Differential Protection

Differential Protection

Used where:
 Protection co-ordination is difficult / not possible
using time delayed elements
 Fast fault clearance is critical

Can be used on all items of plant in one form or another

(i.e. Generators, transformers, lines, cables, busbars,
motors) to form a defined zone of protection dictated by
current transformer location.
Differential Protection Principle

Protected
Circuit

R
Differential Protection Principle

Protected
Circuit

R
High Impedance Principle
 High Impedance Principle

Based on Merz-Price circulating current principle

 Requires matched current transformers of low

reactance design, typically class X or equivalent
 Equal CT ratios
 Typically current operated relay with an external
stabilising resistor
 Non-linear resistor may be required to limit voltage
across relay circuit during internal faults
 Suitable for zones up to 200 - 300 metres (typically)
 High Impedance Principle

Protected
Circuit

ZM RCT RCT ZM

RL IF RL

IS

VS R

RL RL

Maximum voltage across relay circuit, Vs = If (RCT + 2RL)

To limit current through relay to < Is the relay impedance Rrelay > Vs/Is
 Stabilising Resistor

Use of stabilising resistor:

 Where relay impedance alone is too low to ensure

stability then the relay circuit impedance can be
increased through the addition of an external resistor
connected in series with the relay
 Required circuit impedance > Vs/Is
 RSTAB > (Vs/Is) - Rrelay
 Current Transfomer Output

Current transformer knee point requirements:

 Current transformers must have sufficient output to

ensure fast operation of relay during internal fault
conditions
 Required Vk > 2 Vs (typically - depends on actual
relay type)
 Non-Linear Resistors (Metrosils)

During internal faults the high impedance relay circuit

constitutes an excessive burden to the CT’s.
A very high voltage develops across the relay circuit and the
CT’s which can damage the insulation of CT’s, secondary
wiring and relay.
Magnitude of peak voltage VP is given by an approximate
formula (based on experimental results)
VP = 2 2VK (VF - VK)
Where VF = If (RCT + 2RL + RSTAB + Rrelay)
Metrosil required if VP > 3kV
High Impedance Circuit
Arrangement
I

RST
VM VS

RR

Metrosil Characteristic
V = CI
Suitable values of C &  chosen based on :
(1) Max secondary current under fault conditions
(2) Relay setting voltage
Low Impedance (Biased)
Protection
 Low Impedance Principle

 High Impedance protection limits the spill current to a

value less then relay setting
 Low Impedance principle provides no such limit on
spill but instead artificially raises the setting of the
relay
 The higher the through current, the higher the potential
spill and hence the greater the increase in setting
Required
 The increase in setting is therefore normally based on
a percentage of the through current
 Protection is commonly referred to as percentage
biased differential protection
Biased Differential Scheme

Spill
Current

Low Imp.

Trip

No Trip

Is High Imp.

Through Current
Biased Differential Scheme

Differential
Current

I1 - I2
BIAS BIAS OPERATE
I1 I2

I1 - I2
RESTRAIN
OPERATE

I1 + I2 Mean Thro Current

2

Bias = Differential (or Spill) Current

Mean Through Current
Biased Characteristic

Differential
Current 30% Bias
5.0

4.0
OPERATE

3.0

RESTRAIN
2.0

1.0

0.2

2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0

Through Current
 Low Impedance Principle

 Does not rely on equal ratio CT’s (ratio correction can

be done via external interposing CT’s or internally to
the relay)
 Limit on allowable spill dictated by percentage of bias
used - practical limit to give sufficient sensitivity to
internal faults
 Amount of spill related to CT size - stability limits and
CT requirements are therefore dependant on each
other
 Unit Protection Involving Distance
Between Circuit Breakers
A B

Relaying
R
Point
Trip B

Trip A

Simple Local Differential Protection

 Unit Protection Involving Distance
Between Circuit Breakers

A B
Communication
Channel

Relaying Relaying
Point Point
R R

Trip A Trip B

Unit Protection Involving Distance

Between Circuits
Basic Pilot Wire Schemes with
Bias

B B
I
V
OP OP

V
I

Circulating Current
Summation Transformers
Summation Transformer Sensitivity
for Different Faults
IA
1
IB
1
IC Output for operation
= K

