ADMAS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

ENHANCE THE EFFICIENCY OF WIRELES SENSOR

NETWORK USING ADAPTIVE MODULATION FOR SHORT
RANGE MULTIPATH FADDING

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE TO

ADMAS UNIVERSITY IN PATIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMETN
FOR DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

BY: DAWIT ABATE WOSEN

ADVISOR: MESFIN ABEBE (Ph.D.)

DATE: 2020, FEBRUARY

 Declaration

I, Dawit Abate Wosen, the under signed, declare that this thesis entitled: “Enhance the Efficiency
of Wireless Sensor Network using Adaptive Modulation for short range multipath fading” is my
original work. I have undertaken the research work independently with the guidance and support of
the research advisor. This study has not been submitted for any degree or diploma program in this or
any other institutions and that all sources of materials used for the thesis has been duly acknowledged.

Declared by
Name: Dawit Abate Wosen
Signature: ____________________
Department: Computer Science
Date: June 20, 2020

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 Certificate of Approval of Thesis

School of Postgraduate Studies

Admas University

This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Dawit Abate Wosen entitled “Enhance the Efficiency
of Wireless Sensor Network using Adaptive Modulation for short range multipath fading” and
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in Project
Management/MBA/MSc in Accounting and Finance complies with the regulations of the University
and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.

Name of Candidate: Dawit Abate Wosen; Signature: _______________Date: _____________.

Name of Advisor: Mesfin Abebe (Ph.D). Signature: _______________Date: _____________.

Signature of Board of Examiner`s:

External examiner: _______________________________________Signature: ____________Date: _____________.
Internal examiner: _________________________________________Signature: _________ Date: ___________________
Dean, SGS: ______________________________________ Signature: ____________Date: _____________.

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 Acknowledgment

I owe a debt of gratitude to all those who have helped me with this thesis. First of all, I would like to
thank my advisor Mesfin Abebe (Ph.D), who gave me an opportunity to work on this research. His
suggestions and encouragement carried me through difficult times. His valuable feedback contributed
greatly to this thesis. Secondly, I would also like to express my gratitude to my thesis committee and
for taking time to review this work. I’m grateful to all my lab mates and family members for their
professional help and inputs.

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Table of Contents

Declaration........................................................................................................................................................ i
Certificate of Approval of Thesis ..................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................ iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ iv
List of Abbreviation ........................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Figure ................................................................................................................................................. vii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter One ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the study ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Objective of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.1 General Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Specific Objectives:......................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Scope and limitation of the Study .......................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Organization of the Thesis ..................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two .................................................................................................................................................. 10
2. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2. Definitions and Concepts ............................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Frequency-Hopping/Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum ............................................................... 13
2.2.2 FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA ......................................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 CSMA/CA..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3. Theoretical and Empirical Reviews ................................................................................................ 14
2.4 Conceptual Model/Frameworks ........................................................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Conceptual model of LEACH ....................................................................................................... 15
Chapter Three ................................................................................................................................................ 17

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3. Research methodology ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Research Setting ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1.1 Parameterization and Performance Metrics ................................................................................... 17
3.1.2 System Model and Algorithm ....................................................................................................... 20
3.1.3 Performance Evaluation technique ................................................................................................ 46
3.2 System model Evaluation Technics ...................................................................................................... 50
3.2.1 Simulation Environment................................................................................................................ 51
3.2.2 Simulation Observation and Analysis Techniques ........................................................................ 53
Chapter Four .................................................................................................................................................. 56
4. Result and Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 56
4.1 Simulation Result and Interpretation .................................................................................................... 56
4.1.1 Phase Shifting key scheme ............................................................................................................ 58
4.1.2 M-ary Quadrature amplitude modulation Scheme ......................................................................... 59
Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................................. 62
5. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation ....................................................................................... 62
5.1 Summary............................................................................................................................................. 62
5.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 63
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 65
Appendices.................................................................................................................................................... 68
6. List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... 68
6.1 Theoretical Results ........................................................................................................................... 68
6.2 Formula Definition and Simulation Codes ............................................................................................ 70
6.2.1 SER Simulation for OFDM Link....................................................................................................... 70
6.3 AWGN Channel .................................................................................................................................... 72
6.3.1 Section Overview .......................................................................................................................... 72
6.3.2 AWGN Channel Noise Level........................................................................................................... 72
6.4 General QAM Modulation in AWGN Channel ...................................................................................... 87

