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Design of Steel Structures

CE 511
Design of Steel Structures

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILOs)

At the end of the course, the students are expected to:

1. Distinguish the various structural steel components such as beams, slabs and columns.
2. Analyze structural steel design problems and its application in the field.
3. Design steel beam, floor systems and column structural components.
4. Design and analyze a steel building, truss and bridge system.
5. Generate a structural plan and design of a steel structure and a case study in providing
solutions to problems which pertains to structural engineering such as earthquake damages.

Course Syllabus
I. Concepts in Structural Steel Design 7. Deflection
A. Structural Steel Shapes and Properties 8. Design Samples for Beam
1. Properties H. Beam-Column Design
2. Steel Shapes 1. Interaction Formula
B. Design Philosophies 2. Method of Analysis
C. Codes and Specifications 3. Moment Magnification Method
D. Loads 4. Braced and Unbraced Frame
1. LRFD 5. Design Samples for Beam-Column
a. Load Factors I. Connections
b. Resistance Factors 1. Bolted Connection
c. Load Combinations 2. Welded Connection
2. ASD J. Special Topic: Plate Girders
a. Safety Factors
b. Load Combinations References:
E. Design for Tension Members Association of Structural Engineers of the
1. Slenderness Limitations Philippines, “National Structural Code of the
2. Tensile Strength Philippines C101-01, Vol. 1, 7th Ed,” Association
3. Steel Area of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.,
2015
a. Gross Area
b. Net Area AISC Commission on Specifications, “Specification
c. Effective Net Area for Structural Steel Building,” American Institute
4. Design Samples Tension Members of Steel Construction, 2005
F. Design of Compression Members Salmon, C. G., J. E. Johnson, “Steel Structures,
1. Ideal Columns Design and Behaviour, 4th Ed”, Harper Collins
2. Effective Lengths College Publisher,1996
3. Code Requirements Blodgett, W. O., Funderbark, R. S., Miller, D.K., M.
4. Local Stability Quintana, “Fabricators’ and Erectors’ Guide to
5. Design Samples for Compression Welded Steel Construction”, The James F.
Members Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1999
G. Flexural Members (Beams)
Segui, William T., “Steel Design 5th Ed.”, Cengage
1. Bending Stress and Plastic
Moment Limbrunner, G. F., L. Spiegel, “Applied Structural
2. Stability Steel Design 3rd Ed.”, Prentice Hall
3. Classification of Shapes Tamboli, A. R., “Handbook of Structural Steel Design
4. Compact and Non-compact and Details 2nd Ed.”, Neww York, McGraw Hill
Shapes
5. Summary of Moment Strength
6. Shear Strength

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CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

Introduction

The structural design of buildings, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, requires the
determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the
selection of the cross-sections of individual members. The engineer and architect will collaborate
throughout the design process to complete the project in an efficient manner. The architect
decides how the building should look; the engineer must make sure that it doesn’t fall down. The
first priority of the structural engineer is safety; which follows the serviceability and economy. An
economical structure requires an efficient use of materials and construction labor.

A good design requires the evaluation of several framing plans which consists of different
arrangements of members and their connections.

Structural Design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the experienced
engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behavior of structure with a sound knowledge of the principles
of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe,
economical structure that will serve its intended purpose.

Design is a process by which an optimum solution is obtained.

Purpose of Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is the process of determining the internal forces and deformations of structural
elements in a structure due to specified loads so that each member can be designed rationally or
the state of safety of existing structures can be checked. It is the foundation of structural
engineering works that the strength of whole structure depends. Without proper structural
analysis, the structure might experience deformations even in the small degree of loads or
uneconomical due to over sizing of members.

In the design of structures, it is necessary to start with a concept leading to a configuration which
can be analyzed. This is done so members can be sized and the needed reinforcement
determined, in order to: (a) carry the design loads without excessive deformations (serviceability
or working condition); and (b) prevent collapse before a specified overload has been placed on
the structure (safety or ultimate condition).

