Wireless Communications

Lecture 1

Based on notes prepared by Professor Ibrahim

Korpeoglu
Course Information
Recommended Textbooks
Reading List
Grading
Homework & Reading Assignment
Course Details
Instructor: Ignacio Ayala
Email: ilayala789@gmail.com
Telephone Office: 8329 4020, Ext 5773
Class Hours: To be posted
Classroom: To be posted
Office Hours: To be posted
(You can also email for an appointment at any time if you
need to see me)
Recommended Textbooks
Course Textbook:
T. Rappaport, Wireless Communications:
Principles & Practice, 2nd Ed 2.,
Prentice Hall, 2007.

Additional Reading Material:

D. Tse & P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless
Communications, Cambridge University Press, 2005

You don’t have to buy these books. But I strongly recommend

you obtain a copy them if you have the opportunity!
Reading List
You will read a lot of papers in this course
The papers will be available in dropbox
If not there, let me know.
I will handout hard copies if there is no online copy of the
paper
Grading
There will be exams throughout the semester, about one each
month and one final exam.
There will be projects. I have yet to defined them.
No idea how hard they will be!
Class attendance is important!
Why projects are important?
I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I
understand.
Confucius
Assignment
Homework
HW1: 1.6, pp22-24 answer all even numbered
Problems
Hand-in beginning of class, 26 January
Read
Chapters 1,2 in Rappaport
Finish by 3 February
Lecture Outline
Wire Communication Fundamentals
Mobile Radio Propagation
Modulation Techniques
Multiple Access Techniques
Equalization, Diversity & Channel Coding
Wireless networking
Birds-Eye View of Course
Fundamentals
Electromagnetic spectrum
Radio Propagation
Characteristics of the Wireless Channel
Cellular Concept – System Design Fundamentals
Mobile Radio Propagation
Large Scale Fading
Small Scale Fading
Birds-Eye View of Course (Cont’d)
Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio
Equalization, Diversity & Channel Coding
Multiple Access Techniques
Frequency Division Multiple Access FDMA
Time Division Multiple Access TDMA
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Frequency Hopped Multiple Access
Code Division Multiple Access
Wireless Networks
Queueing Theory
Traffic and Trunking Theory
Wireless Systems & Standards

11
Wire Communication
Fundamentals
12
Computer Network System
A computer network is an interconnected collection of
autonomous computers.
Networking Goals:
Resource sharing - shared printer, shared files.
Increased reliability - one failure does not cause system
failure.
Economics - better price/performance ratio.
Communication - E-Mail.

13
Wireless Network System
Wireless Internet refers to the extension of the services
offered by the Internet to mobile users.
Many issues need to be solved for wireless Internet:
Address mobility:
Inefficiency of transport layer protocols:
Traditional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Indirect-TCP (ITCP), snoop TCP, and mobile TCP are
some solutions to these transport layer issues.

14
Wireless Network System
Many issues need to be solved for wireless Internet
(continued):
Inefficiency of application layer protocols: The capabilities
of and the bandwidth for the handheld devices are
limited. Traditional application protocols are not
efficient for wireless networks. Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) is some solution to these application
layer issues.

15
Wireless Communication
Two aspects of mobility:
User mobility: communicate wireless “anytime, anywhere,
with anyone”
Device portability: devices connect anytime, anywhere to
the network

Examples Wireless Mobile

Stationary computer (wired and fixed)  
Notebook in a hotel  ✓
Wireless LANs in buildings ✓ 
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) ✓ ✓
Wireless Communication
The demand for mobile communication creates the need for
integration of wireless networks into existing fixed
networks
Local area networks standardization:
IEEE 802.11
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
HIPERLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)
a combined technology for broadband cellular short-
range communications and wireless LANs.
Internet: Mobile IP extension of the Internet Protocol IP
Wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of GSM and ISDN
(Integrated Services Digital Network)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum & communication

18
 Electromagnetic spectrum
twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

• ELF = Extremely Low Frequency (30 ~ 300 Hz)

• VF = Voice Frequency (300 ~ 3000 Hz)
• VLF = Very Low Frequency (3 ~ 30 KHz)
• LF = Low Frequency (30 ~ 300 KHz)
• MF = Medium Frequency (300 ~ 3000 KHz)
• HF = High Frequency (3 ~ 30 MHz)
• VHF = Very High Frequency (30 ~ 3000 MHz)

