the most beni ‘ervronmens then, we need to have a thon indivval characters 1 they igeract with fem gasp both oi craters ima) al and how they ‘Ideology in Criminological Theory Ince eon cracls being ike thesia and ie cootrnsntal aera and tcl lat oe notional pre "how thing shouldbe een soe ats sndiaflanes he passions, kang asec htepreston id nde ee ther than an objec aaa evaluation of Conese ine tsa at os sccengto how well pot its our eee and colors our tendency to acceptor eject new evince A coiminological theory sat least partly shaped by ideology and those who eel drawn to anicula theory oe a rex deal oftheir aration to ro the fact thar hey share the theory's ‘Frson Cullen, 2005) THs observation reminds s of the Indian parable ofthe sx blind men fealng elffeent pars ofan elephant, Each man described the elephant according to the part ths anatonyy he had ft, but each fale to appreciate the descriptions ofthe others who fet (deren parts. The mex. fll nzo dispute and departed in anger, each convince of the utter tupaly of te others, The point is tha dcology often leads criminologist to “ee” only pacts bfthe criminological elephant, to confuse the part with the whole, end even to question the ffeeligence and motives having some kind of political agenda) of oxhers who have ‘amined diferent parts the criminological elephant, Ciminology i, howeves, sty meving, foward the realization tht criminal behavior must be examined al levels from neurons (0 ughberhoods ft isevero come totems wit the whole “acconding to economist and philosopher Thoreas Sowell (1987), swo contrasting visions fave shaped thoughts about human nature throughout history, and these visions ae in constant Conflict with each ether. The frst of these visions ithe constined vision, so called because Delcvers in this vision view human activites as constrained by an innate han nance that Foelecentered and largely unalterable. The unconstrained vision denies an inate huma ature, viewing tas formed anew in each different culture The unconstrained vision also televes thar human ear is perfecbe view scoed at by those who press the constrained ‘sion, A majoe difference between the two visions is thatthe constrained vision says this how the world 7 andthe unconstesined vision says “this how the wold should ba" For instance, unconsisined visionaries might ask what causes crime or poverty, but consruined Yisonares would ask the opposte questions—what causes a welhordered socety and weal ‘Note that :his implies tht unconstrained visionaries believe that crime and poverty a fdeviatis fom the nom and need to he explatned. Constratned visionaries see eine ad povery as historically aoemal and inevitable Ge regretabel and believe that what has 1 be Understood are the contin that prevent them. The majo fal ie in crininology isin these ‘sions, Theories broadly lssiied as social earning theodes see rime as cased andl theories bros classified as soil conto theories see crime as inevitable unless steps are taken co prevent The evidence that ideology is linked to which theories criminologisfvors strong. Coop ‘Walsh, and Fis 2010 surveyed 379 criminologists and asked them whic theory best explains serio criminal behavie_ As you see fron Table 1.1, 24 theoces were represented. Obviously they cannot al “best explain serous criminal behav” so something oer than evidence le themto ther choices, ache bes predictor was crlminologss’ self-reported ideology, vided Into conservative, moderste, liberal, and radical. The "X° = 134.6, «0.001 notation means that such erult could be found by chance i es than one ime in 1,000 similar samplings. We ean thus be quite confident thatthe finding can be generalized beyond the sample to other criminologists, especialy since this study repeated a previons study of differen group of erlninologss wil the same resus (Walsh & Fis, 2004), When reading this text ty to lundersand wiere the crginaors, supporters and detractors of any parcular theory being cuss ae "coming fom” weolgicaly as wel as theorescaly * Connecting Criminological Theory and Social Policy “Theories of crime imply that changing te conditons the theory holds responsible fr causing crime can reduce andeven prevent 1 say “imply” because few theoriss are expt about (reser tn vaniow Crna and Oia] 18‘Theories Favare by Crninologists Croce Tabuated by Sel-ReporeuPolcal Weology = on] ee ae eee iene ; 2 eer : ‘Sa controt (ova, 2) rs Fa sor 3 es eae eam 2 : n ‘Confict (na, A) ° 2 8 : is (Crcal (20, ta) o o i 7 Ditlerantal assonietion (4,3) 1 4 10 : Hi ‘Age graced developments 5 , . iv D0 ® ay tom : lus Foe tlaa een Rovbne activties (nla, 8) 1 5 Ca eet General strain o 2 if ‘nstitutonal anomie : ; A Exologeal (nf, 23) 1 ° ‘ Labeling (6,17) ; , i : Payehoogs ° : 1essical (n/a, 2¢ : ; 3 Feminist (ra, 10) ° ° 2 ; Anerme (9, 6) o 1 ; 2 TOTAL : _ 4 the pubic policy implications of their work. Scientists are primarily concerned with gaining te etedge Tor its own sake they are only secondly concerned with how useful that know: wipe may be to practioners and policymakers. Conversely, policymakers are less concerned oe yputhesnee “cause fa prablem and more concerned wi wat ean be done abou the Tobie thts polially, practical, ane nancial feasible ‘Policy issimply a deeded course of action designed to salve some problem selected from mong alternative courses of action, Solving a social problem means attensptng to reduce Aa ictal ofthe problem currently being experienced oo enact strategies tha try to prevent ttom occurring inthe fist place. Social slence findings can and have been used to help ticymakers determine which couse of action wo fllow to “do something” about the erime Problem, but any other concerns policymakers must consiet go beyond mitaining Eoosisency with social science theory and data. The question of “what to do about crime fhyoives poltcal and financial considerations, the urgency of other problems competing for fence financial resources Gchools, highways, environmental protection, public housing, atonal defense) and a host of ether major and minor consierations Jeerned important by ‘nous segments of the population. Palio choices are, at botom, value ches, nd as such only thow policy recommendations that are ideologically palatable are likely to be implemented. Given al of these extatheoretcal Considerations, t woul be unfit base our cement ofa theory's power solely by ts Impact fo public poi, Even if some aspects of policy ae theory based, unless al recommendations hie theory are fully implemented, the success oflluse ofthe policy cannnx be considered (ridence of theoretical aace anymore than a Pakes can blame a recipe fora lousy cake if he or She neglects otha al the ingrediensitals for. Connecting problems with sluitvus i teicky business in all areas of government policymaking, bt nowhere ist more dificult thas in crtinal justice. No single strategy Ean be expected to produce significant reals, and a strategy may sometimes make matters ‘worse. For example, Presiden Johnsons “War an Poverty” was supposed to havea sigan Ftapact on the erime problem by attacking what informed opinion ofthe time considered educe poverty curently involve 126 its “root cause Programs and policies developed to federal as well as sat) programs that have spent almost $1 rion over the pas 40 (Tanner, 2012) However, reducing poverty had no effect on reducing crime; in Fic, crime rose to recon eels as poverty was ling using the ter period of the 2th century (Wash Elis, 2007). Anesher high-profile example of filed policy isthe Volstead Act of 1919 that prohibited the manafacure and sale of alcohol the United States. Although based on a true premise Glcohol major factor in facilitating violent crise, failed because i ushered ina wild ‘ero of eime as gangs Fought over contol ofthe iegal alcohol marke. The curent wat on rugs ha had simile negative consequences Policies attempting to contol fuman behavior ‘often have effects unaaticipated by policymakers o- by the theories that may have driven their policies ‘Nevertheless every thcary has policy implications deduce frm is primary assumptions and propostion, The deep and lasting elects ofthe cassical theories on legal ystems around the word have long been noted, aut the broad generalities about buman nature contained co reduce their in those theories offer litle specific advice on ways to change criminals 1s public policy fuinbers, Alhough we caution agains sing the performance of ath recommendations as 4 major criterion to evaluate its power, the fact remains chat a ood theory sould ofler useful practi commendations, and we discuss the policy implications of cach theory22 | rmngy te Eas © Cominology isthe seat study of crime and minal Ie isan. sterdscipinary/ldise nary sud, atiough criminology has yet oie ate these disciplines inary comprehensive way "= The definition of crime 18 problematic because acts defined as celainal vary across time and cu! ture Many cmninologats believe that because crimes are defined imo existence We cannot determine what conssiutes real cues and err nals However, Gece i stationary cor of cies that are universally condemned and always have hicen These av predatory cnmes that cause sere ‘os harm and ase defied a mals ins, or ines cently bad” crimes, as oppoted to mal prohibits, lor "bad because they are feeble erncs A penon isnot “offically” criminal unul sech time as be or she has been found suit heyond a