Stages of Structural Engineering

Most of structural engineering projects are consists of repetitive stages namely modeling,
analysis/design, and interpretation of the result of analysis and design.
Modeling involves the creation of a structural model that exhibits the characteristics of actual
structure. As much as possible, the model shall consists of all structural components of the actual
structure, from frame element (beam and column) to plate and shell (wall, floor and folded plates),
diaphragms and all rigid links shall be provided if necessary and all none-structural elements shall
be regarded as loads.
It is proper for the structure to assume the actual condition of support. The support might be
pinned, roller, fixed or other conditions necessary to simulate the actual behavior of the structure.
Due to improper application of support conditions, structure are experiencing deformations that
leads usually to unprecedented damage if not total collapse.

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Sectional properties (Ax, Ix, Iy and Iz) and material constants (E, density, Poisson’s Ratio, etc)
are also important for analysis of the structure. Thus, assumed properties shall be established
prior to the analysis of the structure. This will involve experience on the part of the analyst to
minimize time and effort.
All loads from simple joint, member and element loads to complex such as seismic, wind or
moving loads shall be carefully incorporated to simulate the actual behavior of the structure.
Special treatment shall be emphasized on live loads for pattern and/or checkered loading.
Consider the analysis of a simple beam. Usually, we are encountering a simple problem as such.
In order to visualize the problem, we are usually having simple sketch to represent the actual
condition. The sketch includes the length of the member, loading (whether uniform or
concentrated force) and support condition. The sectional properties of this beam are first
assumed in order to compute for the weight of the structure and also for the analysis to be
performed. Thus, a simple model has been established!
As soon as the model is completed, analysis comes next. The behavior of the structure under
loading condition shall be investigated. Analysis might be linear static or dynamic depending on
code or structural requirement.
Under this analysis, a force or moment envelope will be created for design purposes. The
structural components shall be design for different loading conditions. A designer cannot pick the
maximum value in each loading condition and altogether use it for design. Such situation will not
occur.
After the design is completed, a final analysis shall be made and the actual behavior is observed.
If the behavior does not conform to the existing code requirements such as deflection, some
adjustment shall be made until its behavior becomes acceptable.

Criteria for optimum design:

 Minimum cost,
 Minimum weight,
 Minimum construction time,
 Minimum labor,
 Minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s product, and
 Maximum efficiency of operation of owner

Design Procedure

The design procedure may be considered to be composed of two parts – functional design and
structural framework design.

Functional Design Structural Framework Design

Ensures that the intended results are achieves The selection of the arrangement and sizes of
such as (a) adequate working areas and structural elements so that the service loads
clearances; (b) proper ventilation and/or air may be safely carried, and displacements are
conditioning; (c) adequate transportation within acceptable limits.
facilities, such as elevators, stairways, and
cranes or material handling equipment; (d)
adequate lighting; and (e) aesthetics.

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Outline of Iterative Design Procedure

1. Planning. Establishment of the functions which the structure must serve. Set criteria
against which to measure the resulting design for being an optimum.
2. Preliminary structural configuration. Arrangement of the elements to serve the functions
in step 1.
3. Establishment of the loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of step 1, 2, and 3, selection of
member sizes to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight or cost.
5. Analysis. Structural analysis involving modeling the loads and the structural framework to
obtain internal forces and any desired deflections.
6. Evaluation. Are all strength and serviceability requirements satisfied and is the result
optimal? Compared the result with predetermined criteria.
7. Redesign. Repetition of any part of the sequence 1 through 6 found necessary or
desirable as a result of evaluation.
8. Final decision. The determination of whether or not an optimum design has been
achieved.

Loads

The determination of the loads on structure or structural elements will be subjected is an

estimate. Even if the loads are well known at one location of structure, the distribution of load
from element to element throughout the structure usually requires assumptions and
approximations.

 Dead loads – a fixed-position gravity load. The weight of the structure is considered dead
load, are as attachments to the structure.

 Live loads – gravity loads acting during the service of the structure, but varying in
magnitude and location. Examples are human occupants, furniture, movable equipment,
vehicles, and stored goods.

 Wind loads – exerts as a pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of a building.

Because of the relative complexity of determining wind loads, wind is usually considered
a separate category of loading. Because lateral loads are most detrimental to tall
structures, wind loads are usually not as important for low buildings, but uplift on light roof
systems can be critical.

 Earthquake loads – another special category and need to be considered only in those
geographic locations where there is a reasonable probability of occurrence. A structural
analysis of the effects of an earthquake requires an analysis of the structure’s response
to the ground motion produced by the earthquake. Similar methods are sometimes used
in which the effects of the earthquake are simulated by a system of horizontal loads,
similar to those resulting from wind pressure, acting at each floor level of the building.

