Clean Techn Environ Policy (2015) 17:667–679
DOI 10.1007/s10098-014-0823-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Enhancing cleaner production application in fertilizer
manufacturing: case study
Ignatio Madanhire • Kumbi Mugwindiri •
Charles Mbohwa
Received: 13 February 2014 / Accepted: 24 July 2014 / Published online: 20 August 2014
 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract This study looks at processes involved in the
manufacturing of agricultural fertilizers and highlights the
opportunities available to apply cleaner production tech-
nology in improving input resource efficiency, reduction of
waste generated, and minimization of resultant pollution in
the plant. Effort has also been made to ensure that such
plants are safe for employees and complies with regulatory
effluent discharge requirements. The findings could be
adapted for any sizeable plant and are of value to entities
seeking to achieve world class fertilizer manufacturing
standards.
Keywords Cleaner production  Fertilizer 
Manufacturing  Pollution  Resource efficiency  Waste
Introduction
The chemical nature of fertilizer manufacturing inputs and
outputs makes it mandatory to progressively reduce envi-
ronmental impacts (Glasser 2012). The detrimental effect
of fertilizers on the environment demands that monitoring
is done for the process of manufacturing, application, and
disposal to safeguard the environment (Maan 2009). Con-
siderable research has been devoted to impact of fertilizer
I. Madanhire (&)  K. Mugwindiri
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Zimbabwe, P O Box MP167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
e-mail: ignatio.madanhire@castrol.co.zw
C. Mbohwa
Department of Quality and Operations Management, Faculty of
Engineering and The Built Environment, University of
Johannesburg, 2006, Auckland Park, South Africa
e-mail: cmbohwa@uj.ac.za
usage, but less attention has been paid to pollution resulting
from fertilizer manufacturing waste generation and dis-
posal (Sittig 2007).
Justification
Fertilizer production involves handling of inputs like
phosphates, ammonium nitrates, gypsum, and limes, with
end products being granulated compounds and blended
fertilizers ready for use by farmers. Waste disposal
involves taking and dumping garbage at localized landfills
including waste generated by fertilizer manufacturers
resulting in soil degradation and water contamination.
Other than concentrating on the final disposal of fertilizer
on application, a lot can be done to reduce fertilizer waste
by looking at the fertilizer life cycle from raw material
handling, manufacturing, distribution, and application
(World Bank 2006). Manufacturers’ operations have
occupational health and environmental challenges that
include employee exposure to inorganic dust, ammonia
fumes at the granulation plant, and high energy use within
the production process. Most plants produce unacceptable
high levels of stack emissions and pay over USD 50,000
annually for stack emissions licenses. Lots of materials are
lost as particulate material through stack emission (Stocchi
2010).
Cleaner production review
Poor or no regard for environmental impacts creates water
and air pollution, soil degradation, and large-scale global
impacts such as acid rain, global warming, and ozone
depletion (UNEP 2007). Cleaner production activities
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include measures such as pollution prevention, source
reduction, waste minimization, and eco-efficiency. The
benefits of cleaner production include decreased waste, the
recovery of valuable by-products, improved environmental
performance, increased resource productivity, increased
efficiency, lower energy consumption, and an overall
reduction in costs (Berkel 2011). Cleaner production can
reduce environmental risks and liabilities and lead to greater
competitiveness. By demonstrating a commitment to cleaner
production, companies can also improve their public image
and gain the confidence of consumers (Chateuka 2003;
Shariff et al. 2013; Masa et al. 2013). In fertilizer production
processes, cleaner production entails saving of raw materials
and energy, elimination of toxic raw materials, and reduction
in the quantities and toxicity of wastes and emissions
(Pringle 2007; Babar 2014). The bottom line is to make
companies more resource efficient and less polluting. It is
important to concentrate on processes that generate large
quantities of waste and emission, and use or produce haz-
ardous materials in the system (Burns 1995).
Fertilizer brief
Fertilizer is an organic or inorganic material that is added to
the soil to provide additional nutrients for plants (Lowrison
2010). Fertilizers are used for soils that are nutrient-defi-
cient naturally, or for soils that have been depleted of
nutrients by harvesting and or grazing. Fertilizers are
widely used in agriculture to maintain soil fertility and to
increase crop yields. In spite of their benefits, fertilizers are
associated with high energy consumption. Energy con-
straints and high fuel costs necessitate the implementation
of energy efficiency measures in the production and use of
fertilizers (Willaert et al. 2005; Jenab et al. 2013).
Plants require at least 16 essential elements for healthy
growth (Lowrison 2010). Air and water provide three of
these elements (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), while the
others are extracted from the soil. These nutrients are sep-
arated into two main categories: macro-nutrients and micro-
nutrients. Macro-nutrients are further categorized as pri-
mary or secondary. The predominant nutrients required by