IN

Let output for operation = K

(1) Consider A-E fault

for relay operation : IA (1 + 1 + 3) > K
IA > 1/5K or 20%K
Summation Transformer Sensitivity
for Different Faults
(2) B-E fault
for relay operation : IB (1 + 3) > K
IB > 25%K

(3) C-E fault

for relay operation : IC x (3) > K
IC > 331/3%K

(4) AB fault
for relay operation : IAB x (1) > K
IAB > 100%K

(5) BC fault
for relay operation : IBC x (1) > K
IBC > 100%K

(6) AC fault
for relay operation : IAC (1 + 1) > K
IAC > 50%K
Zero Summation Transformer Output for
2-1-1 Current Distribution
 Fault Settings for Plain Feeders
Input transformer summation ratio is 1.25 : 1 : N
where N = 3 for normal use
and N = 6 to give low earth fault settings

Fault Settings
N = 3 N = 6
A-N 0.19 x Ks x In 0.12 x Ks x In
B-N 0.25 x Ks x In 0.14 x Ks x In
C-N 0.33 x Ks x In 0.17 x Ks x In

A-B 0.80 x Ks x In
B-C 1.00 x Ks x In
C-A 0.44 x Ks x In
A-B-C 0.51 x Ks x In
Ks is a setting multiplier, variable from 0.5 to 2.0
In is the relay rated current 1 Amp or 5 Amps
Line Charging Current
 Line Charging Currents

Line charging currents flow in at one end of the feeder only

and is therefore potentially capable of unbalancing a
protective system.

Charging currents (or capacitance currents) of overhead lines

generally low.

Charging current levels of underground cables however can

be high enough to dictate minimum permissible operating
level of the protection.
 Line Charging Current
ICA
1
ICB
1
ICC

Line charging current produce certain amount of For stability ,

unbalancing AT’s under normal steady state conditions
when balanced 3Ø charging current flows. (2  N)  A  3 C

Unbalancing AT’s = 3 IC
3
A  C
AT’s of most sensitive fault setting = (2 + N) IA (2  N)

where IA = setting for A-E fault

For N  3,  A  0.35 C
 Solidly Earthed System

Maximum unbalance amp-turns is obtained when an external

double phase to ground fault on phases B & C occurs.

Charging current flows in phase A only since B & C phase

capacitances are shorted out.

IC
1

N
 Solid Earthed System

Unbalancing AT’s due to charging current = (2 + N) IC

AT’s of most sensitive fault setting = (2 + N) IA

where IA = setting for A-E fault

For stability ,

(2 + N) IA > (2 + N) IC
IA > IC

Note: For EHV cables, one relay per phase is sometimes used to avoid
lack of sensitivity for phase faults.
Pilot Characteristics
 Pilot Wire

Resistance and shunt capacitance of pilots introduce magnitude and phase differences
in pilot terminal currents.

Pilot Resistance
Attenuates the signal and affects effective minimum operating levels.

To maintain constant operating levels for wide range of pilot resistance, padding
resistor used.

R Rp/2 R

Rp/2

Padding resistance R set to ½ (1000 - Rp) ohms

 Pilot Capacitance

Circulating current systems :

 Pilot capacitance effectively in parallel with relay

operating coil.

 Capacitance at centre of pilots has zero volts across

them.
 Pilot Isolation

Electromagnetic Induction

Field of any adjacent conductor may induce a voltage in the pilot circuit.

Induced voltage can be severe when :

(1) Pilot wire laid in parallel to a power circuit.
(2) Pilot wire is long and in close proximity to power circuit.
(3) Fault Current is severe.

Induced voltage may amount to several thousand volts.

Danger to personnel
Danger to equipment

Difference in Station Earth Potentials

Can be a problem for applications above 33kV - even if feeder is short.

 Formula for Induced Voltage

e = 0.232 I L Log10 De/S

where I = primary line E/F current

L = length of pilots in miles
De = Equiv. Depth of earth return in metres = 655 . e/f
e = soil resistivity in .m
f = frequency
s = separation between power line and pilot circuit in
metres

Effect of screening is not considered in the formula.

If the pilot is enclosed in lead sheath earthed at each end, screening is provided by
the current flowing in the sheath.
Sheath should be of low resistance.

0.3 V / A / Mile Unscreened Pilots

0.1 V / A / Mile Screened Pilots
Pilot circuits and all directly connected equipment should be insulated to
earth and other circuits to an adequate voltage level.