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STRUCTURAL STEEL PROPERTIES

Steel Shapes

In the design process outline above, one of the objectives is the selection of the appropriate cross
sections for the individual members of the structure being designed. Most often, this selection will
involve choosing a standard cross-sections shape that is widely available rather than requiring
fabrication of a shape with unique dimensions and properties.

Figure 1.1 – Hot Rolled Shapes

It is almost always economical to choose rolled shape sections. In this manufacturing process
(hot-rolling) molten steel is taken from an electric furnace and poured into a continuous casting
system and allowed to pass through a series of rollers that squeeze the material into a desired
cross-sectional shape. Figure 1.1 shows commonly used cross sections.

The W-shape (also called wide-flange shape) consists of two parallel flanges separated by a
single web. It has two axes of symmetry. A typical designation would be “W18x50”, where W
indicates the type of shape, 18 is the nominal depth parallel to the web, and 50 is the weight in
pounds per foot of length.

S-shape like W-shape has two parallel flanges, a single web and two axes of symmetry. The
flange of the S-shape is narrow compared with W-shape. Its inside face of the flanges slope with
respect to the outside faces. An example of its designation is “S18x70”, with the S indicating the

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type of shape, and the two numbers giving the depth in inches and the weight in pounds per foot.
This shape was formerly called an I-beam.

The angle shapes are available in either equal-leg or unequal-leg. A typical designation would be
“L6x6x¾” being the L indicating the type of shape, the next two numbers are the length of the two
legs measured from the corner, or heel, to the toe at the other end of the leg, and the thickness
which is the same for both legs. For unequal-leg angle, the longer leg dimension is always given
first.

C-shape has two flanges and a web, with one axis of symmetry. It carries a designation such as
“C9x20”. Similar with W- and S- shapes, the first number is the total depth in inches parallels to
the web and the second number the weight in pounds per linear foot. Like the S- shape, the
inside face of the flanges are sloping.

The Structural Tee is produced by splitting an I-shaped members at middepth (sometimes called
Split-tee). The prefix of the designation is either WT, ST, or MT, depending on which shape is the
“parent”. For example, WT18x105 has a nominal depth of 18 inches and a weight of 105 pounds
per foot, and is cut from a W36x210.

The M-shape (miscellaneous shapes) has two parallel flanges and a web, but it does not fit
exactly into either the W or S categories. The HP shape, used for bearing piles, has parallel
flange surfaces, approximately the same width and depth and equal flange and web thicknesses.

Figure 1.2 Other Shapes

Other frequently used cross-sectional shapes are shown in Figure 1.2. Bars can have circular,
square, or rectangular cross sections. If the width of a rectangular shape is 8 inches (200 mm) or
less, it is classified as a bar. If the width is more than 8 inches, the shape is classified as plate.
The usual designation for both is the abbreviation PL followed by the thickness in inches, the
width in inches, and the length in feet and inches; ex. PL 3/8 x 5 x 3’-2 ½ “. Plates and bars are
available in increments of 1/16 inch.

Hollow shapes are produced either by bending plate material into desired shape and welding the
seam or by hot-working to produce a seamless shape. The shapes are categorized as steel pipe,
round HSS, and square HSS (Hollow Structural Sections).

Round HSS are designated by outer diameter and wall thickness, expressed to three decimal
places; ex. HSS 8.625 x 0.250. Square and rectangular HSS are designated by nominal outside
dimensions and wall thickness, expressed in rational numbers; ex. HSS 7 x 5 x 3/8.

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Steel pipe is available as standard, extra-strong, or double-extra-strong, with designation such as
Pipe 5 Std., Pipe 5 x-strong, or Pipe 5 xx-strong, where 5 is the nominal outer diameter in inches.
The different strengths correspond to different wall thickness for the same outer diameter. For
pipes whose pipes whose thicknesses do not match those in the standard, extra-strong, or
double-extra-strong categories, the designation is the outer diameter and wall thickness in inches,
expressed to three decimal places; ex., Pipe 5.563 x 0.500.

