MAGNETISM

Magnetism is the ability of some metals, mainly iron and steel, to attract other pieces of iron and
steel. Every magnet has South and North Pole (Figure 2-1).

Figure 2-1. Bar magnet

A compass is an instrument which is used to find the direction of a magnetic field. A compass
consists of a small metal needle which is magnetised itself and which is free to turn in any
direction. Therefore, when in the presence of a magnetic field, the needle is able to line up in the
same direction as the field.

Figure 2-2. Bar magnet

A magnetic field exists within and around the permanent magnet. The earth itself can be thought
as a permanent bar magnet with two poles (Figure 2-3). The source of earth’s magnetic field is
thought to originate in the fluid core. By magneto-hydrodynamics a field is generated by the
interaction between fluid motions and electrical currents within the inner structures of the earth.
Since Gilbert’s Law of magnetism states that like poles repel and unlike attract, it follows that
the end of compass needle that points geomagnetic north is actually the south pole of the needle
magnet. Compass needle that indicates the geomagnetic North Pole is called the “North-seeking
pole”. Frequently the field surrounding the earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic objects
that lie aligned with the earth`s poles for period of time.

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Figure 2-3. Earth as a bar magnet

The rule for magnetic poles: Like poles repel and unlike poles attract (Gilbert’s Law of
Magnetism)(Figure 2-4).

Figure 2-4. Like and unlike poles

LINES OF FORCE
The concept of lines of force (flux) is useful for describing a magnetic field. Although no actual
lines exists, they are imaginary concepts of mapping magnetic fields. The lines of force are also
termed as magnetic flux. Note the stronger the magnetic effect, the higher the flux (it will be the
highest at the poles of magnet). The strength of the magnetic field depends on the number of
magnetic flux lines. Flux density would indicate the number of magnetic lines of force per unit
area. The properties of magnetic lines of flux:
1. Magnetic lines of force are continuous and will always form closed loops. They exit
from North Pole and enter to South Pole outside the material and they flow from South
Pole to North Pole within the material.
2. Magnetic lines of force will never cross one another.
3. Parallel magnetic lines of force traveling in the same direction repel one another.

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4. Magnetic lines of force tend to shorten themselves. Therefore, the magnetic lines of
force existing between two unlike poles cause the poles to be pulled together.
5. Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials, both magnetic and nonmagnetic.
6. Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles to the
surface
If a straight magnet is bent, it becomes horseshoe magnet. If it is further bent to form a closed
loop magnet, then the poles disappear and no external force is present (Figure 2-5). As we see
the air cap for horseshoe magnet is smaller. The shorter the air cap, the more intense the
magnetic field. Eliminating the air cap (for example 2 magnets or bend horseshoe magnet poles
together) eliminates the external field and poles. This concentrates the lines within the field.
Magnets are sometimes stored with “keepers” to eliminate the external field.

Figure 2-5. Magnets and flux

MAGNETOGRAPHS AND INDUCED MAGNETISM

The magnetic fields associated with various configurations of magnets and poles are best
illustrated by magnetographs. These are made by placing a magnet under the paper and
sprinkling iron filings over the paper (you can make your own magnetograph by using a yoke
and dry particles as Figure 2-6).

Figure 2-6. Magnetographs

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The filings took on similar characteristics of the compass needle while in the field of the magnet.
Thus, the iron filings temporarily become magnets. Formation of the poles in the iron filings
while in the magnetic field is called induced magnetism.

Figure 2-7. Induced magnetism

THE PHYSICS OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Theory of magnetism is based on the electron spin principle. It is known that all matter is
composed of vast quantities of atoms. Each atom contains at least one orbital electron. The
electrons are considered to orbit in various shells depending on their distance from the nucleus.

Figure 2-8. Carbon Atom

It is believed that each electron while orbiting around the nucleus also revolves on its axis (like
earth that orbits around the sun and also revolves around its axis). Electron is negatively charged
and there is experimental proof that an electron has a magnetic field. By Ampere: An electrical
charge is in motion produces magnetic fields. So, the spinning and orbiting electron produces a
magnetic field. The direction of the spin and orbit determine the direction of the magnetic field.
The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment and the total moment of an atom is the
vector sum of each electron’s spin and orbiting magnetic moment.
Since electrons spin randomly, in some atoms, two electrons spinning and orbiting in opposite
directions pair up and the net magnetic moment of the atom is zero. Therefore, the overall
magnetic field strength of atoms with all paired electrons is zero. For example, helium atom has

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2 electrons per orbit and they configure themselves such that the moment of one exactly cancels
the moment of other, leaving no net magnetic moment (Figure 2-9).

