Module 3

Module 3 - Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Matter

- Manometer:

• This is a device used to measure excess pressure i.e. by how much pressure is above or below
atmospheric pressure.

• It consists of a “U” tube with water. One end is open to the atmosphere, the other is connected
to the source of pressure: the difference in heights of the water level in the 2 sides gives the
excess pressure.

• Constant Gas Thermometers:

• This uses the pressure of a low-density gas at constant volume. It has a range of 3K to 1750K.

• It most closely approximates the ideal temperature scale and is thus used as a standard.

• A volume of dry gas is placed in a bulb and the bulb is placed in the substance, e.g. a water
bath. When heated, the mercury is pushed down the left side and up the right. But the gas has
expanded, so to return the gas to the original volume, raise the tube on the right side, forcing
the mercury back to the mark (denoted by arrows^) on the left.

• The height, Δh, can be measured:

• Excess pressure, ΔP = ρ x g x h

• Total pressure = ρ x g x h + atmospheric pressure

- Thermocouple Thermometer
• This consists of 3 pieces of wire of 2 different materials. The dissimilar wire is used to connect
the 2 similar wires. This produces a solid junction — usually kept at ice point and a hot
junction — the temperature probe.

• Due to the temperature difference between the 2 junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is
created.

• Thermocouple response depends on the combination of wires.

• Due to the small junctions, thermocouples can measure temperature of small volumes of a
substance with rapidly changing temperatures and can measure temperatures remotely.
Thermocouples have a range of 25K to 1750K.

• The effect of a thermocouple may be magnified by placing several thermocouples in a series

(called a thermopile). This is used to create a pyrometer, which is a thermometer that can
measure very high temperatures, i.e. temperatures over 1250K.

• However, they (pyrometers) measure the amount or type of radiation and not the temperature
of substance directly.

• Thermodynamic Scale
• Each thermometric property gives its own temperature scale. Thus, a universal and
reproducible scale is needed.

• Such a scale does not depend on the properties of any substance. This scale is the
thermodynamic scale and is measured in Kelvin (K).

• The zero point, i.e. zero kelvin (K) is called absolute zero and is the point at which atoms have
no thermal energy.

• The platinum-resistance thermometer and the constant volume gas thermometer are often most
used to determine temperatures on the thermodynamic scale as they give a value of zero at
zero Kelvin.

• The upper fixed point is the triple point of water (i.e. 273.16K).

2
• 1K is defined as 1/273.16 x triple point temperature of water.

• To calculate an absolute temperature, we use:

- Celsius Scale

• The Celsius scale is defined as:

θ/°C = T/K - 273.15K
• Note: a change in temperature of 1°C = a change in temperature of 1K.

Type of Range/K Thermometric Advantages Disadvantages

Thermometer Property

Mercury-in-glass 234-710 Volume of • portable • limited range

thermometer mercury in a fine • Convenient and • Relatively small
column easy to use and fragile
• Relatively • Not very
cheap accurate

Platinum- 25-1750 Electrical • Accurate • Slow response

resistance resistance of a • Wide range (not suitable for
thermometer platinum coil • Best for rapidly
measuring changing
small steady temperatures
temperature due to its large
differences heat capacity)
• Most accurate • Needs large
from 13K to amount of
900K substance due to
large size (not a
direct reading
can be read)

Thermistor 200-600 Ask sir • Small size so • Unstable so

can measure needs periodic
temperature of calibration
small volume of • Non-linear scale
substance • A given value
• Rapid response of V may give 2
• Sensitive different

Thermocouple 80-1400 e.m.f. across the • Wide range - Not as accurate

3
 junction of the 2 • Convenient as a resistance
dissimilar metals • Small from 13K to 900K
(junctions) so or a constant-
useful for small volume
volumes of thermometer
substance or
local
temperatures
• Can take
remote readings
and send to a
computer
• Fastest
response so
good for rapidly
varying
temperatures
• Most accurate
between 900K
and 1400K

Gas Thermometer 3-1750 Pressure of a fixed • Most accurate • Bulky so

mass of gas at • Wide range (3K requires a large
constant volume to 1750K) amount of
• Very sensitive substance
• Slow response
• Fragile
Pyrometer 1250-who knows? Measures the type • Capable of • Cumbersome
of radiation going above • Does not
1750K actually
• Readings can measure the
be taken temperature of
remotely the substance

Comparison of Different Types of Thermometers

• In order to measure the temperature of a substance, the choice of thermometer would depend
on:

• The ease of use of the thermometer

• The range of the thermometer

• The response time of the of the thermometer

• The accuracy of the thermometer

4
Thermal Properties of Matter
• Definitions:
- System: A definite quantity of matter bounded by a closed surface. (This may be a real
surface as in the walls of a cylinder or an imaginary boundary, e.g. around a cold front).
- Heat (E ): Energy as it is being transferred between systems due to a temperature difference
H

only.
- Internal Energy: The sum of the kinetic and potential energies associated with the
molecules of a system. Usually we deal only with the change in internal energy (ΔU). Ina
gas, the potential energy = 0 J, i.e. U is all kinetic
- Isothermal: A change in which the matter undergoes no change in temperature, therefore
ΔU = 0 J.
- Heat Capacity (C): The ratio of the amount of heat supplied to a body to its corresponding
change in temperature (ΔT).

 i.e. ; where is measured in JK -1

- Specific Heat Capacity (c): The energy required to change the temperature one 1 kilogram
of a substance by 1°K.

 i.e. ; where is measured in Jkg K -1 -1

- Molar Heat Capacity (C ): This is the heat capacity per mole of a substance. It can be
m

found by multiplying the mass-specific heat capacity by the atomic weight.

 i.e. Jkg K x kgmol = Jmol K
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1

- When matter is heated, not only may its temperature change, but it may also expand.
Thus, energy would be needed not only to change the temperature of the matter, but also
to do work to expand the volume.
- When matter is heated at a constant volume, isochoric, there is no work done so energy is
needed to change the temperature only. Thus, we obtain the constant volume molar heat

capacity, ; where n is the number of moles.

- When matter is heated at constant pressure, isobaric, it can expand, thus energy is
supplied to change the temperature and additional energy to do work against
intermolecular forces and external forces. Thus, we obtain the constant pressure molar

specific heat capacity, .

- Adiabatic: A change during which no heat enters or leaves the system.

5
 - Due to heat losses to the atmosphere, the change in temperature in a practical will be less
than the ideal change, i.e. with no heat loss.
- The higher the temperature above room temperature, the greater the rate of heat loss.
Therefore, a small temperature change should be used, around 10°C preferably starting
below room temperature, to reduce the effect of heat loss.

Measurement of Specific Heat Capacity

• Electrical method for solids which are good conductors:
• Using a thick block of the solid, 2 holes are made in the block, one for an electrical heater
and the other for a thermometer. B
• Both must make good thermal contact with the block.
• (Some oil can be placed in the holes to improve contact). The block is lagged to prevent
heat loss to the atmosphere.

Also includes: Stop Watch

• The block of known mass (usually 1kg) is set up as above. The initial temperature of the block
θ is measured. The power supply and a stop watch are turned on at the same time. After the
i

temperature has risen about 5°C, the power supply and watch are stopped.
• The temperature change is kept small to reduce heat loss to the atmosphere. The final highest
temperature reached, after the heat has time to be conducted through the block, is taken as the
final temperature θ . f

• Energy supplied, E = IVt

H

∴mc∆θ = IVt

6
Also includes: stop watch, beaker, weighing scale
• A variable power supply is connected to a heating coil in a tube as shown.
• Water is allowed to flow through the apparatus and the heater turned on.
• When the apparatus reaches steady state (i.e. the input and output temperatures, θ and θ are
i f

constant) the beaker is placed under the outlet and a stopwatch started.
• The initial and final temperatures are measured and the current, I and voltage,V
1 1.

• Then the beaker is removed and the stop watch stopped. The mass of water heated in time, t is
found.
• We have (1) Where is the heat lost to the atmosphere
• Repeat the experiment, varying the power supply and the rate of flow of water so that the
same input and output temperatures are achieved, and collect water for the same time, t.
• Thus, the heat lost to the atmosphere is the same.
i.e. we get (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1)

- Method of Mixtures
• If 2 fluids of a fluid and a solid are ‘mixed’ together, then they must have the same final
temperature.
• e.g. 0.010kg of water at 0°C are added to 0.250kg of water at 80°C. Find the final
temperature.

Heat lost by warm water = Heat gained by cool water

7
 ; the 0.26 on the same fraction cancel
≅ 77°C

- Specific heat capacity using method of mixtures:

• Place a known mass of liquid, m , in a container and measure the initial temperature, θ .
l il

• Place a block of known mass, m in a boiling water bath for several minutes so that θ =
b ib

100°C.
• Transfer the block quickly to the liquid and find the final temperature θ .
f

By knowing 1 specific heat capacity, the other can be found.