Frequency and wave length relation:  = c/f

wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f

19
 Electromagnetic spectrum
twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair

1 Mm 10 Km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

• UHF = Ultra High Frequency (300 MHz ~ 3GHz)

• SHF = Super High Frequency (3 ~ 30 GHz)
• EHF = Extremely High Frequency (30 ~ 300GHz)
• IR = Infrared (300 GHz ~ 400 THz)
• VL = Visible Light (400 THz ~ 900 THz)
• UV = Ultraviolet Light (900 THz ~ 1016 Hz)
• X-ray (1016 ~ 1022 Hz)
• Gamma ray (1022 Hz ~)

Frequency and wave length relation:  = c/f

wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f

20
Electromagnetic spectrum
The Electromagnetic spectrum used for information
Transmission by modulating amplitude, frequency, or
phase.
VLF, LF, and MF are ground waves
Transmission range up to a hundred kilometers
AM radio broadcasting
HF and VHF are sky waves
Reflected several times between the Earth and ionosphere.
Amateur ham radio operators and military
communications.
VHF, UHF for mobile radio communications
Simple, small antennas
Deterministic propagation
Reliable connections
21
Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the
curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
22
Electromagnetic spectrum
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
small antenna, focusing
Microwave transmissions travel in straight lines.
High signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
Line-of-sight alignment is required.
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen
molecules (resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy
rainfall etc.

23
Electromagnetic spectrum
Infrared waves and waves in the EHF band are used for
short-range communication.
Widely used in television, VCR, stereo remote controls
Visible light
Used in the optical fiber
Laser can be used to connect LANs on two buildings but
can travel limited distance and cannot penetrate
through rain or thick fog.

24
Spectrum Allocation
Spectrum allocation methods:
Comparative binding requires each carrier to explain why
its proposal serves the public interest best (beauty
contest) .
Lottery system
Auction

25
Spectrum Allocation
The other option of allocating frequencies is not to allocate
them.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union) has designated
ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) bands as open bands:
Frequencies are not allocated but restrained in a short
range.
These bands usually used by wireless LANs and PANs
(Personal Area Network)are around the 2.4 GHz band.
Parts of the 900 MHz and 5 GHz bands are also available
for unlicensed usage.
Spectrum Allocation
Europe USA Japan

Cellular GSM AMPS, TDMA, CDMA PDC

Phones 450-457, 479- 486, 460-467 824- 849, 869- 894 810-826,
489-496, 890- 915, 935-960 TDMA, CDMA, GSM 940-956,
1710-1785, 1805-1880 1850-1910,1930-1990 1429-1465,
UMTS (FDD) 1477-1513
1920-1980, 2110-2190
UMTS (TDD)
1900-1920, 2020-2025
Cordless CT1+ PACS PHS
Phones 885-887, 930-932 1850-1910,1930-1990 1895-1918
CT2 PACS-UB JCT
864-868 1910-1930 254-380
DECT
1880-1900
Wireless IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483 902-928 2471-2497
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350,5470-5725 5150-5350
5725-5825
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 868 315, 915 426, 868

27
Some Abbreviations & Acronyms
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems
CT1+ Cordless Telephone +
CT2 Cordless Telephone 2
PACS Personal Access Communication Systems
ITU–R International Telecommunications Union Radio

28
Signals
physical representation of data
function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f = 1 T, amplitude A, phase shift 
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:
s( t ) = At sin(2 f t t + t )

29
Fourier Series of periodic signals
Periodic signals can be represented by Fourier series.

 
1
g( t ) = c +  an sin(2 nft ) +  bn cos(2 nft )
2 n =1 n =1

1 1

0 0
t t

ideal periodic signal real composition

(based on harmonics)

30
More on Signals
Different representations of signals
amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude A and phase  in polar
coordinates)
Composed (multiple frequencies) signals transferred into
frequency domain using Fourier transformation

A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 

t[s] 
I = M cos 

q f [Hz]

31
More on Signals
Digital signals need infinite frequencies for perfect
transmission (Fourier equation) modulation with a carrier
frequency for transmission (analog signal!)
Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling
of wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an
antenna
z
y z
y x ideal
isotropic
x
radiator

33
Antennas: simple dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators, e.g., dipoles with
lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe
compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the
same average power)

/4 /2
simple
dipole

y y z

x z x

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane) 34

Directed and sectorized antennas
Often used for microwave connections or base stations for
mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

y y z
directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

35
Antenna – Diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas: multi-element antenna
arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
co-phasing needed to avoid cancellation

/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2

+ +

ground plane
36
Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
sender
possible
no communication transmission
possible distance
Interference range detection

signal may not be interference

detected
signal adds to the
background noise

37
Mobile Radio Propagation
Mobile Radio Propagation
Propagation in free space:
Isotropic transmission
Behaves like a light wave
The radio wave from transmitter to receiver travels in a
line-of-sight path.