plants are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).
These are also the main nutrients in chemical fertilizers.
As plants are grown and harvested, they deplete the soil
of its nutrients. Whatever nutrients are depleted from the
soil must then be replaced to maintain soil fertility through
use of inorganic fertilizers (Rao 2003). Inorganic fertilizers
are commercially manufactured and are formulated to
contain a vast array of nutrient compositions and concen-
trations. Some contain one main nutrient source, while
others contain multiple sources. The main nutrients in
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I. Madanhire et al.
mixed inorganic fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium as well as micronutrients.
Without some sort of fertilization, much more land
would be required to achieve the same yields as found with
fertilized crops.
Fertilizer manufacturing process
The case study is based on one of the major fertilizer
manufacturers in Zimbabwe - FertCo.
Chemical Process (1)
At FertCo, the process under study produces nitrate-con-
taining straight and compound fertilizers starting from rock
phosphate and using all the nutrient components in an
integrated process without solid wastes and with minimal
gaseous and liquid emissions (Bounicore 2002). The inte-
grated process starts with the dissolution of the rock
phosphate in nitric acid following the reaction:
Ca5 FðPO4 Þ3 þ10HNO3 ¼ 3H3 PO4 þ 5CaðNO3 Þ2 þHF
Varying amounts of volatile compounds such as carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrous gases (NOX), and hydrogen fluoride
(HF) may be liberated, depending on the rock phosphate.
The mother liquor obtained contains too many calcium ions
to guarantee the production of plant available P2O5. The
solution is therefore cooled so that calcium nitrate tetra
hydrate (CNTH) crystallizes out following the reaction:
H3 PO4 þ HNO3 þ CaðNO3 Þ2 þ4H2 O
¼ H3 PO4 þ HNO3 þ CaðNO3 Þ2 :4H2 O
The solution of phosphoric acid, remaining calcium
nitrate and nitric acid, called nitro phosphoric acid can be
separated from the CNTH crystals by filtration. The nitro
phosphoric acid is then neutralized with ammonia, mixed
with potassium/magnesium salts, sulfate and/or micro-
nutrients and converted in a rotary granulation drum, flu-
idized bed, prilling tower, or pug-mill to obtain solid
compound fertilizers containing nitrate. The separated
calcium nitrate crystals are dissolved in ammonium nitrate
solution and treated with ammonium carbonate solution
following the reaction (Sauchelli 2014):
CaðNO3 Þ2 þ ðNH4 Þ2 CO3 ¼ CaCO
3 þ 2NH4 NO3
This solution is filtered, and the calcium carbonate
crystals are removed and used for the production of gran-
ular calcium ammonium nitrate fertilizer[8]. The resulting
dilute ammonium nitrate solution is concentrated and also
used to produce calcium ammonium nitrate fertilizer or
NPK. The calcium nitrate solution may also be neutralized
and evaporated to obtain a solid fertilizer. A modern
Cleaner production application in fertilizer manufacturing
Fig. 1 Fertilizer manufacturing process
compound fertilizer plant, based on the nitro phosphate
route, requires an integrated production complex of dif-
ferent units (Murillo-Alvarado 2012). The links between
the different units are shown in Fig. 1.
Material flow process (2)
Material receiving and handling
On receiving, raw materials are first analyzed in laboratory
and satisfied to be true in terms of concentration and
moisture content before they are offloaded. The storage
bins are asbestos sheet roofed, and the walls are concrete
cast to ensure no ingress of water. Ammonia is stored in
steel vessels which are 15-mm thick, and their carrying
capacity is 20 mt of anhydrous ammonia which is quar-
antined area where access is by permission. Every raw
material is accompanied by a material safety data sheet
(MSDS) which provides important information for han-
dling, storage, and other dangers associated with that par-
ticular chemical or raw material.
Granulation plant
Raw materials are mixed, screened, formed into granular
particles, dried, cooled, and then stacked for bagging. The
main raw materials used for the production processes are
669
Single Super Phosphates (SSP), Sulfate of Potash (SOP),
Muriate of Potash (MOP), Mono Ammonium Phosphates
(MAP), and Ammonium Nitrate. These materials are sub-
jected to Ammonia vapor and wet steam in a rotary drum
called a granulator. As a result, the entire production process
produces a lot of dust. The drier and the rotary cooler are
connected to individual fans and stacks and both emit par-
ticulate dust to the environment. The elevators and convey-
ors are a source of dust emission and spillages. The plant
showed high signs of poor housekeeping evidenced by lots of
material on the ground and on structures. The granulation
plant is the major consumer of electricity due to numerous
electric drives (Villar et al. 2011) that are involved in the
production of fertilizer, such as ID fans, FD fans, elevators,
conveyor belts, rotary drums, etc as shown in Fig. 2 below.
Bagging and loading plant
The bagging machine is operated by an operator who packs
the bags mostly in 50 kg bags. The bags are stitched and
taken by a conveyor to a waiting vehicle as per customer
demand. The bagging and loading plant operations pollute
the environment through elevator doors which are not
properly secured. The material (fertilizer) received from
finished product bins is free flowing and emits dust when
passing through the screening process. There is also evi-
dence of material lost as spillages before it is bagged.
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670 I. Madanhire et al.