- Latent Heat
• In changing state the molecules of the material, when going from a solid to a liquid or
liquid to a vapor, will usually move apart and become less ordered.
• To do this, energy put into the system, when at the melting or boiling point, will go into
doing work against the intermolecular forces as well as external forces.
• Thus, the potential energy of the molecules will increase.
• As there is no change in the kinetic energy of the molecules, there is no change in the
temperature during a change of state.
• The specific latent heat (l) is defined as the energy required to change the state of one
kilogram of a substance without a change of temperature.
EH
i.e. l= ; where l is measured in Jkg-1.
m
• There are 2 types of latent heat:
o Fusion: solid  liquid (melting/freezing)
o Vaporization: This includes boiling, sublimation and evaporation

- Cooling Curves
• When a substance changes state, due either to a loss or gain of heat, a graph of
temperature against time will show an interval of phase transition as a plateau.
• The temperatures at which these plateaus occur give the freezing/melting point and the
boiling point.
• E.g. An idealized graph of temperature against time for heated water:

8
c of ice = 2220 Jkg-1K-1 lf = 3.4 x 105 Jkg-1 lv = 2.3 x 106 Jkg-1
Note: For a cooling substance in the atmosphere, the graph will finally level off at the
atmospheric temperature.

- Evaporation
• This is the escaping of upwardly moving molecules from the surface of a liquid to form a
vapor, which takes place at any temperature below the boiling point.
• Boiling is the escaping of molecules from liquid to vapor throughout the liquid and
happens only at the boiling point.
• Evaporation causes cooling of the liquid which can be analyzed in 2 ways:
1. As only the molecules with the highest Ek can escape, when they do so, the
average Ek of the remaining molecules is less. As temperature is a measure of the
average Ek, the temperature is less.
2. To evaporate energy must be converted to latent heat, i.e. Ep, which will not show
up as temperature. If this energy comes from the Ek of the molecules, then the Ek
and therefore the temperature, will decrease.

- Measurement of Specific Latent Heats

• Electrical Method for Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice:

9
 • Also includes: stopwatch, weighing scale
• The mass of the empty beaker, mb, is found with the scale. It is placed under the funnel
with ice as shown above.
• The heater is turned on and the stopwatch started simultaneously, the current, I, and
voltage, V, are measured.
• After a few minutes, the power supply and the stopwatch are turned off.
• The time for which the power was on, t, and the mass of the beaker and water, mb+w are
found.
• Chips of ice are used to obtain ice that is all at 0°C and to provide good thermal contact
by reducing the air spaces between the ice and heater.
• Assuming no heat is absorbed from the atmosphere,
Electrical energy supplied = heat to melt ice
EH = IVt
EH = ml
ml = IVt; where m is the mass of the ice melted
But m = mb+w – mb
• Electrical Method for Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water:

• Also includes: stopwatch, weighing scale.

• Allow the apparatus above to heat up to a steady rate by continuous boiling of the liquid.
• Find the mass of the empty beaker.
• Boil off and collect in the beaker some mass of liquid, ml, in time, t, as measured by the
stopwatch.
• Measure the current, I1, and voltage, V1.
• Find the mass of the beaker and liquid, mb+l – mb
• We have m1 = mb+l – mb
• Also, I1V1t = m1l + h (1); where h is the heat lost to the atmosphere.
• Repeat the experiment for different values of I and V but for the same time.
• As the temperature of the boiling point and the time are the same, the heat lost to the
atmosphere will be the same.
We get I2V2t = m2l + h (2)

10
Subtract (2) from (1)
( I 1 V 1−I 2 V 2 ) t
l=
(m 1−m 2)

Ideal Gases and the Kinetic Theory

 Ideal Gases
 An ideal gas is one that obeys the gas laws and the ideal gas law (aka the “equation of
state” for an ideal gas).
P1V 1 P2V 2
 Recall from the gas laws, for a fixed mass of gas, = .
T1 T2
 This is derived from P1V1/T1 = constant.
 We find the constant = nR; where n is the number of moles of the gas.

 The equation of state is given as, pV=nRT; where p is the pressure due to the gas,

V is the volume occupied by the gas,

T is the absolute temperature of the gas
R is the molar ideal gas constant, R =
8.31Jmol-1K-1