Propagation in non-free obstacle space.

Obstacle space distort transmitter/receiver line-of-sight
path.
Radio waves from transmitter to receiver may travel in
multipaths.
Mobile Radio Propagation
The light-of-sight propagation influenced by:
Reflection at large obstacles
Refraction through different media
Diffraction at edges
Scattering at small obstacles (fog, rain, dust etc.)

reflection refraction diffraction scattering

(reflexión) (refracción) (difracción) (dispersión)

40
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction.
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time.
The signal at the receiver: direct light-of-sight version and
phase shifted versions.

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

41
Mobile Radio Propagation
Shadowing: receiver not in line-of sight. The received signal
may consist of reflected, refracted, diffracted & scattered
version of the transmitted signal.

shadowing
Mobile Radio Propagation - Example

43
Characteristics
Path loss: the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to
the power of the same signal received by the receiver.
Free space model: Assumes only a direct-path between the
transmitter and the receiver.
Received power path loss proportional to 1/d², where d is
the distance between transmitter and receiver
Obstacle space model: Assumes there may be a direct-path
and other paths through reflection, refraction, or
scattering between the transmitter and the receiver. The
received power multipath loss is proportional to 1/dn,
where n takes values from 2 to 5.

44
Mobile Radio Propagation
Multipath signals arrive at a receiver differ in amplitude and
phase:
• May reconstruct when phase interferes coherently
• May cancel when phase interferes incoherently
This phenomenon, called multipath fading:
• Causes fluctuations in received amplitude, phase & arrival
angle.
• Causes the channel to be time-variant
Multipath fading is, characterized two types:
• Large scale fading
• Small-scale fading
The rate of change of propagation conditions is reflected in
the rapidity of the fading.
Large Scale Fading
Represents the average signal power attenuation or the path
loss due to the relative transmitter/receiver motion over
large areas.
Affected by prominent terrain feature such as: hills, forests,
billboards, clumps of buildings, between the transmitter
and the receiver.
The receiver is often said to be “shadowed”.
The statistics of large-scale fading provide a way to estimate
of path loss as a function of distance.
This is described in terms of a mean-path loss, the nth-power
law, and a log-normally distributed variation about the
mean.
Small scale fading
Refers to the sudden and sizable changes in signal amplitude
and phase as a result of changes as small as a half
wavelength in the spatial positioning between a receiver
and a transmitter.
Small-scale fading manifests itself in two mechanisms:
• Time-spreading of the signal (signal dispersion)
• Time-variant behavior of the channel (Doppler effect).
The statistics of small-scale fading may be described by:
• Rayleigh distribution: large number multiple reflective
paths and no line-of-sight signal component
• Rician distribution: existence of a dominant nonfading
line-of-sight propagation path.
Fading channel manifestations

48
Fading Phenomenon
Mobile Radio Propagation
Doppler Shift
The change/shift in the frequency of the received signal
when the transmitter and the receiver are mobile to
each other.
Moving towards each other, the frequency will be higher;
two moving away, the frequency will be lower.

50
Mobile Radio Propagation
A mobile radio roaming over a large area must process
signals that experience both types of fading: small-scale
fading superimposed on large-scale fading.

Signal
Power
(dB)

Antenna Displacement
(wavelength)
Countering the Effects of Fading
Modulation often used:
Diversity modulation
• Time diversity: spread the data transmission over time.
• Frequency diversity: spread the data transmission over a
frequency band.
• Space diversity: use different physical transmission paths,
e.g., antenna arrays.
Example: the direct sequence spread spectrum and
the frequency hopping spread spectrum.
Adaptive modulation:
• Transmitter adjustments based on the feedback from the
receiver.
• Complex to implement

52
Countering the Effects of Fading
In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time
diversity because the transmitter sees only a single
realization of the channel within its delay constraint.
A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of
transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.