Figure 1.3 Built-up Shapes

Sometimes a standard shape is augmented by additional cross-sectional elements, as when a

cover plate is welded to one or both flanges of a W-shape (see Figure 1.3). Building up sections
is an effective way of strengthening an existing structure that is rehabilitated or modified for some
use other than the one for which it was designed. Sometimes a built-up shape must be used
because none of the standard rolled shapes are large enough. These can be I-shaped sections,
with two flanges and a web, or box sections, with two flanges and two webs. The components
can be welded together and can be designed to have exactly the properties needed. Built-up
shapes can also be created by attaching two or more standard rolled shapes to each other, such
as a pair of angles placed back-to-back and connected at intervals along their length. This is
called double-angle shape.

Design Philosophies

The design of structural members involves the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads.

The fundamental requirement of structural design is that the required strength not exceeds the
available strength.

Required strength ≤ available strength

In allowable strength design (ASD), a member is selected that has cross-sectional properties
such as area and moment of inertia that are large enough to prevent the maximum applied axial
force, shear or bending moment from exceeding an allowable, or permissible value. This value is
obtained by dividing the nominal, or theoretical, strength by a factor of safety. This can be
expressed as

Required strength ≤ allowable strength Eq. 1

where

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nominal strength
Allowable strength=
safety factor

If stresses are used instead of forces or moments the relationship of Equation 1 becomes

Maximum applied stress ≤ allowable stress Eq. 2

This approach is called allowable stress design or elastic design or working stress design. The
allowable stress will be in elastic range of material. Working stresses are those resulting from the
working or service loads.

Plastic design is based on a consideration of failure conditions rather than working load
conditions. A member is selected by using the criterion that the structure will fail at a load
substantially higher than the working load. The term plastic is used because, at failure, parts of
the member will be subjected to very large strains – large enough to put the member into the
plastic range. When the entire cross section becomes plastic at enough locations, “plastic hinges”
will form at those locations, creating collapse mechanism. As the actual loads will be less than the
failure loads by a factor of safety known as the load factor, member designed this way are safe
despite being designed based on what happens at failure. This procedure is roughly as follows:

1. Multiply the working loads (service loads) by the load factor to obtain the failure load.
2. Determine the cross-sectional properties needed to resist failure under these loads.
3. Select the lightest cross-sectional shape that has these properties.

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is similar to plastic design in that strength, or the failure
condition, is considered. Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is selected
that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical strength of
the member is reduced by the application of a resistance factor. The criterion that must be
satisfied in the selection of a member is

Factored load ≤ factored strength Eq. 3

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Design of Tension Members

Tension Members
 Structural members subjected to axial tensile forces.

In the determination of the available strength of a tension member the following are needed:

Gross Area Ag – needed for tensile yielding limit state

Effective Net Area, Ae – needed for tensile rupture limit state

Slenderness Limitation

There is no maximum slenderness limit for design of member in tension.

For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio

L/r preferably should not exceed 300. This suggestion does not apply
to rods or hangers in tension.

Tensile Strength

Mode of Failure of Tension Members:

Prevention

 Excessive deformation (initiated by Load on GROSS SECTION must be small enough

yielding) that the stress in gross section is less than the
yield strength Fy.

Pn = FyAg

 Fracture The stress on the NET SECTION must be less

than the tensile strength Fu.

Pn = FuAe

The design tensile strength, ΦtPn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/Ωt tension members, shall
be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile yielding in the gross section and
tensile rupture in the net section.

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LRFD ASD
(Load and Resistance Factor Design) (Allowable Strength Design)

Factored Tensile strength is compared to Total service load is compared to the

the design strength allowable strength

For Tension
Members Pu=∅t Pn Pn
Pa ≤
Ωt
Where:
For yielding ∅ t = 0.9 Ωt = 1.67
For fracture ∅ t = 0.75 Ωt = 2.0

Thus:
Pu=0.9 F y A g Pn=0.6 F y A g
Pu=0.75 F u A e Pn=0.5 F u A e

where

Ae = effective net area, mm2

Ag = gross section area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel being used, MPa

When members without holes are fully connected by welds, the effective net area used in
equation 1-2 shall be as defined in section 504.3. When holes are present in a member, with
welded end connections, or at the welded connection in the case of plug or slot welds, the
effective net area through the holes shall be used in equation 1-2

Area Determination

Gross Area, Ag, of a member is the total cross sectional area.