 Now, for a gas containing N molecules,

N
n=
N A ; where NA is Avogadro’s constant.
N
 Thus, pV = N RT
A

11
 R
 but N =k ; where k is the Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38x10-23JK-1
A

therefore, pV = NkT
 Kinetic Theory of Gases
 The basic concept of matter by the kinetic theory is that matter consist of small particles,
atoms or molecules, which are in constant motion.
 To describe the behavior of the gases, the following assumptions are made:
1. A gas consists of a large number of molecules (or atoms).
This maintains the distribution of mass and velocities.
2. Molecules are in constant random motion and they obey Newton’s laws.
3. Intermolecular forces act only during collisions which are of negligible duration.
Between collisions, the velocity is constant.
4. All collisions are elastic.
5. The volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas.
o Pressure Due to a Gas
 A gas, by the kinetic theory, consists of molecules which are in constant motion.
 Therefore, collisions of the molecules of a gas and any containing walls occur.
 A molecule which is travelling normally to a wall will be reflected directly backwards
after collision with the wall.
 The molecule therefore has undergone a change in momentum, and by Newtons 1st law,
there must have been a force on the molecule.
 This force came from the wall.
 By Newton’s 3rd law, the molecule exerted a force on the wall.
 So, the average force exerted by all of the molecules of the gas on the walls of the
container per unit area gives the pressure exerted by the gas.
 For a gas occupying volume V, consisting of n molecules, each of mass, m, and moving
with speed c, the pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the container is given by,
 pV = 1/3 Nm < c2 > ; where <c> is the mean speed (also written as c with a line on top of
it), <c2> is the mean-square speed in m2s-2, this is the average of the squares of the speeds.
To obtain a value of speed, i.e. the root-mean-square speed =
√ ¿ c 2> ¿ ¿ , this is the square root of the average of the squares.
 Note: Nm = mass of gas
Nm
 Therefore, =rho(symbol for density )
V
1 2
 Therefore rho< c >¿
3
 Now pV = nRT

12
  Note: This implies that the mean Ek (is directly proportional to) T. i.e. if temperature does
not change =, then neither Ek nor speed will change.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

 Work Done on a Gas

 For a gas trapped in a cylinder, by a moveable piston of area, A, if an external force is

applied and the piton moves a distance delta x, then work is done on the gas.
 Assuming that delta x is small enough that the pressure remains constant, work done ON
the gas, W = F x delta x
but F = pA
 therefore, W = pA delta x
 But A delta x = delta V; where delta V is the change in volume.
 Therefore W = p delta V
 Note: The work done by the gas, i.e. by the force exerted outwards by the gas, always has
the opposite sign to the work done on the gas.

 When a system expands, the work done on it is negative.

13
  When a system expands, the work done by it is positive.
 When a system contracts, the work done on it is positive.
 When a system contracts, the work done by it is negative.

 If the change in volume is large and no heat enters or leaves the system, then the pressure
will change.

 For a change in volume from V1 to V2, if we divide the change into small steps, then we
can assume pressure is constant over each step.
 Thus, by finding the work over each step, and adding the work done for each step, we can
find the total work done.
i.e. Work done = area under graph

 First Law of Thermodynamics

 When heat is supplied to a system it may cause the volume of the system to change, and
thus do work, as well as causing the internal energy if the molecules to change.
 The internal energy depends on the random kinetic energy of the molecules as well as the
intermolecular forces.
 In a gas, there are no intermolecular forces, thus, the internal energy is due only to the Ek.
 If Q is the heat supplied to a system, delta U is the change in the internal energy and W is
the work done on the system, then the change in internal energy can be found from,
delta U = Q+W; this is called the 1st law of thermodynamics

e.g. At atmospheric pressure, 1g of water, having a volume of 1 cm3, becomes steam of volume
1671 cm3 when boiled. The heat of vaporization of water is 224 Jg-1 and atmospheric pressure is
1x105 Nm-2. Find the change in internal energy.

 If no heat enters or leaves the system, then Q = 0J

 This is adiabatic.

14
 Therefore delta U = W
 For a gas, if there is no temperature change, then delta U = 0J
 This is isothermal.
Therefore Q = -W
 (This happens for ideal gases only)

 If a gas is heated at constant volume, then W = 0J

 This is isochoric/isovolumetric.
Therefore delta U = Q
and Q = ncv,m delta T
 If a gas is heated at constant pressure, then the gas expands and work is done BY the gas.
 This is isobaric.
 i.e. Heat supplied = heat to change temperature + work done by gas
this gives Q = ncp.m delta T
therefore ncp,m delta T = ncv,m delta T + W
 Now, pV = nRT
 Therefore, if a gas is heated from temperature T1 to T2 while changing volume from V1 to
V2,
then, pV2 – pV1 = nRT2 – nRT2
or, p delta V = nR delta T
 Now, W = p delta V
Therefore ncp,m delta T = ncv.m delta T + nR delta T
Therefore cp,m = cv,m + R

15
Thermal Energy Transfer
Thermal Conduction
 When 2 systems are in thermal contact but not in thermal equilibrium (i.e. at the same
temperature) there will be heat transfer between them.
 One method is by conduction.
 All solids conduct heat as elastic waves along the lattice via intermolecular forces.
 Molecules when they absorb heat vibrate more vigorously, and pass some of this kinetic
energy to their neighbors.
 Metals also conduct using free electrons to take energy from regions of high temperature
to those of lower temperature.
 Gases are poor conductors of heat, doing so by diffusion of energetic molecules.
 Given a material of cross-sectional area, A, length delta x and with opposite ends
maintained at temperatures theta 1 and theta 2.