Fig. 2 Granulation plant

Blending plant Implementation of cleaner production

The blending plant has a blending section before the bagging Pre-assessment
machine. The blending plant starts with a pre-screening unit
which is composed of a hopper, an elevator, a double deck Production processes are represented by a flow chart
screen, and a rubber conveyor belt. The on-size material showing inputs and outputs in Fig. 3, from which envi-
([1.5 mm) which does not pass through the screen becomes ronmental problem areas are identified:
the raw material for the blending plant, while the fines Areas of concern picked by the in-plant survey and
(\1.5 mm) are taken back into the plant by a front end loader. noted of immediate rectification during the study were:
-Waste emissions from processes such as particulate
dust
Boiler house
-Strange odors and eyes irritations
The boiler house has two boilers, one running at a time, while
the other one is on stand-by. The boilers are coal fired, and
the steam requirements of the granulation plant which is the
major customer of the boiler in the granulating process are up
to 12 bars. The coal rubble from the boiler is not completely
burnt which is a sign of incomplete combustion. The boiler
uses municipal water despite the plant having five boreholes
operating. Coal fed into the boiler is washed by an operator
before it is charged into the boiler, and the water is left
flowing to the drains before treating it. The amount of the
water is not measured, and there is no care or awareness that
the water should be preserved. The flue gases contain pro-
ducts of combustion like CO2, SO2, CO, moisture, suspended
solids, and other products of combustion. Fig. 3 Fertilizer process input/output flow chart

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Cleaner production application in fertilizer manufacturing 671

-Spillages of raw materials and finished product along Table 1 Raw material consumption
conveyor belts Raw material Jan Feb Mar Apr Cost/ton
-High levels of water and energy consumption (tons) (tons) (tons) (tons) USD
Focus areas of cleaner production were selected after the
High furnace Oil 16 19 17 20 90
pre-assessment and these included the level of environ-
mental emissions, cost of raw materials, and non-compli- Bentonite 54 61 60 65 80
ance with the present regulatory requirements. Single super phosphate 3680 4800 3560 3968 200
Potassium chloride 915 1230 923 940 400
Cleaner production (CP) assessment Potassium sulfate 400 320 300 480 450
Ammonium nitrate 800 1200 940 540 500
The CP methodology identified areas of inefficient use of Ammonia gas 43 48 55 46 400
resources and poor management of wastes, by focusing on Borate 15 12 10 23 360
the environmental aspects and impacts of industrial pro- Steam 23000 28900 14000 6100 0.70
cesses. Water meter recordings of each month were doc- Coal 87.66 131.99 48.44 42.71 360
umented. Effluent samples were sent to the laboratory.
These data were consolidated into key figures that were

Vs ¼ 23:69  0:960:5  327=946:000:5
then be used as benchmarks against which to track
improvement. Data on the quantities of resources con- ¼ 13:65m=s
sumed and wastes and emissions generated were collected. Conditioner emission velocity:


Vs ¼ 23:69  0:960:5  294=946:000:5
Measuring emissions
¼ 12:94m=s
The emission velocity is used as a parameter to estimate Using the emission velocity (v), one can estimate the
the fall-out zone of the emissions hence the requirement fall-out distance (v 9 t) of its emissions from any of its
that it be assessed. In determining emission velocity, there stacks in a given space of time, t.
are parameters upon which the velocity is dependent upon
such as flue gas temperature and barometric pressure at
the sampling point which are supposed to be measured. Research findings
The measurement of gaseous emissions such as (CO2,
CO, NO2, NO, O2, and SO2) was carried out using Testo In-depth evaluation of the selected areas was done to
340. Testo 340 is a handheld analyzer for industrial flue develop a comprehensive set of cleaner production options.
gas analysis, and it is fitted with an O2 sensor as a This required a quantification of the volume and compo-
standard. sition of the various waste streams and emissions as well as
A BNF stack sampler was used to measure particulate a detailed understanding of the causes of these waste
concentration in the stack. streams and emissions.
The following standard method was used to determine
particulate concentration: Raw material consumption (January–April, 2013)

Stack velocities calculation
Velocity of Stack gases
Vs ¼ 23:69  ½Hw 0:5 ½Ts =Pa 0:5
where Ts is the Stack temperature (measured inside the
discharge duct expressed in degrees Kelvin). Hw is the
pressure differentials (as measured inside the stack). Pa is
the ambient pressure and, 23.69 is a constant.
Main Stack emission velocity:

rates to get the following parameters:
Vs ¼ 23:69  0:960:5  344=946:000:5
¼ 13:997m=s
Rot cooler emission velocity:
The raw material consumption of the company for four
months is given in Table 1 below. The cost per unit price is
also represented, and these figures are used for the evalu-
ation of the material balance for the fertilizer processes.
Raw materials and energy charges (coal and electricity) are
the main factors driving cost of fertilizer production at ferti-
source of environmental pollution at the plantlizer plant .
Table 2 gives the prevailing comparative charges of
electricity.
Performance indicators were developed using above
(1) Specific material consumption for each material
input or at least for important input materials (tons of
input material/ton of product).

