1.3. Metrics and Topology 7 Proposition 1.2.22. Every n-dimensional Euclidean space is isomorphic to R". This means that there is a linear isomorphism f : R” + V such that (f(z), f(y)) = (e,y) for all 2,y € R. In particular, these spaces are isometric. Proof, Define f((e1,...,2n)) = Saxe; where {¢;} is an orthonormal basis. a This proposition allows one to apply elementary Euclidean geometry to general Euclidean spaces. For example, since any two-dimensional subspace of a Euclidean space is isomorphic to R?, any statement involving only two vectors and their linear combinations can be automatically transferred from the standard Euclidean plane to all Euclidean spaces. Exercise 1.2.23. Prove that any distance-preserving map from one Bu- clidean space to another is an affine map, that is, a composition of a linear map and a parallel translation. Show by example that this is generally not true for arbitrary normed spaces. Exercise 1.2.24. Let V be a finite-dimensiona] normed space. Prove that V is Euclidean if and only if for any two vectors v,w € V such that || = |u| there exists a linear isometry f: VV such that f(v) = w. 1.2.8. Spheres. Example 1.2.25. The n-sphere S” is the set of unit vectors in R*#, i.e., S$” = {x €R™" ; |x| = 1}. The angular metric on S” is defined by d(z,y) = arcoos (x,y). In other words, the spherical distance is defined as the Euclidean angle between unit vectors. It equals the length of the shorter arc of a great circle connecting « and y in the sphere. Another formula for this metric is Iz ~yl oa The metric on the circle described in Example 1.2.9 is a partial case of this example. d(2,y) = 2aresi 1.3. Metrics and Topology Definition 1.3.1. Let X be a metric space, x € X and r > 0. The set formed by the points at distance less than r from ¢ is called an (open metric) ball of radius r centered at «. We denote this ball by B,(z). Similarly, a closed ball B,(z) is the set of points whose distances from 2 are less than or equal to r.8 1. Metric Spaces Exercise 1.3.2. Let 1 and 22 be points of some metric space, and let ry and r2 be positive numbers. Show that (a) if [2122] > m1 + ro, then the balls B,,(z1) and B,,(z2) are disjoint; (b) if jxrea| 0 such that B(r) CU. It is easy to see that an open ball is an open set and a closed ball is a closed set (i.e., its complement is open). As a consequence of the former, a set is open if and only if is representable as a union of (possibly infinitely many) open balls. Exercise 1.3.3, Let X be a metric space and Y C X. Prove that two topologies on Y coincide: the one associated with the metric restricted on Y, and the subspace topology induced by the one of X (in which a set is open in Y if and only if it is representable as an intersection of Y and an open set in X). Exercise 1.3.4. Prove that a metric product carries the standard product topology. Definition 1.3.5. A sequence {n}%°; of points of a topological space X is said to converge to a point x € X if for any neighborhood U of x there is @ number ng such that tn € U for all n > m9. Notation: tn — x (as n + 00). The point z is called a limit of the sequence. In a metric space, zy > 2 if and only if |z,2| + 0. The following properties are also specific for metric spaces. Proposition 1.3.6. Let X and Y be metric spaces. Then (1) A sequence in X cannot have more than one limit. (2) A point « € X is an accumulation point of a set $c X (ie, belongs to the closure of S) if and only if there exists a sequence {tn} such that c, € S for alln and aq > x. In particular, S is closed if and only if it contains all limits of sequences contained within 8. (3) A map f : X + Y és continuous at a point x € X if and only if S (en) — f(z) for any sequence {aq} converging to x1.4. Lipschitz Maps 9 1.4. Lipschitz Maps Definition 1.4.1. Let X and Y be metric spaces. A map f : X — Y is called Lipschitz if there exists a C > 0 such that [f(#1)f(x2)| < Clxixe| for all 21,22 € X. Any suitable value of C is referred to as.a Lipschitz constant of f. The minimal Lipschitz constant is called the dilatation of f and denoted by dil f. The dilatation of a non-Lipschitz function is infinity. A map with Lipschitz constant 1 is called nonexpanding Exercise 1.4.2. The distance from a point « to a set $ in a metric space is defined by dist(r,) = infyes |zy|. Prove that dist(-, $) is a nonexpanding function. (1) All Lipschitz maps are continuous. 2) If f:X +Y and 9: ¥ — Z are Lipschitz maps, then go f is 9 9 Lipschitz and dil(go f) < dil f -dilg. (3) The set of real-valued Lipschitz functions on a metric space (and, more generally, the set of Lipschitz functions from a metric space to a normed space) is a vector space. One has dil(f +g) < dil f +dilg, dil(Af) = |Al dil f for any Lipschitz functions f and g and \€ R. Definition 1.4.4. Let X and Y be metric spaces. A map f : X > Y is called locally Lipschitz if every point « € X has a neighborhood U such that flu is Lipschitz. The dilatation of f at x is defined by dil, f = inf{dil f|y :U is a neighborhood of x}. Exercise 1.4.5. Let X be a metric space. Prove that dilf = supzcr dile f for any map f :R + X. Prove the same statement with R replaced by St with the metric described in Exercise 1.2.9. Show that it is not true for S* with the metric restricted from R?. Definition 1.4.6. Let X and ¥ be metric space. A map f : X > Y is called bi-Lipschitz if there are positive constants c and C such that clerza) S |f(m1)J(a2)| < Clarzal for all 21,0 € X. Clearly every bi-Lipschitz map is a homeomorphism onto its image. Definition 1.4.7, Two metrics d; and dz on the same set X are called bi-Lipschitz if there are positive constants c and C such that e+ di(x,y) < da(a,y) < C- di(z,y) for all x,y €X10 1, Metric Spaces Tn other words, d; and dz are Lipschitz equivalent if the identity is a bi Lipschitz map from (X,d;) to (X, dy). Clearly this is an equivalence relation on the set of metrics in X. Lipschitz equivalent metrics determine the same topology. Exercise 1.4.8. Give an example of two metrics on the same set that determine the same topology but are not. Lipschitz equivalent. Exercise 1.4.9. Let X and Y be metric spaces. Prove that the following three metrics on X x Y are Lipschitz equivalent: 1. The metric defined in Example 1.2.4. 2. di ((w1, 41), (#25 2)) = |ere2] + lyaval- 3. doo (21, 1), (#2, 42)) =anaxf{|arrz2), [vive] }- Exercise 1.4.10. Let X be a metric space. Prove that its metric is a Lipschita function on X x X where X x X is regarded to have any of the metrics from the previous exercise. We conclude this section with the following important theorem about normed spaces Theorem 1.4.11. 1. Two norms on a vector space determine the same topology if and only if they are Lipschitz equivalent; 2. All norms on a finite-dimensional vector space are Lipschitz equiva- lent. 1.5, Complete Spaces Definition 1.5.1. A sequence {1m} in a metric space is called a Cauchy sequence if |tntm| + 0 as n,m — oo. The precise meaning of this is the following: for any ¢ > 0 there exists an no such that |aaim| < €¢ whenever n> 1 and m > no. A metric space is called complete if every Cauchy sequence in it has a limit. It is known from analysis (see e.g. [Mun]) that R is a complete space. It easily follows that R” is complete for all n. R \ {0} is an example of a noncomplete space; a sequence that would converge to zero in R is a Cauchy sequence that has no limit in this space. (Note that a converging sequence is always a Cauchy one.) Exercise 1.5.2. Prove that completeness is preserved by a bi-Lipschite homeomorphism. In particular, Lipschitz equivalent metrics share complete- ness or noncompleteness.