16
  If the bar is ideally lagged so that heat only enters and leaves through the ends and not
through the sides, then under steady state conditions, the rate of heat flow through the
Q Q delta theta
bar, , is given by =−kA ; where k is the thermal conductivity measured
t t delta x
in Wm-1K-1
 The equation has a ‘- ‘sign as the heat flow is always in the direction of negative
temperature gradient.

e.g. A plastic of thermal conductivity k = 0.60 Wm-1K-1 and cross-sectional area 15m2 maintains
its ends, 16 mm apart at 15°C and 5°C. Find the rate of heat flow.

 For composite slabs:

o If we have 2 pieces of material, of the same cross-sectional area, A, length ∆x1
and ∆x2, and thermal conductivity k1 and k2, placed together, then there must be
some temperature at the junction θ j.

17
  With the ends maintained at temperatures theta 1 and theta 2, at steady rate of heat flow
through each slab must be the same.
 Thus, making theta j the subject and equating, we get

 Alternatively, we can replace the 2nd (or other) conductor with an equivalent length of the
1st conductor (i.e. a length of material k1 that gives the same rate of heat flow for the same
applied temperature difference as k2).

 Determination of Thermal Conductivity

 To determine k, we need both a large rate of heat flow and a large temperature gradient.
 (Recall that the larger the measurement, the smaller the fractional error, also the easier it
will be to measure the temperature difference).

o For Good Conductors:

 Here the rate of heat flow will be large, but to get an adequate temperature difference we
must have a large delta x, compared to the cross-sectional area, A.
 Readings are taken when steady state is reached.

18
 o For a Poor Conductor:
 A poor conductor can maintain a large temperature difference (delta theta) across a short
distance (delta x).
 However, to obtain a measurable heat flow, a thin slice of material is used.

 The heat provided by the steam jacket is conducted through brass block A, the sample of
poor conductor of thickness ∆ x, brass block B and then lost to the surroundings.
 At steady state:
 theta1 gives the temperature of the upper surface of the sample
 theta2 gives the temperature of the lower surface of the sample
 rate of heat flow through sample = rate of heat loss by block B
 To find the rate of heat loss from block B, the steam jacket is placed directly on block B
until its temperature is about 10°C above θ 2.
 The sample is then replaced and block B is allowed to cool while measuring
corresponding pairs of temperature and time.
 A cooling curve is then plotted.

19
  Convection
 When a fluid is heated (as fluids are poor conductors) the heating is localized; i.e. a small
parcel of fluid may behave as though it is insulated from surrounding fluid.
 This parcel of fluid will expand, displacing a greater mass of surrounding fluid than
previously, thus increasing the upthrust (Recall Archimedes’ Principle).
 This increase in volume leads to a decrease in density, and the parcel will rise, away from
the heat source, until it reaches a level where the surrounding density is the same.
 Thus, thermal energy is transferred.

 Convection creates currents, which can be seen on large scales in the ocean and the
atmosphere.
 Water (or air) travelling towards the poles will cool, contract, become denser, and sink.
 Water (or air) moving towards the Equator will expand and rise.
 Convection currents can also be seen on a smaller scale as thermals (rising columns of
air) and land and sea breezes.

 Radiation
 Heat is radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 We know this as:
o It travels through a vacuum
o It travels at the speed of light
o It can form shadows
 When atoms are heated, their electrons gain energy and rise to higher energy levels.
 They are now unstable.
 When they fall to lower energy levels, they emit energy in the form of an
electromagnetic wave.
 The frequency of the wave (and thus the energy transmitted by the wave) is directly
proportional to the difference in energy levels.

 As the temperature increases, the energy levels to which electrons can rise, and from
which they can fall, increases; e.g. a hotter object can emit yellow light, and a cooler one
can emit red light only.
 The number of electrons moving per second will also increase, thus the intensity of
emission increases.

20
  For a body of surface area, A, and temperature T, the rate at which it emits thermal
radiation is given by,

 Where sigma is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, sigma = 5.67 x108 Wm-2K-4 and Epsilon
is the emissivity, ranging from 0 to 1.
 Epsilon = 1 is the value for an (ideal) black body radiator.
 For a body of surface area, A, temperature T1 and surrounded by an environment of
temperature T2, the net rate of emission will therefore be given by
e.g. If the temperature of the Sun is 5800 K and its radius is 6.96 x 108m, assuming it to be a
perfect black body radiator, find the rate of emission of thermal radiation.