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List of Abbreviation

ACK-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Acknowledgment
ARQ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Automatic re-bit request
AODV-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Active on Demand Vector
AMC-------------------------------------------------------------------------Adaptive Modulation and Coding
BER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Bit Error Rate
BERT----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Bit Error Rate Test
BPSK------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Binary phase shift key
CDMA------------------------------------------------------------------------- Code Division Multiple Access
CH ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cluster head
CSMA/CA------------------------------------------ Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
DMG----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Directional multi-gigabit
DSR------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dynamic Source Routing
FDMA------------------------------------------------------------------- Frequency Division Multiple Access
FHSS---------------------------------------------------------------------Frequency-hopping spread spectrum
HT----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- High Throughput
LEACH ---------------------------------------------------------Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy
MANET-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Mobile Ad hoc Network
MQAM--------------------------------------------------------- Multiple Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Non-HT-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non-high throughput
QAM----------------------------------------------------------------------- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QPSK---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Quadrature phase shift key
QoS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Quality of Service
PRBS---------------------------------------------------------------------------Pseudorandom binary sequence
SISO----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Single-input/single-output
SNR----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Signal-to-Noise Ratio
TDMA--------------------------------------------------------------------------Time Division Multiple Access
VHT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Very high throughput
WSN ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Wireless Sensor Network
WCDMA------------------------------------------------------------Wireless Code division Multiple Access
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List of Figure
Figure 1: Bit-error rate curves for BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK and 16PSK, AWGN channel. .......... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2:BER comparison between BPSK and differentially encoded BPSK with gray-coding
operating in white noise .....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3: Recorded noise ....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4: Neighbor nodes join cluster-based in LEACH .................................................................. 16
Figure 5: Multiple Quadrature Amplitude Modulation order constellation size ............................... 18
Figure 6:16 QAM, 3 amplitude, 12 phases Figure 7:16 QAM, 4 amplitude, 8 phase Figure
8:16 QAM, 2 amplitude, 8 phases ..................................................................................................... 19
Figure 9: Adaptive modulation Model .............................................................................................. 21
Figure 10: System model for Adaptive modulation and Coding....................................................... 22
Figure 11: Discrete power with fading state ..................................................................................... 25
Figure 12: Adaptive coding modulation model ................................................................................. 26
Figure 13: Receiver sensitivity by channel width ............................................................................. 27
Figure 14: comparison of SNR in 802.11 standards ......................................................................... 27
Figure 15: System Model .................................................................................................................. 28
Figure 16: An arbitrary modulation signal for QPSK ....................................................................... 31
Figure 17: Block diagram of QPSK-OFDM ..................................................................................... 32
Figure 18: Model for received signal process through AWGN ........................................................ 34
Figure 19: Impulse response of a multipath channel ......................................................................... 34
Figure 20: Multipath Rayleigh and Ricain Fading Channels ............................................................ 37
Figure 21: shows impulse response on wideband fading .................................................................. 39
Figure 22: channel visualization of frequency response as a sample code ....................................... 40
Figure 23: shows Doppler spectrum effect using sampling technics ................................................ 42
Figure 24: Rayleigh constellation diagram ....................................................................................... 43
Figure 25: using Rician Fading sample result of path gain ............................................................... 46
Figure 26: Modulation methods for digital data chart. ...................................................................... 47
Figure 27: wireless node distributed randomly with in the cluster. .................................................. 52
Figure 28: BER to SNR comparison for different Modulation Order ............................................... 57
Figure 29: BER of QPSK over AWGN............................................................................................. 58

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Figure 30: BER of MPSK over AWGN ............................................................................................ 59
Figure 31: BER of MPSK-OFDM over Multipath Fading Channel ................................................. 60
Figure 32: BER for 16QAM over Multipath Fading Channel .......................................................... 61
Figure 33: Real Band pass noise power Spectral Density ................................................................. 74
Figure 34: Quadrature with in phase scatter plot .............................................................................. 79
Figure 35: Quadrature in phase with 10db SNR ............................................................................... 79
Figure 36: Quadrature in phase with 30db SNR ............................................................................... 80
Figure 37: QPSK Modulation SNR ................................................................................................... 81
Figure 38: 16-QAM vs SNR scatter plot ........................................................................................... 82
Figure 39: 64 QAM Vs SNR scatter plot .......................................................................................... 83
Figure 40: 264-QAM vs SNR scatter plot ......................................................................................... 84
Figure 41: Add AWGN Noise Variant in 16-QAM .......................................................................... 84
Figure 42: Quadrature-in phase scatter plot of AWGN .................................................................... 85
Figure 43: 64-QAM AWGN scatter plot ........................................................................................... 86
Figure 44: Constellation diagrams for AWGN ................................................................................. 87
Figure 45: General QAM Modulation in AWGN Channel ............................................................... 88