Net Area, An, of a member is the sum of the products of the thickness and the net width of each
element computed as follows:

In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a bolt hole shall be taken as 1/16 in.
(2 mm) greater than the nominal dimension of the hole.

For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of
the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters or slot
dimensions as provided in Section 510.3.2 (Section J3.2 of AISC), of all holes in the chain,
and adding, for each gage space in the chain, quantity s2/4g

where

s longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of any consecutive holes, mm.

g transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fastener gage lines, mm.

For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs shall be the sum of gages from the
back of the angles less the thickness.

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For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An, is the gross area minus the
product of the thickness and the total width of material that is removed to form the slot. In
determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the weld metal shall not be considered as
adding to the net area.

Section 510.4.1(b) limits An to a maximum of 0.85Ag for splice plates

with holes.

Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm

Effective Net Area

The effective area of tension members shall be determined as follows:

Ae = AnU

where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in Table 504.3.1 of NSCP C101-15.

Member such as single angles, double angles and WT sections shall have connections
proportioned such as U is equal to or greater than 0.60. Alternatively, a lesser value of U is
permitted if these tension members are designed for the effect of eccentricity in accordance
with 508.1.2 or 508.2.

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Built-up Members

For limitations on the longitudinal spacing of connectors between elements in continuous

contact consisting of a plate and shape or two plates, see Section 510.3.5.

Either perforated cover plates or tie plates without lacing are permitted to be used on the
open sides of built-up tension members. Tie plates shall have a length not less than two-
thirds the distance between the lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the
components of the member. The thickness of such tie plates shall not be less than one-fiftieth
of the distance between these lines. The longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or
fasteners at tie plates shall not exceed 150 mm.

The longitudinal spacing of connectors between components should

preferably limit the slenderness ratio in any component between the
connectors to 300.

Pin-Connected Members

Tensile Strength

The design tensile strength, ΦtPn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn/Ωt ofpin-connected
members, shall be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile rupture,
shear rupture, bearing, and yielding

1. For tensile rupture on the net effective area:

Pn = 2tbeffFu (1-1)

Φt = 0.75 (LRFD) Ωt = 2.0 (ASD)

2. For shear rupture on the effective area:

Pn = 0.6FuAsf (1-2)

Φsf = 0.75 (LRFD) Ωsf = 2.0 (ASD)

where

Asf = 2t(a + d/2), mm2

A = shortest distance from the edge of the pin hole to the edge of the member
measured parallel to the direction of the force, mm
beff = 2t + 16, mm but not more than the actual distance from the edge of the hole to
the edge of the part measured in the direction normal to the applied force
d = pin diameter, mm
t = thickness of plate, mm

3. For bearing on the projected area of the pin, see Section 510.7.
4. For yielding on the gross section, use the following equation

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COMPRESSION MEMBERS
 Structural element that are subjected only to axial compressive force.
 Critical buckling load – the axial load that makes the member unstable and said to be
buckled.

π 2 EI π 2 EA
Pcr = or Pcr = 2
L2 (L/r )

Where:
E modulus of elasticity of steel
I moment of inertia of the cross-section with respect to minor principal axis
L the length of the member between points of support
A cross-sectional area
r radius of gyration with respect to the axis of buckling
L/r slenderness ratio and is measure of a member’s slenderness

 For the above equation to be valid, the member must be elastic, and its ends must be
free to rotate but will not translate laterally.

 If the critical load is divided by the cross-sectional area, the critical buckling stress is
obtained

Pcr π 2 E
F cr = =
A L 2
( )
r

Example

A W12x50 is used as a column to support an axial compressive strength load of 145 kips.
The length is 20 ft, and the ends are pinned. Without regard to load or resistance factors,
investigate this member for stability.

Solution

For W12x50,

Minimum r = ry = 1.96 in

L 20(12)
Maximum = =¿ 122.4
r 1.96

2
π 2 EI π (29000)(14.6)
Pcr = = = 278.9 kips > 145 kips
L2 (122.4)2

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Because the applied load of 145 kips is less than Pcr, the column remains stable and has an
overall factor of safety against buckling of 278.9/145 = 1.92.
Effective Length

Euler and tangent modulus equations are based on the following assumptions:
1. The column is perfectly straight, with no initial crookedness.
2. The load is axial, with no eccentricity.
3. The column is pinned at both ends.