 The Greenhouse Effect

 As the temperature of the sun is high, light from the sun has a high frequency or a short
wavelength.
 As the energy carried by a light wave is directly proportional to its frequency, short-wave
radiation can penetrate the atmosphere and glass.
 Similar to the fact that X-rays can penetrate the body while visible light cannot.
 When sunlight passes through a window, its incident on an object it will be absorbed,
causing the temperature of the object to increase and re-radiate heat.

21
  However, this will be long-wave radiation and will be stopped by glass or certain
molecules in the atmosphere, e.g. water vapor, carbon dioxide and soot.

 Applications of Thermal Energy Transfer

o Vacuum Flasks:
 These use thermal properties to stop heat flow so that substances are kept at
their original temperature.
 They consist of a doubled walled flask, with silvered walls and a vacuum
between the walls.
 The vacuum stops heat transfer by conduction or convection.
 The silvering stops heat flow by radiation.

o Solar Water Heaters:

 These consist of a metal plate with water bearing pipes embedded in the plate.
 By being metal (e.g. copper) and painted flat-black, the plate is a good
absorber of radiation.
 The metal plate and pipes are good conductors of heat; thus, they quickly
conduct trapped heat to the water.
 A layer of insulation is placed below the plate to stop heat loss, by conduction,
to the ground.
 A transparent cover is used to allow in sunlight but produce a greenhouse
effect, as well as stop convection currents taking heat away from the plate.
 Heating and Cooling Systems
 Solar radiation can be used to heat substances, e.g. water in heaters or distillers, food in
solar cookers.
 It may also be used to heat air.
 The heated air can be used to dry crops or form convection currents (i.e. force
convection), e.g. to ventilate multistory buildings.
 Solar energy may be converted directly into electricity using photovoltaic cells.
 The electricity produced can be used for any purpose, e.g. to power air-conditioning
systems or freezers.

 Geothermal energy can also be used to heat water, either for use of the hot water directly
or to generate electricity.

 Development of alternative systems will help reduce the dependency on fossil fuels
which are finite and their utilization causes pollution.

22
Phases of Matter
 Density
 The density of a substance is the mass of the substance divided by its volume.
 i.e. Density, ρ = m/v; where mass, m, is measured in kg
volume, V, is measured in m3
density is measured in kgm-3

23
  Pressure
 Pressure is defined as force divided by the area perpendicular to the force.
 i.e. Pressure, p = F/A; where F is force measured in Newton
A is area measured in m2
P is pressure measured in Nm-2 or Pascal, Pa
o Pressure Due to Fluid
 A gas, by the kinetic theory, consists of molecules which are in constant motion.
 Therefore, collisions of the molecules of a gas and any containing walls occur.
 A molecule which is travelling normally to a wall will be reflected directly backwards
after collision with the wall.
 The molecule therefore has undergone a change in momentum, and by Newtons 1st law,
there must have been a force on the molecule.
 This force came from the wall.
 By Newton’s 3rd law, the molecule exerted a force on the wall.
 So, the average force exerted by all of the molecules of the gas on the walls of the
container per unit area gives the pressure exerted by the gas.

 In a liquid, the molecules have less speed as they vibrate, rather than move with linear
speed.
 However, as liquids are denser, they pressure may be of the same order as that due to
gases.
 The pressure at some depth of fluid is equal to the weight per unit area of the column of
liquid above that point.
 For a column of height, ∆ h,
weight = mg
 But density, ρ = mass/volume
therefore m = ρ x V
 Now, V = A x ∆ h; where A is the cross-sectional area of the column
Therefore The change in pressure from the top through ∆h,
ρA ∆ hg
Pressure, ∆ p=
A
∆ p=ρg ∆ h

 A manometer is a device that uses pressure due to a liquid to measure excess pressure
due to a fluid (i.e. the pressure above atmospheric pressure, which is usually gaseous
pressure).
 It consists of a U shaped tube with liquid, e.g. mercury, inside.