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Table 2 Electricity tariffs for industrial consumers Table 5 Granulation material balance
11 kV 33 kV Inputs Outputs
supply supply
Single super 3680 ton Compound D 5200 ton
Fixed monthly charge $99.14 $99.14 phosphate
Monthly MD charge per unit of demand $4.88 $3.58 Potassium chloride 915 ton Waste ammonia gas 12 ton
On-peak energy charge per kWh $0.12 $0.12 Ammonium nitrate 800 ton Waste steam 8000 ton
Standard energy charge per kWh $0.07 $0.07 Steam 23000 ton Stack particulate 22 ton
Off-peak energy charge per kWh $0.05 $0.05 Bentonite 54 ton Spillage 219 ton
Ammonia gas 43 ton Fugitive dust 22 ton
Coal 88 ton Coal rubble 95 ton
Energy 784,801 kWh Oversize material 10 ton
Table 3 Toxicity of chemical
Process fines 23 ton
More toxic Toxic Less harmful

Borate Potassium chloride Superfine

Granular sulfur Di-ammonium phosphate Talc
Single super phosphate Ammonium nitrate Bentonite
Pollutants from the granulation plant
Ammonia gas High furnace oil Fertilizer
See Table 4.
Potassium sulfate Calcium sulfate

Granulation section
Table 4 Sources of pollution
Table 4 above gives an indication of polluting materials,
Source Type of polluting material
while Table 5 below shows the inputs and outputs for the
Coal SOx, NOx,CO granulation plant or the material balance of the fertilizer
SSP Dust; sulfuric acid production process, from batch scale section to product
SOP Dust, SO4 storage of compound D (7-14-7) as given in Fig. 2.
Fertilizer Dust, spillages The material balance shows that a lot of material is lost
Main fan SOX, NOX, Ammonia between the batch scale and finished product storage due to
Ammonia Obnoxious odor conveyor belts and bucket elevators spilling. After a pro-
Heavy furnace oil Oil duction run of 10 h, the batch scale recorded 150 drops
which is equivalent to 150 tons, while the finished product
scale recorded 127 tons of finished product translating to a
negative variance of 23 tons lost between the batch scale
(2) Specific energy consumption for electricity and fuels and the finished product scale. The stack emissions of
(kWh per ton of product, kg or liter of fuel per ton of individual stacks were sampled and were found to be
product). overloaded with particulate dust.
(3) Production cost (per ton of product).
(4) Electricity, fuel, water, chemicals, transport, man- Dust exposure
power as a percentage of production cost.
The performance indicators need to be compared with Dust levels in the ‘granulation’ plant are very high. This
world class benchmarks to assess improvement potential. applied to the two types of dust fractions, i.e., ‘total’ &
‘respirable.’ The crusher had the highest concentration
Toxicity of raw materials levels. Fugitive or diffuse dust emission is the source of
environmental pollution at the plant . Table 6 shows the
Table 3 shows chemical raw material toxicity levels various gas emissions from the drier stack.
according material safety data sheets (MSDS) that were Emissions from the rotary cooler indicate that emissions
drawn up in accordance to ISO11014-1:1994. Less are all within the blue license category. This is because the
harmful products only pose potential health effects after rotary cooler stack does not only channel any products of
prolonged or repeated contact, while those put under more combustion out of the process but only provides exit to air
toxic are hazardous to humans and the aquatic environ- that has been used to cool the product out of the process.
ment when inhaled or when reacting with acids releasing The concentrations of pollutants from the rotary cooler are
toxic gases. shown in Table 7.

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Cleaner production application in fertilizer manufacturing 673

Table 6 Emissions from drier stack levels of sulfur dioxide were between 153 and 456 ppm
against a limit of 15 ppm or 40 mg/m3 as given by Table 9.
Parameter Measured value Licence Category
Boiler house material balance
O2 19.85% N/A
CO 48.07 mg/m3 Green
NO 16.11 mg/m3 Blue Table 10 shows that there is incomplete combustion of coal
CO2 0.65% N/A as the amount of coal rubble signifies the amount of unburnt
Nox 17.17 mg/m3 Blue coal. The steam generated is less than the water fed into the
SO2 179.82 mg/m3 Non-Permissible
T°C (ambient) 26.1°C boiler. This is as a result of steam pipes leaking and boiler
operators continuously firing the boiler even if the granu-
lation plant which is the only consumer of steam is on
Table 7 Emission from the rotary cooler breakdown or when maintaining steam pressure all the time.