reasonable doubt of having commited » rime Tn onder to peove that he ore idl, the state has 10 prove corpus delet (the Hod ofthe cme’ ‘which esseatally means that lic or she coma ted a caminal at (acs cus) wih hil wares shat he act was wroeg (mens rea—guiy ind). (ther basic punciplesconcurrence. ham, and ‘ausation—ave proven m the proces of proving, corpus dele, (© The history of criminology shows thatthe cubural and ielecual climate of the te song inf ences how scholars thin about and std ce and crminalty The Renaissance brought sore secular dining, the Enlightenient mre humane od ational chinking, the Industral Revoluon 1 ‘more scienaficthinlang. and the Progressive Fea a refornoniented criminology reminiscent of the Sissel sen (© Advances in any science ae ako constrained by he {tools avalale to test thers, The evevinprowing concepts, metho, and techniques avilable fee modern genetics, neuroscience, ant eee Wolo ‘al sciences should add imencasurably to eriminol- ‘ogy «knowledge base i the nee fice (© Theory i the “bread and Later" of any scence, ‘ncliding criminology. There are many contending theoties serking > explain ere an criminality Although we do not observe euch theoretical ds fgscement in the mene enable sce socal/behavioal scences are young, and human behavior is extremely dificult sty ‘When pudgrg among the vanious theones we have to keep cerain things in mune, inching the pre dictve accuracy, scope, simpy, and falsfabiity ‘We must alo remember that cine and criminal- iy can be discussed at many levels (ace wide, subcultural, family, o india and that a theory that may Jo good jo of predicting cite at one level may do a poor job at another level ‘Theones can also be offered at diferent levels of anal ss—whole societies, subcultures, neghe bothoods. families, and indiiduals. They may focus on the ewoitionary history oF the species the indiridua’s subjective appratl of «nation, for any other temporal level im between fll account of an individuals behavior mar have to ‘ake all these levels Into consideration because ny belaoe ates from an individuals propens ties interacing with the enviromental situation as that individual percewes tt This is why we approach criminology tren socal, psychoses and biosocl perspectives Commologsax have wadonally examined only aspects of criminal behave that they find con seni to thet ideology and, unfortunately often ‘align those who focus on other aspects. The main ideciogcal dividing line in ciminology is Dberween constrained visonanes (pamaziy conser vatves who tend to favor explanations of behavior thar focus on the individual) nd unconstrained ‘vionasies (Mosly: bers who tend 10 favor structural or culural explanation). All theories have explicit or implicit recomien- latin for policy since they poet causes of erisne fr csiminalty. Removing those alleged causes should redice crime if the theory i corect, ‘but the complex nature of crime and ciminal” aay make policy decisions based on them very sky indeed Policymakers must consider many ‘other issues demanding scarce resources, 90 the ppobey content ofa theory should never be ved 0 pas judgment on the usefulness cf theory for caminologss) Defend your choices tor pornogeaphy. fnypoteses sndenon pot G Aras rus Causation Concurrence CConsrased vision Corpus detits, “cone Gominoiogy www entering "Gente Comolony ww¥ coming esources/andersanding crmanokcgicnkes | Which of the felowng aes do you eons mala in se comes, mala prohia eines, of ap came a al? [A drug posewion.D vandesim ©. dunk div- * ip D.ilboraing wih te encny Ele of tohol t minor P favd. spouse abuse eh ale having conceal sex with ner fap: penn | prstunon J homeseal beba- “Wi are new obserational techniques such ss DNA, estng and brain scars usefl to exanologs? | Dace the relationship among theories, facts, nd "Anderson, K Sock consteuctonim and belief ‘tusion //philowpy stator edy/apps/ Stanfordphulosophy/fles/wysorys mages! Comanalty Crminotogy Grand ry Ham Bypotheses eology Why i snportane to consider skola hen eval {iting ciinohnges ek! 1K psa fer cn oloyess ta divers tet leaky en tho ak Lange polices aumed at reducing crime (think of Prolubion and the War on Posey) rarely have the dasred effec: Can you dunk of any good re sons why ds is Go 10 warw laws odu/officesand-sericos/eommunt Fy-outeactvthe uno deolagy/arcives forthe ‘online ournal Quarters karual cf Kealyg Clk oa archive and ind and read “Ideclegy Caiminology Achilles’ Heel What ds his article say about fe “confit of visions ia cri? learning Theories of Gime Imp /erininolegy wikia “risk Sos Learning Theory Links ts Cini Thay we criminology ‘com rexorces nearing. evel of snhsie hada tne Mala probe Policy ‘Theoey ‘nconstreined vision