24
  One end of the tube is connected to the gas supply being measured and the other is open
to the atmosphere.

 In the diagram above, the manometer was connected to a gas supply and the supply
turned on.
 The pressure at the surface of the mercury in the left hand side of the tube is due to the
gas.
 The pressure in the right hand side, horizontally across from the surface on the left, is at
this same pressure.
 However, it is produced by the atmosphere and the mercury of column height ∆ h.
 Thus, ∆ h can be used to find the excess pressure.
 i.e. excess pressure, ∆ p = ρ g∆ h
 Total pressure = Excess pressure + atmospheric pressure

 The Gaseous Phase

 In this phase, the mean separation of molecules is 10 times that in liquids or solids.
 Over this distance, there is practically no force of attraction between the molecules.
 Thus, the molecules only interact when they “collide”.
 Different molecules, at any instant, will have different velocities.
 But on average, the speed is of the order of 102 ms-1.
 Thus, gas molecules are in constant motion, molecules in a gas have no ordering (i.e. are
not arranged in a recognizable pattern) and gases have the lowest density of the 3 states,
approximately 1025 molecules/m3.

 The Liquid Phase

 The mean separation of molecules is the same as for solids.
 While the molecules do vibrate, the point about which they do so is moving.
 Thus, molecules are able to move relative to each other (i.e. the liquid flows).
 The molecules in a liquid gather in clusters, producing short range ordering.
 Density of the order of 1028 molecules.
e.g. If Neon has an atomic mass of 20.18, find the mass of 1 mole. Hence, if the density of liquid
Neon is 1.3 gcm-3, find the volume of 1 molecule.
EXAMPLE FROM ABEO (HOPEFULLY)
 The Solid Phase

25
  The separation in this phase is of the order 10-18m (aka Angstrom).
 Molecules in this phase also vibrate and the point about which they do so (i.e. their mean
position) is fixed, giving the solid its rigid structure and long range ordering.
 e.g. in crystals where the molecules form unit cells that are repeated throughout the
structure.

 The differentiation of the 3 states above is based on the Kinetic Theory, which states that
matter consists of small particles called atoms, or groups of atoms called molecules.

 Crystalline Solids
o Ionic:
- These occur due to the attractive force between ions with an excess of
electrons and those with a deficit. e.g.
- e.g. Na+Cl-.
- These are usually salts.
- Thus, the force producing these crystals is electrostatic.
o Covalent:
- These occur due to the sharing (i.e. overlapping) of electron orbits.
- These crystals are generally the strongest, e.g. diamond
o Van der Waals:
- These forces act over short distances and arise out of the presence of
unbalanced electron densities in the electrons orbiting the nucleus.
- When there are more electrons on one side of a nucleus than the other, the
centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide.
- This creates a dipole and a weak force of attraction between opposite
charges in neighboring atoms.
- These forces occur in all crystals, but exclusively in some. e.g. crystals
formed by inert gases.
o Metallic:
- Where there are large numbers of electrons, the electrons in the lower
orbits tend to screen out those in higher orbits.
- Thus, the electrons in these outer orbits are loosely held and are able to
escape to form an electron cloud with the remaining nuclei and electrons
forming the crystal lattice.
- On a macroscopic (large) scale, the metallic crystals, or “grains” combine
together to form the larger solid.
- These solids are thus known as polycrystalline substances, with the grains
separated by grain boundaries.
- Note that the grain boundaries are regions of stronger bonding within the
crystal, thus, the finer the grains, the stronger the metal.
o Polymer:

26
 - These materials may be crystalline, non-crystalline or mixed, e.g. natural
fibers, synthetic fibers, PVC, and polystyrene.
- They consist of long polymer chains.
- Where these chains are parallel, the material is crystalline.
- The more crystalline the material, (as in, generally purer polymers), the
stronger and harder the material, and the higher its melting point.
- The non-crystalline parts give polymers their flexibility.

 Non-Crystalline Solids
 These are usually referred to as amorphous or glassy solids.
 They behave like liquids, of very high viscosity, at normal temperatures.
 This is demonstrated by the fact that when changing from solid to liquid, there is no sharp
melting point, there is no sudden change in volume, and there is no absorption of latent
heat.
 The solid and liquid structures are therefore very similar.
 This is due to the disordered packing of its constituent particles.
 Polymers become amorphous when their long polymer chains become tangled.

 Deformation of Springs
 The intermolecular forces, which hold molecules together in a solid, act like springs.
 There is a region in which the extension (or compression) of the separation of the
molecules is proportional to the force applied.
 For a graph of force applied against extension, a straight line through the origin is given.
 In this region, the extension is elastic.
 i.e. when the extending force is removed, the material returns to its original size.
 However, like a spring, extensions beyond this region will produce permanent extension
or deformation.
 We say that the elastic limit has been exceeded.

 In the proportional region, Hooke’s law is obeyed.

 Hooke’s law states that the force applied is directly proportional to the extension.
 Thus F ∝ x; where x is the extension.
∴ F = kx; where k is the spring constant, measured in Nm-1.