Equalization is another method for countering effects of

fading.
Characteristics
Interference:
Adjacent channel interference: interfered by signals in nearby
frequencies. Solved by the guard bands.
Co-channel interference:
narrow-band interference due to other systems using the
same frequency.
Inter-symbol interference:
distortion in the received signal caused by the temporal
spreading and the consequent (neighbor) overlapping
of individual pulses in the signal.

54
Channel Transmission Rate
Nyquist’s Theorem for noiseless channel
Maximum data rate
C = 2B log2 L bits/sec
L discrete levels in transmission medium of
B, bandwidth

Example: a noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit binary

signals at a rate exceeding 6000 bps (= 2 x 3000 log2 2).

Aside:
Baud rate = the number of times the signal changes.
Bit rate = baud rate x bits per signal

55
Channel Transmission Rate
Shannon’s Theorem for noisy Channel
Maximum data rate
C = B log 2 ( 1 + S N ) bits/sec
B – bandwidth
S – signal power
N – noise power
SNR S R called the thermal noise ratio is measured in
decibels 10 log10 ( S N ).

Example: For SNR = 20dB , B = 2000 Hz , the maximum data

rate
C = 2000 log 2 ( 1 + 100 ) = 9230, 241bps
Inter-symbol interference (ISI)
ISI due to Multi-Path Fading
Transmitted signal:

Received Signals:
Line-of-sight:

Reflected:

Delays
The symbols add up on the
channel → Distortion!

Source: Prof. Kalyanaraman

Attenuation, Dispersion Effects: ISI!

Source: Prof. Raj Jain, WUSTL

Modulation Techniques

60
Modulation Techniques
Analog modulation
Used for transmitting analog data.
Shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio
carrier
Analog modulation techniques
Amplitude Modulation (AM):
Not efficient.
Example: Broadcast radio
Frequency Modulation (FM): Example: Broadcast radio
Phase Modulation (PM)

61
Modulation Techniques
Digital modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency,
robustness

62
Modulation and demodulation
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier

63
 Digital Modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying 1 0 1

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): t

1 0 1

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): t

1 0 1

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): t

64
 Example of MSK
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
data bit
even 0101
even bits odd 0011

odd bits signal h l lh

value - - ++

low h: high frequency

frequency n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
high
frequency

MSK
signal
t

No phase shifts!
65
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): combines
amplitude and phase modulation
Possible to code n bits using one symbol 2n discrete levels,
n = 2 identical to QPSK
Bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to
comparable PSK schemes
Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol) Q
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the 0010
0001
same phase φ, but different amplitude. 0011 0000
Symbols 0000 and 1000 have φ

different phase, but same amplitude. a

1000
I

Used in standard 9600 bit/s modems

66
Multiple Access Techniques

67
Multiple Access Techniques
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions channels ki
frequency (f) k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
time (t)
code (c) c

space (s) t c
t
Goal: multiple use of a shared s1
f f
medium s2

c
Important: guard spaces needed! t

s3
f

68
Frequency Multiplexing
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole
time
Advantages:
no dynamic coordination necessary
works also for analog signals c k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Disadvantages:
waste of bandwidth if the traffic f
is distributed unevenly
inflexible
guard spaces

t
69
Time Multiplexing
A channel uses entire spectrum for certain amount of time
Advantages:
Only one carrier in the medium at any time
Throughput high even for many users
Disadvantages:
Precise synchronization necessary

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
c
f

t
70
Time and Frequency Multiplexing
Combination of both methods: channel uses certain
frequency band for certain amount of time.
Example: GSM
Advantages:
Better protection against tapping
Protection against frequency
selective interference
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Higher data rates compared
to code multiplex c
Precise coordination required f

t
71
Code Multiplexing
Each channel has a unique code k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

All channels use the same spectrum

at the same time c

Advantages:
bandwidth efficient
No coordination and synchronization
necessary good protection against f
interference and tapping
Disadvantages:
lower user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
t
Implemented using spread spectrum
technology

72
Frequency Hopping Spread*
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum* (FHSS): Data signal is
modulated with a narrowband carrier signal that "hops" in
a random but predictable sequence from frequency to
frequency as a function of time over a wide band of
frequencies.
Discrete changes of carrier frequency: Total bandwidth is
split into many channels of smaller bandwidth.
Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for
a certain time and hop to another channel. This system
implements FDM and TDM.