For convenience, the equations for critical buckling load will be written as

π 2 EA π 2 Et A
Pcr = 2 or P cr = 2
( KL/r) ( KL/r)

where KL is the effective length, and K is the effective length factor. The effective length factor for
the fixed-pinned compression member is 0.70. For the most favorable condition of both ends
fixed against rotation and translation, K = 0.5

Code Requirements

The basic requirements for compression members are covered in Chapter E of the AISC
Specification. The nominal compressive strength is

Pn=F cr A g

LRFD ASD
(Load and Resistance Factor Design) (Allowable Strength Design)

Compressive
strength Pu=∅c Pn Pn
Pa ≤
Ωt
Where:
Pn = sum of the factored load Pn = sum of the factored load
∅ c = resistance factor for compression Ωc = safety factor for compression
= 0.9 = 1.67
∅ c P n=¿ design compressive strength Pn
=¿ allowable compressive strength
Ωc

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If an allowable stress formulation is used

f a≤ Fa

Where
Pa
f a=¿ computed axial compressive stress =
Ag
F a= allowable axial compressive stress

F cr F
= = cr = 0.6 Fcr
Ω c 1.67

 The Euler stress is

Pe π2 E
F e= =
A (KL/r)2

With slight modification, the above equation will be used for the critical stress in the elastic range. To
obtain the critical stress for elastic columns, the Euler stress is reduced as follows to account for the
effects of initial crookedness.

Fcr = 0.877Fe

For inelastic columns, the tangent modulus equation is replaced by exponential equation

Fy
Fcr = (0.658 ) FFe
y

To summarize,

KL E
When
r
≤ 4.71
Fy √ Fy
Fcr = (0.658 ) F
Fe
y
(AISC Equation E3-2)

KL E
When
r
>4.71
Fy √
Fcr = 0.877 F e (AISC Equation E3-3)

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Example
A W14x74 of A992 steel has a length of 20 feet and pinned ends. Compute the design
compressive strength for LRFD and the allowable compressive strength for ASD.

Solution

Slenderness ratio:

KL KL 1.0(20 x 12)
Maximum = = = 96.77 < 200 (ok)
r ry 2.48

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E 29000
4.71
√ Fy
= 4.71
√
50
= 113.4

Since 96.77 < 113.4, use AISC Equation E3-2.

π2E π 2(29000)
F e= 2 = = 30.56 ksi
( KL/r ) (96.77)2
Fy 50
Fcr = (0.658 ) Fe (
F y = 0.658
30.56 )
50 = 25.21 ksi

The nominal strength is

Pn=F cr A g = 25.21(21.8) = 549.6 kips

 LRFD
The design strength is

Pu=∅c Pn = 0.90(549.6) = 495 kips

 ASD
The allowable stress is

Fa = 0.6 Fcr = 0.6(25.21) = 15.13 ksi

The allowable strength is

Fa Ag= 15.13(21.8) = 330 kips

LOCAL STABILITY
The strength corresponding to any overall buckling mode cannot be developed if the elements of
the cross section are so thin that local buckling occurs. This type of instability is a localized
buckling or wrinkling at an isolated location. If it occurs, the cross section is no longer fully
effective and the member has failed. The compressive strength given by AISC EquationsE3-2
and E3-3 must be reduced.

Two types of elements must be considered:

 Unstiffened elements – unsupported along one edge parallel to the direction of load, and
 Stiffened elements – supported along both edges.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS:

 Slender – strength limit state is local buckling, the corresponding reduced strength must
be computed ( λ> λr )

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 Non-slender – strength is dictated by flexural buckling, strength is given by AISC

EquationsE3-2 and E3-3 ( λ ≤ λr )

Note:
λ – generic width-to-thickness ratio (slenderness parameter)
λ r – upper limit of width-to-thickness ratio of non-compact element

AISC Table B4.1a shows the upper limit, λ r, for nonslender members of various cross-sectional
shapes. The table is divided into two parts: unstiffened elements and stiffened elements.

For I shapes, the projecting flange is considered to be unstiffened element, and its width can be
taken as half of the full nominal width.

b bf E
λ= =
t 2t f
λ r=0.56
√ Fy
(upper limit) Case 3

Where bf and tf are the width and thickness of the flange.