Parameter Measured License Category Water use

value (SI 72 OF 2009, ZIM)

Making steam requires a lot of water which is softened so

O2 20.60% N/A
CO 3.42 mg/m3 Blue as to reduce scaling in boiler pipes. All the boiler water
NO 1.24 mg/m3 Blue comes from the municipal supply. Borehole water can be
CO2 - used to make steam instead in order to reduce costs of
NOx 1.24 mg/m3 Blue paying for municipal water. Operators also use the water to
SO2 13.03 mg/m3 Blue
T°C (ambient) 26.9°C
clean coal before it is charged into the boiler, and that
water is not measured, and at times, the valve is left open
spilling water to the drains. This black soot water is not
treated and finds its way to the municipal drains further
Table 8 Emissions from the granular stack contaminating water sources. Table 11 given below sum-
marizes the water consumption for the period under review.
Parameter Measured Licence Category The water used is more than the steam generated, because
value (SI 72 OF 2009, ZIM)
some water is used for washing coal in the coal hopper before it
is charged into the boiler. That water is not recovered, because
O2 20.32% N/A
CO 0 Blue it flows straight into municipal sewer before it is processed.
NO 0 Blue Good combustion is the ability to mix air and fuel, with
CO2 - N/A as little excess air as possible, at high enough temperature
NOX 0 Blue
SO2 0 Blue to sustain the process and completely burn the fuel (com-
T°C (ambient) 26.1°C plete carbon conversion) with minimum environmental
emissions. It is therefore necessary to find out the current
level of efficiency for performance evaluation, which is
Table 7 indicates that the results of emissions (flue fundamental for energy conservation action and environ-
gases) sampled from the granulation stack are within the mental protection. This section provides the stack sampling
blue license category according to S.I 72 of 2009. The results as well as an analysis of the results.
granulation stack provides an exit column for fumes such as Emission test results from the boiler shown in Table 12
ammonia and other gaseous chemical products from the indicate that SO2 and CO recorded concentrations of
granulation process. In this regard, products of fuel com- 1271.12 mg/m3 and 112.6 mg/m3, respectively. These
bustion (CO, CO2, SO2) are not expected to come out of the levels fall within the non-permissible category according to
process. This explains the absence of NOX, CO, CO2, and the legislative limits indicated in the third schedule of S.I
SO2 from the granulation stack column as given by Table 8. 72 of 2009. However, NOX concentrations recorded fall
within the green license category (low hazard category).
Stack emissions From the gas stream sampled, it has been observed that NO
contributes more than 95 % of the NOx gas. This phenomenon
The emission concentration of sulfur dioxide from all the usually reflects poor mixing of O2 and the fuel (coal) to support
three stacks including background levels was above the complete combustion despite the high percentage of oxygen
controlled limit as outlined in S.I 72 of 2009. The concen- (15.15 %) being drawn into the process. The incomplete
tration of all other gaseous emissions such as nitrous com- combustion is also reflected in the high concentration of CO
pounds and particulates was within the controlled limit. The levels even though the boiler indicates fair operational

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Table 9 Detailed results

Values in mg/m3 unless specified & limits in brackets Comments in view of the emissions
characterization

Readings Stack temperature in NO2 SO2 40 mg/ Particulate CO2 % Particulate concentration exceeds the controlled
Stack identity degrees Kelvin & ppm m3 120 mg/ 0.03 % limit of 120 mg/m3 with the main stack
ambient pressure in MB 150 m3 exceeding this by 61 %. The concentration of
(millibars) as sulfur dioxide in the factory especially near
NO2 the emitting appliances/points was very high.
Main stack 71 C 946.0 27 182.00 ppm 193.343 16.83 This means that there is a lot of Sulfur dioxide
escaping and if there is no means and ways to
Background 25.6 C 1096 ppm 0.89
capture this analyte, then there is need for a
concentration
long term plan to mitigate the impact arising
Rot cooler 54 C 1.0 153.0 ppm 122.098 8.06 from this emission. All the other emissions
stack were within the controlled limit in terms of
Background 25.6 C 113.00 0.57 S.I 72 of 2009. Background emission were
concentration within limits save sulfur dioxide. Particulate
Conditioner 21 C 946.0 0.3 456.0 ppm 83.404 8.25 background emission needed the fall-out dust
stack monitoring hence no further comments are
made.