*Frequency Hopping Spread – Expansión del Saltos de Frecuencia

73
Frequency Hopping Spread
The pattern of channel usage is called the hopping sequence,
the time spent on a channel with a certain frequency is
called the dwell time.
Sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo
random number sequence
Frequency Hopping Spread
Two versions
Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit
Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency (not
immune to narrowband interference)
Advantages
frequency selective fading and interference limited to
short period
simple implementation
uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages
not as robust as Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
simpler to detect

75
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
Transmission technology – XOR of the signal with chipping
sequence.
Data signal at the sending station is combined with a
higher data rate bit sequence (pseudo-random), or
chipping code.
The chipping code increases signal's interference resistance.
High chip per bit (128) results in higher signal bandwidth.

tb tc

0 1 01101010110101 01 1 01 01 1 0 01 01 0
user data XOR Chipping sequence = Resulting signal
tb: bit period tc: chip period

76
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Advantages
reduces frequency selective fading
in cellular networks base stations can use the same
frequency range
several base stations can detect and recover the signal soft
handover
Disadvantages
precise power control (synchronization)necessary
Comparison
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
can be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation directed antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, established, fully simple, established, flexible, less frequency
increases capacity digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
per km² handover
Disadvantages inflexible, antennas guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
typically fixed needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
Comment only in combination standard in fixed typically combined still faces some problems,
with TDMA, FDMA networks, together with TDMA higher complexity,
or CDMA useful with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping lowered expectations; will
used in many patterns) and SDMA be integrated with
mobile networks (frequency reuse) TDMA/FDMA

78
Equalization, Diversity &
Channel Coding
79
Main story
• Communication over a flat fading channel has poor
performance due to significant probability that channel is
in deep fading.
• Reliability is increased by provide more signal paths that
fade independently.
• Diversity can be provided across time, frequency and
space.
• Name of the game is how to exploited the added diversity
in an efficient manner.

80
Fundamentals of Equalization
What is equalization?
Equalization techniques
Training a Generic Adaptive Equalizer
Equalizers in a communication receiver
Linear equalizers
Nonlinear equalization
Algorithms for adaptive equalization
Zero forcing
Least mean square
Summary of algorithms

81
Diversity Techniques
Derivation of selection diversity improvement
Derivation of maximal ratio combining improvement
Space diversity considerations
Selection diversity
Feedback or scanning diversity
Maximal ratio combining
Equal gain combining
Polarization diversity
Frequency diversity
Time diversity

82
Fundamentals of Channel Coding
Block codes & finite fields
Convolution codes
Code gain
Trellis coded modulation
Turbo codes

83
Wireless networking

84
Introduction
Internetworks
Different networks are connected by means of machines
called gateways.
A collection of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork or internet.
A common form of internet is a collection of LANs
connected by a WAN.
Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
Design Issues for the Layers
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
Service Primitives
The Relationship of Services to Protocols

85
Network Architecture
A network architecture is a set of layers and protocols used to
reduce network design complexity.
A protocol stack is a list of protocols used by a certain system,
one protocol per layer.
Protocol Hierarchies
• Organized as stacks of layers or levels to reduces
complexity.
• Protocols are layer agreements between hosts or entities.
• Between pairs of adjacent stack layers is an interface.
• Interfaces define primitive operations and services from a
lower layer to an upper layer.
• Corresponding layers on different hosts called peers.
• A physical medium provides the communication between
hosts.

87
Design Issues for the Layers
• Addressing: a specific destination needs to be specified.
• Error Control: errors need to be detected and corrected.
• Flow Control: A fast sender is kept from swamping a slow
receiver with data.
• Multiplexing: the same connection is used for multiple,
unrelated conversations.
• Routing: a route must be chosen for a packet to transmit.

88
Network – Protocol
Layers and interfaces

89
Connection Services
Connection-oriented: necessary before communication
Example: telephone
Connectionless: not necessary before communication
Example: postal system
Request-reply: the sender transmits a request; the reply
contains the answer.
Reliable communication: messages guaranteed to reach
destination ordered, complete and uncorrupted.
When is unreliable communication used?
Reliable communication is not available.
Delay in a reliable service not acceptable
Example: real-time applications.
Service characterized by a Quality of Service (QoS).