The webs of I shapes are stiffened element. Stiffened width is the distance between the roots of
the flanges, and tw is the web thickness. The width-to-thickness parameter is

h E
λ=
tw
λ r=1.49
√ Fy
(upper limit) Case 10

Example
Investigate the column of previous sample for local stability.

Solution

For a W14x74, bf = 10.1in., tf = 0.785 in., and

bf 10.1
= = 6.43
2t f 2(0.781)

E 29000
0.56
√ Fy
= 0.56
√ 50
=13.5 > 6.43 (OK)

h d−2 k des 14.2−2(1.38)

=
tw = tw 0.450
= 25.4

E 29000
1.49
√ Fy
= 1.49
√ 50
= 35.9 > 25.4 (OK)

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THEREFORE, local instability is not a problem.

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Note:
In the previous example, the width-to-thickness ratios bf/2tf and h/tw were computed.
This is not necessary because these ratios are tabulated in the dimensions and
properties table of AISC. Shapes that are slender for compression are indicated with
a footnote (footnote c).

Example
Determine the axial compressive strength of an HSS8x4x1/8 with an effective length of 15
feet with respect to each principal axis. Use Fy = 46 ksi.

Solution

 Compute the overall, or flexural, buckling strength.

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KL KL 15 x 12
Maximum = = = 105.3 < 200 (OK)
r ry 1.71

E 29000
4.71
√ Fy
= 4.71
46 √= 118.3

Since 105.3 < 118.3, use AISC Equation E3-2.

π2 E π 2(29000)
Fe = = = 25.81 ksi
( KL/ r )2 ( 105.3 )2
46
Fcr = [ 0.658
( ]
25.81 ) (46) = 21.82 ksi

The nominal strength is

Pn = FcrAg = 21.82(2.70) = 58.91 kips

 Check width-to-thickness ratios:

From the dimensions and properties in table in the Manual, the width-to-thickness ratio for the
larger overall dimension

h
= 65.9
t
The ratio for smaller dimension is

b
= 31.5
t
From AISC Table B4.1, Case 12, the upper limit for nonslender element is

E 29000
1.4
√ Fy
= 1.4
√
46
= 35.15

Since h/t > 1.4√ E/ F y, the larger dimension element is slender and the local buckling
strength must be computed.

Because this cross-sectional element is stiffened element, Qs = 1.0, and Qa must be

computed from AISC Section E7.2. The shape is a rectangular section of uniform thickness,
with

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So AISC E7.2 (b) applies, where

Pn
f=
Ae

and Ae is the reduced effective area. The Specification user note for square and rectangular
sections permits a value of f = Fy to be used in lieu of determining f by iteration. From AISC
Equation E7-18, the effective width of the slender element is

For the 8-inch side, using f = Fy and the design thickness from the dimensions and properties
table,

b e =1.92 ( 0.116 )
√ [
29000
46
1−
66 46√ ]
0.38 29000
=4.784

From AISC B4.2 (d) and the discussion in Part 1 of the Manual, the unreduced length of the
8-inch side between the corner radii can be taken as

b = 8 – 3t = 8 – 3(0.116) = 7.652 in.

where the corner radius is taken as 1.5 times the design thickness.

The total loss in area is therefore

2(b – be)t =2(7.652 – 4.784)(0.116) = 0.6654 in.2

and the reduced area is

Ae =2.70 – 0.6654 = 2.035 in.2

The reduction factor is

Ae 2.035
Qa = = = 0.7537
Ag 2.70

Q = QsQa = 1.0(0.7537) = 0.7537

 Compute the local buckling strength

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E 29000
4.71
√ QF y
= 4.71
√
0.7537(46)
= 136.2

KL
= 105.3 < 136.2 ∴ Use AISC Equation E7-2
r

0.7537(46)
Fcr =
0.7537 [ 0.658 25.81 ]( 46) = 19.76 ksi

Pn = FcrAg = 19.76(2.70) = 53.35 kips

Since this is less than the flexural buckling strength of 58.91 kips, local buckling controls.

LRFD SOLUTION

Design strength = ϕcPn = 0.90(53.35) = 48.0 kips

ASD SOLUTION

P n 53.35
Allowable strength = = = 32.0 kips
Ω 1.67

Design of Steel Structures