Table 10 Boiler material balance out why waste was being generated. The common problem
is emission of dust. The fishbone diagram of Fig. 4 high-
Input Outputs
lights factors that are likely to cause dust emissions in
Coal 88 ton Coal ash 30 ton granulation operations (Murillo-Alvarado P et al. 2012).
Water 2,800 ton Steam 2,500 ton The factors are grouped into four main areas of man,
Energy 208,538 ton Emissions (SOx, NOx, CO) 5 ton method, equipment, and material.

Option generation
Table 11 Water checklist
Water use Jan Feb Mar Apr Cost/ Value In this study, options were generated for the processes
m3 $ described in the preceding sections. CP options may fall in
Water used 28,000 34,000 17,000 10,000 0.6 52,600 one of the following categories:
m3
Proper operation and maintenance of all equipment
Table 12 Emissions from the boiler
and machinery

• Preventing the build-up of oils, dirt, and material.

• Standardizing the use of coolants and lubricants.
• Lag steam pipes and mend any steam leaks.
• Seal off all elevator doors with sealant or properly
folded plastic papers to suppress dust emission.
• Put used conveyor belts as scrappers at tipping points of
running conveyor belts to avoid spillages.

Machinery modifications

• Putting steam relief valves on steam pipes.

performance. Table 13 gives the two complementary sources of
energy in use which are electricity and coal.
Loss identification and cause diagnosis
Having identified, quantified, and characterized various
streams, the researcher carried out a cause diagnosis to find
• Collecting the condensate as laboratory de-ionized
water for lab use.
• Spraying water on powdery potassium sulfate before it
is transported by elevator eliminates dust and loss.
• Taking used 50 kg empty bags and properly folding
them to seal off elevator doors will act as gaskets and
avoid dust emissions.

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Cleaner production application in fertilizer manufacturing 675

Table 13 Energy checklist Fuel used Jan Feb Mar Apr Cost/kWh/ton Value/USD

Electricity/kWh 208,538 148,588 214,342 213,433 $99,907

Coal/ton 87.66 131.99 48.44 42.71 $360 111,888

Fig. 4 Fishbone diagram for

dust emissions Man
Equipment
Poor training
Poor process control
Poor workmanship
Aged equipment

Dust emissions

Method Material

No standard Procedures Powdery

Wrong conveyance Method

• Steam and Ammonia flow meters can be installed in order
to measure the amount of these raw materials in the
granulator to avoid overuse and polluting the environment.
• Putting a canvass spout on conveyor tipper chute will
suppress dust when off-loading powdery raw materials.
• Connect all stack chimneys to a scrub house in order to
recover particulate material and eliminate air pollution
• Use of liquid fertilizer will reduce or eliminate
environmental pollution due to wet working which
suppresses dust and spillages and is not energy
intensive.
Recovery of useful by-products, materials, and energy

Raw material substituting
• Use graphite blocks as lubrication for rotary drums
instead of grease.
• Use bentonite instead of High Furnace Oil as fertilizer
coating agent.
• Negotiate with suppliers to bring in cleaner raw
materials, e.g., good-sized washed coal peas ready for
charging into the boiler or furnace.
• Replace steel gratings in rust prone areas with asbestos
gratings.
• Use biodegradable 50 kg empty bags for packing fertilizer.
• Rubberize all conveyor belt rollers in order to lengthen
the life of conveyor belts and also in order to keep
conveyor belts on track thereby eliminating spillages.
• Water used to wash coal before it is charged into the
boiler can be recycled/recovered by putting a settling
pond where fine coal can be recovered and sold to brick
making companies.
• A scrub house can be installed in order to recover
particulate materials lost through the stack emissions
which will be fed back into the production line.
• Operators to stop all the drives when there is a
breakdown in order to save energy.
• The boiler should not be fired during the period the
granulation plant is on breakdown in order to save on
coal.
Option evaluation and selection

New product design
• Use of granulated raw materials such as potassium
chloride, potassium sulfate, and borate will increase
productivity and reduce stack emissions.
• Production of high formulated fertilizers will reduce
overall consumption of fertilizer by the farmer per
hectare.
Prioritizing CP options was done using a weighted sum
method and weights based on technical competency,
financial conditions, and environmental sensitivity with
greater emphasis on emission reduction. In light of the
above the study proposed the following weights:
Environmental feasibility (60 %)
Economic feasibility (25 %)
Technical feasibility (15 %)

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Table 14 Weighted option evaluation

Option Option Technical Environmental Economic Total Rank
no. feasibility impact feasibility