Two levels are recognised as standard : 5kV & 15kV

Relay Case

5kV 15kV
Pilot
Terminal
Relay
Input Relay
Circuit
Pilot
Wire
2kV 5kV
Supervision & Intertripping
 Supervision of Pilot Circuits

Pilot circuits are subject to a number of hazards, such as :

- Manual Interference
- Acts of Nature (storms, subsidence, etc.)
- Mechanical Damage (excavators, impacts)
Therefore supervision of the pilots is felt to be necessary.
Two types exist :
- Signal injection type
- Wheatstone Bridge type
 Pilot Wire Supervision

Circulating
Current
Schemes

Pilot Wire Maloperate

Open Circuited
Pilot Wire Stable
Short Circuited
Pilot Wire Maloperate
Crossed

Maloperation occurs even under normal loading conditions if

3-phase setting < ILOAD.
Overcurrent check may be used to prevent maloperation.
Overcurrent element set above maximum load current.
 Overcurrent Check Relays

50
A

PILOT
50C WIRE
RELAY
(87PW)

50
G
 Overcurrent Check Relays

50A-1 87PW-1
+ TRIP CIRCUITS

50C-1

50G-1 Isoc > Ifl

0.9
Isef > 1.2 IZ
Isef < 0.8 x Ief
 System Requiring Intertripping

Source

Feeder
Protection
Busbar
Protection
 Transformer Feeder - Intertripping

PILOT WIRES

PILOT WIRE
TRIP TRIP
PROTECTION PILOT WIRE TRANSFORMER
PROTECTION PROTECTION

DESTABILISE AND
INTERTRIP
 Numerical Feeder
Differential Protection
All Digital Design

0IIIIII0I0.....0I0IIIIII0
Digital messages
End A End B

A/D P

Digital communication interface

Direct Optical Fibre Link

OPGW
Interfacing to PCM Multiplexers

interface
Multiplexer
unit G.703
850nm or V.35
multimode electrical
optical fibre
interface
ISDN
unit X.21
electrical
 Multiplexed Optical Link

Earth wire optical fibre

Multiplexer Multiplexer
34 Mbit/s

64k Telephone
bits/s
Telecontrol
End A End B
Teleprotection
 Multiplexed Microwave Link

PCM
Multiplexer

Telephone
64k
bits/s Telecontrol

End A End B
Teleprotection
 Optical Budgets for Direct Optical
Connection Between Relays

850nm Multi 1300nm Multi 1300nm Single 1550nm Single

Mode Mode Mode Mode
Min. Transmit -19.8dBm -8.2dBm -8.2dBm -8.2dBm
Output Level
Receiver -25.4dBm -38.2dBm -38.2dBm -38.2dBm
Sensitivity
Optical Budget 5.6dB 30.0dB 30.0dB 30.0dB
Less Safety 2.6dB 27.0dB 27.0dB 27.0dB
Margin (3dB)*
Typical Cable 2.6dB/km 0.8dB/km 0.4dB/km 0.3dB/km
Loss
Max. 1km 33.7km 67.5km 90km
Transmission
Distance

Short Haul Long Haul

Key: * 3dB allowance for joint loss/ageing
Propagation Delay Problem

Relay A Relay B

Current at B

Current received from A

Propagation delay
 Propagation Delay Compensation

 Synchronise sampling in both relays

 Direct comparison of samples
 IRIG-B a possibility, but not always
available (= protection out of service)

 Asynchronous sampling
 Continual time difference measurement
 Vector transformation in software

MiCOM-P540-52
 Capacitive Current Compensation

IL IR
ZL

IchL IchR
VL VR

 Conventional current differential protection needs to be set

above Ich to avoid tripping for 50/60Hz line charging
current
 Modern relays can extract Ich to allow more sensitive
current settings to be applied
Protection of Transformer Feeders

Power transformer

Ratio
correction

Vectorial
correction

Virtual interposing CT Virtual interposing CT

Direct Intertrip

Relay Relay
A B Transformer
Protection
DTT=1
Data
Message
- + - +

 The channel could alternatively be used along with

the distance elements and PSL to configure
permissive or blocking distance aided schemes
 Permissive Intertrip

IB

Relay A Relay B
Busbar
Relay
PIT=1
Data Message

- + - +

 Example shows interlocked overcurrent protection

 Feeder fault seen within busbar zone
 Remote end trip after set delay for PIT & current >
Is1
a