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Abstract

Wireless sensor Network (WSN) is the network of Different sensor as a node to transfer and
exchange information from the environment mostly in harass environment. Even though WSN
application is at infant stage, it is becoming our part of daily life. Among different issues and
challenge of Wireless sensor network, Quality of service is critical. As higher throughput and long-
lasting energy are so important, there are so many constraints in wireless communication to be
solved yet. One of the challenging issues of Wireless sensor network, outage and exhibiting of
higher bit error ratio or highest signal noise ratio due to channel fading at physical layer. By
simulating the performance of binary phase shifting key (BPSK), Quadrature Phase shifting key
(QPSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(MQAM) with orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and other MAC (Media
Access Control) protocols are compared and designed for diverse channel environments.
MATLAB Simulink simulations illustrated the transmitting and receiving performance based on
the bit error rate, signal-to-noise ratio, Spectrum range, Symbol error rate and constellation
diagram. As the simulation Result and Analysis show that adaptive modulation is the best way of
enhancement of Wireless sensor network for optimization of throughput and Maximization of
Energy usage of the node. So on this research we proposed an adaptive modulation for
enhancement of Wireless sensor network that can detect translate constellation size and
transmission power of the node and apply adaptive modulation technics to optimize through put
and minimize transmission power.

Keywords: WSN; adaptive modulation; through put optimization; transmission power

minimization

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 Chapter One

1. Introduction

In the concept of wireless communication and its implementation, the technology has shown a great
progress begin from realization of the existence of an electric fields and electromagnetic wave that
could propagate through the air. An immense investigation and dedication have gone through so far.
Researchers have spent many decades to achieve the existing pace of technology in the fields of
wireless communication. Today the world can communicate from an imaginable distances through
infrastructure less media. The wireless communication helps the astronomer to investigate a million
miles distant information through wireless communication by applying different sensors and
actuators. As wide as the wireless application in the human being and nature, on this thesis we focus
on efficiency of wireless sensor networks. Wireless sensor network (WSN) is inter and intra linked
sensor node through a wireless communication. In the case of WSN the network of Different sensor
as a node to transfer and exchange information from the environment mostly in harass environment
to deserved place through wireless communications infrastructure, intended to monitor and control
physical or environmental conditions at diverse locations and to cooperatively pass their data to a
main location and/or pass their control command to a desired actuator through the network [1].Even
though the WSN is the sub part of wireless communication, still electronically sensing matters far
beyond the capability of human sense organ, the scope is wider than expected, so we limit our
coverage of WSNs in this research to data communication of low data rates and short communication
ranges, and the individual sensor node to physically small, low power, and low cost devices. As per
the logical design of wireless network, WSN consists of multiple nodes, ranging from a few to several
hundreds or even thousands, where each node is connected to one or more other nodes. Nodes may
be designed for carrying out one or more of the following functions—sensing, relaying data, or
exchanging data with an outside network. A node for sensing is called a sensor node, one for relaying
data a router, and one for exchanging data with other networks a base station, or sink node, which is
similar to a gateway in a traditional network.

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Every sensor node is equipped with a transducer, a microcontroller, a radio transceiver and a power
supply, usually a battery. The transducer generates electrical signals based on sensed natural
phenomena and environmental changes. The microcontroller processes and stores the sensing output.
The radio transceiver with an internal antenna or connection to an external antenna receives
commands from a central computer and transmits data to that computer, the concept of WSNs, where
the data is collected from a sensor node and then transmitted to a sink node, which is connected to
the Internet or a satellite network. Through the Internet and the satellite network the collected data is
finally received by an application. Sensor nodes do not have to have a fixed location and most of
them are randomly deployed to monitor a sensor field. Sensor nodes usually communicate with each
other via an on-board radio transceiver.