Weight 15 % 60 % 25 % 11
1 Preventing the build-up of oils, dirt and material build-up 5 6 7 6.1 11
2 Standardizing the use of coolant and lubricants. 7 7 6 6.8 8
3 Minimize water use by closing off taps when not in use and lag steam 6 9 9 8.6 2
pipes and mend any steam leaks
4 Seal all elevator doors with sealant or properly folded plastic papers to 7 9 8 8.5 3
suppress dust
5 Put used conveyor belts as scrappers at tipping points of running conveyor 8 10 6 8.7 1
belts to avoid spillages
6 Put steam relief valves on steam pipes and collect the condensate as 6 9 5 7.6 5
laboratory de-ionized water for lab use
7 Spraying water on powdery potassium sulfate before it is transported by 6 9 7 8.1 4
elevator eliminates dust and material loss
8 Taking used 50 kg empty bags and properly folding them to seal off 7 8 6 7.4 7
elevator doors will act as gaskets to avoid dust emissions
9 Putting a canvas spout on conveyor tipper chute will suppress dust when 6 8 7 7.5 6
off-loading powdery raw materials
10 Negotiate with suppliers to bring in cleaner raw materials e.g. good sized 6 7 5 6.4 10
coal ready for charging into boiler and furnace
11 Use of granulated raw material such as potassium sulfate, potassium 6 7 6 6.6 9
chloride and borate will increase productivity and reduce stack
emissions
12 Operators to switch off all the drives in the plant when there is a 8 6 5 6.1 11
breakdown in order to save energy (electricity)
13 The boiler should not be fired when the Granulation Plant is on breakdown 8 7 8 7.4 7
in order to save on coal

In this report, thirteen options were weighted and ranked
as shown in Table 14.
Simple low or no cost options
• Preventing the build-up of oils, dirt, and material.
• Standardizing the use of coolant and lubricants.
• Seal all elevator doors with sealant or properly folded
plastics to suppress dust.
• Put steam relief valves on steam pipes and collect the
condensate as laboratory de-ionized water for lab use.
• Spraying water on powdery potassium sulfate before it
is transported by elevator eliminates dust and material
loss.
• Putting a canvas spout on conveyor tipper chute will
suppress dust when off-loading powdery raw materials.
• Use of granulated raw materials such as potassium
sulfate, potassium chloride, and borate will increase
productivity and reduce particulate stack emissions.
• Operators to switch off all the drives in the plant when
there is a breakdown in order to save on energy
(electricity).
• The boiler should not be fired when there is a breakdown
at the granulation plant in order to save on coal.
• Water used to wash coal before it is charged into boiler,
or furnace can be recycled/recovered by putting a
settling pond where fine coal will be recovered and sold
hence not polluting municipal water.
• Redesigning the hoppers in order to make the screw
feeder or conveyor belt only to move out the material in
the hopper would require small motors and gear boxes
resulting in energy savings of at least 10 %.
Scrubber house option
The cost of putting up a scrubber might seem not feasible,
but it is the best option for addressing the perennial prob-
lem of stack emissions for the fertilizer industry consid-
ering that emissions are eminent due to the nature of the
raw materials used in the manufacture of compound fer-
tilizers at the plant. The pay-back period of 6 months
makes the project feasible and worth investing in. The
Table 15 illustrates the benefits that can be accrued.