90
Connection Services
Six different types of service.

91
Service Primitives
A service is specified by a set of primitives (operations)
available to a user process to access the service.
Five service primitives for implementing a simple
connection-oriented service.

92
Service Primitives
Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a
connection-oriented network.

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Services to Protocols Relationship
Services relate to the interfaces between layers.
Protocol relate to the packets sent between peer entities.

The relationship between a service and a protocol.

94
Reference Models
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
The OSI 7-Layer Reference Model [ISO,1984] is a guide
that specifies what each layer should do, but not how
each layer is implemented.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol)/(Internet Protocol)
Reference Model
The TCP/IP Reference Model is not of much use but the
protocols associated with it are widely used.

A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model

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OSI Reference Model

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OSI-7 Layer Reference Model
Physical Layer - transmission of raw bits over a physical
channel.
Data Link Layer - provide an error-free point-to-point link to
transmit data and control frames between two directly
connected nodes.
Network Layer - provide a point-to-point link between any
two switching nodes.
Transport Layer - provide a link between any two processes
in two hosts.
Session Layer - manage conversation between two peer
session entities.
Presentation Layer - present data in a meaningful format.
Application Layer - a variety of user applications: e-mail, ftp,
etc.
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ISO 7-Layer Reference Model
End host End host

Application Application

Various applications (FTP,HTTP,…)

Presentation Presentation

Present data in a meaningful format

Session Session

Provide session semantics (RPC)

Transport Transport

Reliable, end-to-end byte stream (TCP)

Network Network Network Network

Unreliable end-to-end tx of packets

Data link Data link Data link Data link

Reliable transmission (tx) of frames

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Unreliable transmission (tx) of raw bits

One or more nodes
within the network

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TCP/IP Reference Model
The internet layer defines an official packet format and
protocol called IP (Internet Protocol) and specifies how IP
packets are routed from the source to the destination.
The transport layer is designed to allow peer entities to talk.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream
to be delivered.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications.
The application layer contains all the higher-level protocols.
The host-to-network layer points out that the host has to
connect to the network.

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The TCP/IP reference model

100
Protocols and networks – TCP /IP

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Connection-Oriented Networks
The X.25 protocol: adopted by the Consultative Committee
for International Telegraph & Telephone (CCITT), as the
standard for connection-oriented network protocol.
Frame relay is connection-oriented network with no error
control and no flow control.

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ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATM
A dedicated-connection switching technology that organizes
digital data into 53-byte cell units and transmits them over
a physical medium using digital signal technology.

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 An ATM cell

105

A virtual circuit.
ATM Reference Model
The physical layer deals with the physical medium.
The PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) sublayer
interfaces to the actual cable.
The TC (Transmission Convergence) sublayer converts
back forth a bit stream to a cell stream.
The ATM layer deals with cells and cell transport.
The ATM adaptation layer deals with segmentation and re-
assembly.
The SAR (Segmentation And Reassembly) sublayer breaks
up packets into cells and put them back.
The CS (Convergence Sublayer) is used to offer different
kind of services to the upper layers.

106
The ATM Reference Model
The ATM reference model.

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ATM Reference Model
The ATM layers and sublayers and their functions.

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Shortcomings ATM Reference Model
Each 53-byte cell has a 5-byte header: constitutes a
significant control overhead.
Complex mechanisms are required to ensuring fairness
among connections and improve quality of service.
Complex packets scheduling is required due to the varying
delays.
The high cost and complexity of devices.
Lack of scalability

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Wireless systems & standards

110
IEEE 802 Standards
IEEE 802 Standard
The physical layer in a LAN deals with the actual physical
transmission medium used for communication.
Some commonly used physical media: twisted pair, coaxial
cable, optical fiber, and radio waves.
In IEEE 802 Logical Link Control (LLC) forms the upper half
of the data link layer. Medium Access Control (MAC) forms
the lower sublayer.
Error-controlled, flow-controlled
Adds an LCC header, containing sequence and
acknowledgement numbers.
LLC provides three service options:
Unreliable datagram service
Acknowledged datagram service
Reliable connection-oriented service
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Physical and data link layer – LANs

The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with  are hibernating.
The one marked with † gave up. 113
IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control

(a) Position of LLC (Logical Link Control ).

(b) Protocol formats.