27
  As Work, W = Avg. F x s
 We get W = (F+0/2) x x
= F/2 x x
= 1/2 kx x x
∴ W = 1/2 kx2

 i.e. Energy stored = area under graph

 Deformation of Solids
 A force applied perpendicularly to the cross-sectional area of a material may be tensile
(i.e. stretching) or compressive.
 Stress, σ , is the force per unit cross-sectional area.
F
 i.e. Stress, σ = ; measured in Nm-2
A
e
 Strain, ε = ; where l is the original, unstretched length, ε has no units.
l
 Materials are compared using their graphs of stress against strain.

A = Proportional Limit
OA = The proportional elastic region where Hooke’s law is obeyed. (i.e. Stress ∝ Strain)
B = Elastic Limit
OB = Elastic Region
BD = Plastic Region.
- Here, some of the work done is dissipated as heat and cannot be removed.
- i.e. The extension is “inelastic”.

28
 - If, for example, the material is loaded to a point P and then unloaded, it will
follow the dashed line PQ.
- Thus, the length OQ is the permanent strain due to the stretching.
C = Ultimate (maximum) tensile stress.
D =.Wire breaks

 When comparing materials, we can look at:

a) Strength: The ability of a material to withstand a force without breaking.
b) Stiffness: The opposition of a material to being deformed (e.g. stretched) by a force.
c) Ductility: A ductile material can be pressured into useful shapes. e.g. Wires.
Metals are ductile and thus their stress-strain graphs have a plastic region.
d) Toughness: The tendency of a material to remain uncracked.
A brittle material (opposite to tough) will crack quickly once a crack has
started.
Their graphs usually have only the proportional (straight part).

 Glass is brittle and will therefore break suddenly.

 Copper displays the full curve.
 Rubber undergoes large strains for small stresses.
 The dashed part of the line indicates a broken scale.

o Stress-Strain Graph of a Polymer

 e.g. Amorphous rubber (polymeric)
 The polymer chains become untangled easily at low stresses, giving large strains.
 As the stretching continues, the chains become straight and then further extension causes
the molecules to separate.
 This process is more difficult and thus, the gradient of the stress-strain curve increases.
 A loading and unloading cycle for rubber shows a closed loop, known as a hysteresis
loop.
 The area inside the loop gives the energy lost per cycle.
 Only extreme stretching leads to plastic deformation.

29
  Young Modulus
 For a tensile force in the proportional region, we find that stress ∝ strain
∴ Gradient = constant called the Young modulus (E).
stress
i.e. E=
strain
F e
 As stress, σ = and strain, ε =
A l
F
A
E=
e
l
Fl
∴ E= ; measured in Nm-2.
Ae
If asked to find E from the gradient of a Force-Extension Graph;
Fl
E= ; where x is the extension (e)
Ax

E= ( EAl ) x
y=mx
F EA
( gradient ) =
x l
gradient × l
∴ E=
A

30
 o Strain Energy Stored in a Stretched Material
 Recall, energy stored = area under graph of force against extension.
 Also, W = 1/2kx2; where x is the extension.
 Therefore, for an extension, e, of a material of Young modulus, E, original length, l, and
cross-sectional area, A,
1 EA 2
 We have, W = e
2 l

o Experiment to Determine the Young Modulus

 To determine the Young modulus using a wire made of a given material, its cross-
sectional area and original length (l0) are found.
 A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the diameter of the wire, and then the
pi × D 2
formula, A= is used to find the cross-sectional area.
4
 A Vernier caliper is used to measure the original length of the wire, as well as the
extension.

 The wire is made thin and long to produce:

1. large stresses with small applied masses
2. measurable extensions
3. a reduced fractional error in measuring the original length.

 To reduce errors due to sagging of the support and thermal expansion of the wire due to
changes in the room temperature, the extension is found by comparing the length of the
test wire to that of another wire of the same material and dimensions which is held
straight by a fixed mass.
 A Vernier caliper is used to compare the lengths if the wires due to the small extensions
obtained.
 Measurements should be taken both loading and unloading, with time delays to reduce
the effect of hysteresis losses.

 Elasticity and Structures

31
  All structures, natural and man-made have to be able to withstand the forces that they
encounter every day to survive.
 It would be impracticable to build structures so stiff that they are not deformed by these
forces.
 Thus, structures should have some degree of elasticity, which allows them to return to
their original shape after the applied force is removed.
 e.g. Tall building and bridges encounter large forces due to the wind and are built with
the ability to sway;
 Bones are made to withstand the compression when animals jump and on impact.

32