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Cleaner production application in fertilizer manufacturing
Table 15 Benefits of scrubber
option
Project objective
Reduce dust
emission into the
atmosphere to
accepted
sustainable levels
Flue gas diffusers
Gas diffusers incorporated into the boiler or furnace should
redirect the flue gas back into the furnace or boiler and
keep it for much longer before allowing it to suck induced
draught into the chimney. It is important to continuously
monitor air emissions to establish information required to
respond rapidly to adverse operating conditions during
combustion so as to ensure efficient and environmentally
acceptable performance. When monitoring boiler emis-
sions, it is also critical to assess its efficiency to determine
how far the boiler drifts away from best efficiency.
Air blowers orientation
The air blowers into the chimney must be spread evenly
along the length of the boiler or combustion chamber. The
blowers act as supply of oxygen and also as soot blowers,
which can improve heating efficiency very considerably by
almost 10–15 %.
Digital automation
Digital automation is highly recommended as it will come
with the added benefit of a higher than expected plant yield
in the granulation plant. Savings will be realized on elec-
tricity whenever there is a breakdown because of easy of
operating the plant. Currently the drives are left running
even if there is a breakdown and that constitutes 20 % of
electricity charges instead of saving that amount by
switching off the drives instantly.
Improvement of raw material conveyance
The raw materials used in fertilizer manufacture are by
nature powdery and cannot be treated lightly. Raw mate-
rials like SOP or MOP need to be moistened in order not to
emit dust unnecessarily or to change the nature of these raw
materials altogether preferably to get a supply of granu-
lated raw material which do not emit dust after all. The raw
677
How the objective benefits the company:
Customers Staff Residents in The company
surrounding
areas
Dust captured will be Cleaner, Reduced Reduction in the fines that
recycled into the healthier exposure have to be paid to
production process working to regulatory bodies.
resulting in lower cost environment pollution Higher employee morale
per bag and lower production
costs
materials are discharged from a height of 10 meters and
thus the discharge chute should be put a canvas chute to
suppress dust evolution. Conveyor belts also contribute
toward spillages, hence the need to rubberize all the rollers
which do not turn causing the belts to off-track results in
spillages affecting the G/Plant material balance and the
wearing away of conveyor belts which are supposed to last
for 2 years but currently last for 4 months costing a lot of
money thereby affecting price of fertilizer produced.
Scrubbing SO2 and nitrogen compounds from flue gas
Sulfur dioxide SO2 and some nitrogen compounds such as
N2O were recovered from the furnace or boiler flue gases
by incorporating necessary scrubbing mechanisms to carry
out the de-sulfonation process and de-nitrification process.
Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain that kills flora and fauna.
Nitrogen compounds have a great potential to cause global
warming.
Scrubbing particulate emissions
A scrub house is connected to all the stacks, i.e., granulator
stack, rotary cooler stack, and conditioner stack so that all
the particulate dust can be recovered and recycled back
into the production process resulting in lower cost per bag,
cleaner, healthier working environment, reduced exposure
to pollution, reduction in fines that have to be paid to
regulatory bodies, higher employee morale, and lower
production costs.
Raw material state
Coal should be transported to site in good pea size in order
not to be washed before charging into the respective fur-
naces where water is lost and discharged into municipal
sewer where it fetches disposal fines unnecessarily. The
coal should be dust free in order to minimize amount of
dust produced, and this lowers the amount of energy con-
sumed as well as ease of storage before use.
123
678
Waste generation
The researcher noted that almost all of the respondents
were aware of the types of wastes their organization pro-
duced. The sector is so familiar with some types of wastes
that they no longer recognize them as wastes. An example
is the spillage in the granulation plant, and used oil by the
rotary drums and scrap metal are so common that they no
longer recognize them as wastes. The company should
therefore do the following:
• Keep a register of wastes generated by the facility and
their sources.
• Composition of wastes (identify the contaminants
found in wastes).
• Identify options for treating and disposing wastes.
• Evaluate the costs of waste disposal.
Changing electric motors
The electric motors driving smoothing hopper material
need to be changed after redesigning of the hoppers
themselves so that the material in the hopper does not add
load onto the motor but only to drive out the material from
the hopper, using relatively smaller motor that does not
consume much power. The amount of drawn power by
these smaller motors will save on energy consumption.
Resource consumption
The main resources consumed by the industry include raw
materials (mainly single super phosphates, potashes, and
ammonium nitrate, electricity, coal, water, ammonia gas,
and steam). The sector is currently slack about matching
material and utility resources to finished products. The
problem is lack of an energy management program which
should do an analysis of the major drives of energy con-
sumption and come up with a solution to what can be done
to reduce energy consumption by the company. Resources
such as electricity, ammonia gas, and steam are difficult to
apportion to products that have been produced. In view of
this, the framework suggests the following activities to help
optimize resource consumption:
• Standardize products and material requirements.
• Resources and utilities need to be apportioned to
finished products through reasonable estimates.
• Benchmarks must be put in place to control the
consumption of resources.
• An Energy Management Program should be put in
place in order to identify the mechanisms to reduce
electricity consumption in order to match new
technology.
123
I. Madanhire et al.
• Put in place an effective planned maintenance system
for utility supplies to prevent losses through leaks and
poor equipment performance.
Research recommendations
The level of pollution was so high to the surrounding
suburbs, and it was necessary to consider the issue of
investing in building a scrubber house to avert possible
damage caused by possible litigation. The company had
also to improve margins by saving on wastes, getting
income from recycling, income from waste being used as
inputs in other areas, energy savings, water re-use, and
improved regulatory compliance. Coal ash could be sold to
companies which manufacture cement for a small fee to
recover costs of transport. Trade effluent from the boiler
and the plant could be filtered to remove solid particles
which could be sent to the trial garden, and condensate
could be used as laboratory water. Coal rubble can be sold
to the construction industries or individuals building
houses.
Conclusion
The cleaner production assessment carried out established
that fertilizer companies generate waste and pollute the
environment. Other than wasting raw materials, energy
(coal and electricity), and water, the main pollutants are
generated by boiler emissions, boiler blow down and trade
effluent, stack emissions, fugitive dust, and spillages
mostly from mainly the granulation plant. The company
can cut on disposal and emission fees if it recycles some of
its waste. Implementation of CP options will conserve
water by 30 %, electricity can be saved by 25 %, and coal
can also be saved by 25 %, and this will result in lower cost
per bag of fertilizer and results in competitive advantage
and responsible fertilizer manufacture without polluting the
environment. The environmental factors such as heat,
noise, and light exposure levels are below the recom-
mended limits. Controlling and further minimizing these
stress factors result in an improved work environment for
the workers.
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