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IEEE 802 Standard
The Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer
It directly interfaces with the physical layer.
It provides services such as addressing, framing, and
medium access control.
The Pure Aloha Protocol (by Abramson in 1970s) is one of
oldest MAC protocol in which a station transmits the data
whenever it is available. Then, the station listens to the
channel to see if a collision occurred. If the frame was
destroyed, the station waits for a random length of time
and tries again.
In slotted Aloha (by Roberts in 1972) a computer is not
permitted to send whenever a carriage return is typed but
wait for a time slot.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access
CSMA
Protocols – stations listen for a carrier and act accordingly.
1-persistent CSMA
Channel Busy - Continue sensing until free and then grab.
Channel Idle - Transmit with probability 1.
Collision - Wait for a random length of time and try again.
Non-persistent CSMA:
Channel Busy - Wait for a random length of time and try again.
Channel Idle - Transmit.
Collision - Wait for a random length of time and try again.
p-persistent CSMA:
Channel Busy - Continue sensing until free (same as idle).
Channel Idle - Transmit with probability p, and defer transmitting
until the next slot with probability q = 1-p.
Collision - Wait for a random length of time and try again.

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Persistent and Non-persistent CSMA

Comparison of the channel utilization versus load for various

random access protocols.

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CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) is
a protocol for carrier transmission access in Ethernet
networks.
In CSMA/CD, any device can try to send a frame at any time.
Each device senses whether the line is idle and therefore
available to be used.
If it is available, the device begins to transmit its first frame. If
another device has tried to send at the same time, a
collision is said to occur and the frames are discarded.
Each device then waits a random amount of time and
retries until successful in getting its transmission sent.
When there is collision, the station wait some time between 0
to 2n - 1 slotted time at the n's trial. This is called back-off
algorithm. Usually, after 16 trials the station gives up.
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IEEE 802.3 Physical Layer
10Base2 means that is operates at 10 Mbps, uses baseband
signaling, and support segments up to 200 meters.
10Base-T became dominant due to its use of existing wiring
and the ease of maintenance.

The most common kinds of Ethernet cabling.

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Fast/Gigabit Ethernet
100Base-T4 – 4 twisted pairs achieve 100 Mbps.

The original fast Ethernet cabling.

Gigabit Ethernet cabling.

Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
Preamble – used to synchronize sender/receiver clocks.
Addresses:
Unique 48-bit unicast address assigned to each adapter
Example: 8:0:e4:b1:2
Broadcast: all 1s, the set of all recipient nodes
Multicast: first bit is 1,a group of recipient nodes

Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet, (b) IEEE 802.3.

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Wireless LAN: 802.11
A wireless LAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a
local area network (LAN) through a wireless (radio)
connection.
A standard, IEEE 802.11, specifies the technologies for
wireless LANs.
It is designed to work in two modes:
In the presence of a base station: access point
In the absence of a base station: ad hoc networking

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Wireless LAN: 802.11
Physical Layer
It supports three different physical layers:
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Infrared
Clear channel assessment (CCA): It provides mechanisms
for sensing the wireless channel and determine whether
or not it is idle.
MAC Sublayer follows carrier sense multiple access with
collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).

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Wireless LANs

Wireless networking Ad hoc networking.

with a base station.

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IEEE 802.11 Task Group
Objective: develop MAC layer and physical layer
specifications for wireless connectivity.
Create a standard for wireless LAN operations in the 5 GHz
frequency baud, where data rates of up to 54 Mbps are
possible.
Create a standard for wireless LAN operations in the 2.4 GHz
Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band, which is
freely available for use throughout the world.

126
IEEE 802.11 Task Group
Devise standards for bridging operations.
Publish the definitions and requirements for enabling the
operation of the 802.11 standard in countries where the
802.11 standard is not adopted yet.
Define an extension of the 802.11 standard for Quality of
Service (QoS).

127
IEEE 802.11 Sub – Task Groups
The 802.11f developed specifications for implementing
access points and distribution systems.
The 802.11g task groups extended the 802.11b standard to
support high-speed transmissions of up to 54 Mbps in the
2.4 GHz frequency.
The 802.11h task groups developed the MAC layer standard
that comply with European regulations for 5 GHz wireless
LAN.

128
IEEE 802.11 Sub – Task Groups
The 802.11i group is working on mechanisms for enhancing
security in the 802.11 standard.
The 802.11j task group is working on mechanisms for
enhancing security in the 802.11 MAC physical layer
protocols to additionally operate in the newly available
Japanese 4.9 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
The 802.11n defines standardized modifications to the
802.11 MAC and physical layers to allows at least 100
Mbps.