Figure 2-9. No net magnetic moment

But now think of an atom with three electrons. The moments of two may cancel, leaving third
with a net magnetic moment. Thus atoms with electron moments that cancel are nonmagnetic;
those with electron moments that don’t cancel carry a magnetic dipole.
Let imagine these nonmagnetic atoms in a crystal. In most materials the atomic moments interact
so weakly that their thermal motion is enough to randomize their directions. Despite their
magnetic atoms, the structure as a whole doesn’t have magnetic moment- these materials are
paramagnetic. But in a few elements, notably iron (3 unpaired electrons per atom), nickel (2)
and cobalt (1), the moments spontaneously align so that – if all are parallel- the structure has a
net moment that is the sum of all the atoms.
A magnetic domain is defined as a region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped
together and aligned (Figure 2-10). Magnetic domains could be viewed as miniature magnets
within a material.

Figure 2-10. Magnetic Domains

In an un-magnetized material (for example steel), all the magnetic domains are pointing in
different directions. In the presence of external magnetic fields, the magnetic poles of domains
will line up and point to the direction of externally applied magnetic fields (Figure 2-11). The
steel becomes a magnet.

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Figure 2-11. Domains and external magnetic field

If the external magnetic fields are removed, the steel becomes un-magnetized and its magnetic
domains return back to a random order. Materials, where the domains are aligned without the
presence of external magnetic fields are called permanent magnets. A lodestone, or loadstone,
is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite, naturally-occurring magnets, which can
attract pieces of iron. Also there are artificially produced permanent magnets
(http://www.lindsaybks.com/bks8/magn/) that keep their magnetic properties until heated to Curie
point.
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Materials that have all paired electrons in the atoms and thus have no net magnetic moment are
called diamagnetic materials. When placed in the magnetic field of a magnet, diamagnetic
materials will produce a slight magnetic field that opposes the main magnetic field. Both ends of
a bar magnet will repel a diamagnetic material. If a diamagnetic material is placed in a strong
external magnetic field, the magnetic field strength inside the material will be less than the
magnetic field strength in the air surrounding the material (Figure 2-12). The slight decrease in
the field strength is the result of realignment in the orbit motion of the electrons. Diamagnetic
materials are most elements in the periodic table, including zinc, gold, mercury, and bismuth.

Figure 2-12A. Material classification

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Figure 2-12B. External Magnetic Field and Materials

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Materials with a small attraction to a magnet are called paramagnetic materials. Despite their
magnetic atoms, the structure as a whole doesn’t have a net magnetic moment. Most materials
with one or more unpaired electrons are paramagnetic. In a presence of external magnetic fields,
some of the atoms will align with external magnetic fields. After removing external magnetic
field, the material does not retain the magnetic properties. Paramagnetic materials include
aluminum, platinum, magnesium, air, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Ferromagnetic materials have unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment.
When a ferromagnetic material is in the un-magnetized, the domains are randomly organized and
the net magnetic field for the material as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied,
the domains become aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part (Figure 2-13).
Also they can retain some of the magnetic properties after the removal of external magnetic
fields. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are examples of ferromagnetic materials.

Figure 2-13. Ferro- and Paramagnetic Domains

Questions

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1. For the horseshoe magnet, the magnetic flux will enter or leave the magnet at the poles. The
horseshoe magnet will attract other ferromagnetic material only where the lines of force leave or
enter the magnet. So, if we dip the magnet into iron filings, where could we expect magnetic flux to
attract the filings?
a. At the North Pole
b. Anywhere on the magnet
c. At the north and south poles
2. If the steel bar were placed across only the North Pole, would it be attracted to the horseshoe
magnet?
3. Would iron filings be attracted to circular, closed loop magnets?
4. If there is a crack in the outer surface of circular magnet that has created Poles, what would you
expect to occur where the flux leakage is located?
a. Iron particles are attracted
b. Iron particles are not attracted.
5. What happens when instead to crack, there is cupped, shallow surface?
6. What about scratch?

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Magnetic dipole moment is a

a) Vector quantity
b) Scalar quantity
c) Nuclear phenomenon
d) Small unit of time.

2. the most significant factor contributing to a material possessing magnetic properties is

a) The number of neutrons in the nucleus
b) Unpaired electrons in the structure
c) The van Allen belts
d) Whether ionic or covalent bonding is responsible for the crystal structure.

3. In normal un-magnetized condition, the domains of a ferromagnetic material are

a) Randomly aligned
b) Alternately aligned as on a checker board
c) Non-existent until an external field is applied
d) Found only at the Curie point.

4. The ability of the magnetic particle method to detect subsurface defects is not determined by
a) Specimen size
b) Defect depth
c) Defect orientation
d) Strength of applied field.

5. Very wide surface cracks may not produce a powder pattern because

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a) The surface opening is too wide for the particles to bridge

b) Detectability is based on the length to width ratio
c) Wide cracks are always shallow
d) all of the above.

6. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material changes to a paramagnetic material is the

a) Neel temperature
b) Curie point
c) An ambient temperature
d) Plastic point.

7. Upon cooling a ferrous alloy below its Curie point, in the absence of an external field it
a) Remains paramagnetic
b) Becomes ferromagnetic
c) Becomes ferromagnetic but un-magnetized
d) Emits UV light.

Answers:
1-a, 2-b, 3-a, 4-a, 5-d, 6-b, 7-c

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