129
Wireless Networks
Wireless networks are computer networks that use radio
frequency channels as their physical medium for
communication.
The first wireless radio communication system was invented
by Guglielmo Marconi in 1897.
Radio and television broadcasting are common applications
of wireless communications techniques.

130
Wireless Networks
The wireless communications industry includes cellular
telephony, wireless LANs, and satellite-based
communication networks.
In cellular networks a fixed based station serving all mobile
phones in its coverage area is called a cell.
The first-generation (1G) cellular networks used analogy
signal technology.
They used frequency modulation.
Voice communication
Example: advanced mobile phone system (AMPS)

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Cellular Systems
The second-generation (2G) cellular systems used digital
transmission mechanisms such as TDMA and CDMA.
Voice communication
Example: global system for mobile communication (GSM)
in Europe, IS-136 in United States, Personal Digital
System (PDS) in Japan.
The present system is called 2.5 G. General packet Radio
Services (GPRS) has been deployed for data
communication.

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Cellular Systems
The third-generation (3G) systems provides services such as
enhanced multimedia, bandwidth up to 2 Mbps.
Standards: wideband code division multiple access (W-
CDMA), universal mobile telecommunications system
(UMTS)
The fourth-generation (4G) systems provides further
improvements such as higher bandwidth, enhanced
multimedia, universal access, and portability across all
types of devices.

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Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
The wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a type of local-
area network that uses radio waves to communicate
between nodes.
A stationary node called an access point (AP) coordinates the
communication between nodes.
The two main standards for WLANs are the IEEE 802.11
standard and European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) HIPERLAN standard.

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Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) are short-distance
wireless networks.
Bluetooth is a popular WPAN specification.
Work within 10 m.
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) including Ericsson,
Intel, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba is the driving force for
Bluetooth.
The IEEE 802.15 is a standard for WPAN.

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Ad Hoc/Hybrid Wireless Network
An ad hoc wireless network is an autonomous system of
mobile nodes connected through wireless links. It doesn’t
have any fixed infrastructure.
Hybrid networking combines the advantages of
infrastructure-based and less networks.
Example: multi-hop cellular network (MCN), integrated
cellular and ad hoc relaying system (iCAR), multi-power
architecture for cellular networks (MuPAC).

136
Network Standardization
Who’s Who in the Telecommunications World: ITU
Who’s Who in the International Standards World: ISO, ANSI,
NIST, IEEE
Who’s Who in the Internet Standards World
IAB (Internet Architecture Board)
A Request for Comments (RFC) is a formal document from
the Internet.
IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)

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Network Standardization
Main sectors: Radiocommunications (ITU-R),
Telecommunications Standardization (ITU-T),
Development (ITU-D)
Classes of Members: National governments, Sector members,
Associate members, Regulatory agencies

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Wireless Systems
Development Overview
cellular phones satellites cordless wireless
phones LAN
1980:
1981: CT0
NMT 450 1982:
1983: Inmarsat-
AMPS A 1984:
CT1
1986:
NMT 900 1987:
1988: CT1+
Inmarsat- 1989:
C CT 2
1991: 1991: 1991:
1992: CDMA D-AMPS 1992: DECT 199x:
GSM 1993: Inmarsat-B proprietary
PDC Inmarsat-M
1994: 1997:
DCS 1800 IEEE 802.11
1998:
Iridium 1999:
802.11b, Bluetooth
2000: 2000:
analogue GPRS IEEE 802.11a
2001:
IMT-2000
digital 2003:
IEEE 802.11g
200?:
Fourth
4G – fourth generation: when and how? Generation
(Internet based)
Areas of research
Wireless Communication
transmission quality (bandwidth, error rate, delay)
modulation, coding, interference
media access, regulations
Mobility
location dependent services
location transparency
quality of service (QoS) support (delay, jitter, security)
Portability
power consumption
limited computing power, sizes of display, ...
usability

140
Simple reference model used here

Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Radio Medium

141
Metric Units

The metric prefixes are typically abbreviated by their first

letters, with the units greater than 1 capitalized.
m is for milli and µ is for micro.
For storage, Kilo means 210.
For communication, 1Kbps means 1000 bits per second.

142