As it is one type of wireless network, WSN has network topology. The topology of wireless sensor
can be categorized start from star topology to mesh topology, and flat to hierarchical in the aspect of
logical design. Most of the nodes in wireless sensor network are mobile with in the given design,
which result variable topology and the topology seems difficult to figure out a head. But to tackle
such a problem there are different routing protocol to attain a best result in MANET to manage the
topology such as AODV, DST And so on. On the other hand WSN has different application
increasing extraordinarily, such as area monitoring, health care monitoring, environment sensing, and
industrial monitoring and so on. Comparing their support and application of wireless sensors, science
is striving to achieve accuracy and precision on the production fields. Sensing the temperature, light
intensity and character, electromagnetic wave intensity and character, chemical character (behavior,
intensity, density, volume, composition, element detection and so on) , Odor intensity, Audio
intensity, physical character ( speed, force, mass, pressure, acceleration, physical condition etc.),
color intensity, measurement and so on are the part of sensor and actuator activities in the perspective
of artificial intelligence.
All the application and human perfection interest over whelming the large demand and application of
wireless sensor network now and in the near future. Having in mind the concept of internet of things,
the implementation without the involvement of sensor is unthinkable. So giving a due time to the
WSN Technology will have a great effect on business. But the existing technology is in an infant age
which has a lot of constraints. Amongst all, the requirement of extended lifetime for a Wireless
sensor node under limited energy enacts the severe design constraints in the aspects of communication

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channel impairment. In this research we conduct to enhance the efficiency of wireless sensor network
by adaptive modulation to improving the performance of commination to hand better quality of
service.

1.1 Background of the study

Recently, wireless sensor networks (WSN) have become important because of their brilliant
competencies. Most of automotive manufacture trying to integrate different sensors on vehicle to
make a self-derive that can collect information from different road sensor, GPS , surveillance camera,
motion sensors and so on and give a decision to calculate the shortest route with the traffic probability
estimation drive to the destination. So many trials have been made and show promising result. We
can mention Volvo and Mercedes Company as an example. On Drone technology, the MagicPro and
Phantom 8 have different sensor that can calculate the nearest object distance and work with GPS. In
General the WSN application has a significant range of fields varying from military science to
agricultural applications; for example, precision agriculture, where a farmer can control temperature
and humidity, or surveillance systems to detect and monitor enemies or threats. Other examples
include observing the activities of birds, small animals and insects, tracking the effects on crops and
livestock of various environmental conditions, monitoring earth's activities and planetary exploration,
discovering forest fires, detecting floods, mapping environment bio complexity and studying
environmental pollution [2].

WSNs can also be used to address numerous challenges in the field of health and medicine by
monitoring and directing data to a base station; it can create an interface to observe conditions of
disabled and integrated patients, monitor diagnostics and drug administration in hospitals, observe
human physiological data and track doctors and patients inside a hospital [1-2]. There are several
examples of using WSNs in healthcare, on heart problems [5-6], asthma, emergency response and
stress monitoring Typically, a WSN application consists of a set of sensor nodes distributed in the
studied area and a few sinks (i.e., base stations); all nodes cooperate with each other to create and
pass generated data to the sink.

The role of every node is to sense data, depending on the application, and then sends it to the related
sink via a single hop or through multiple hops. There are many parameters that should be considered
when dealing with data dissemination, such as data reliability, congestion status and required delay,

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to name a few. Each application needs a different type of sensor network architecture and
communication protocol; for example, military applications are designed based on a dense
deployment of sensors supporting self-organizing, rapid deployment, and fault tolerance. On the other
hand, health applications need only a limited number of sensors connected to a patient with reliable
data transmission. Through health monitoring applications, health industries are trying to change
traditional health care approaches for the elderly and chronic illness by utilizing low cost, ubiquitous
and continuous health care monitoring; however, it is difficult to choose a suitable architecture and
to fit one technology into the overall architecture.

To design a suitable architecture, a number of important factors are taken into consideration. These
factors include cost, size, power, mobility and processing [3]. Another challenge in the
implementation of health care monitoring systems is selecting a technology that fits to the architecture
in order to offer a low cost service and to support mobile users. According to authors in [4], suitable
technologies include a body sensor network, community server, and medical services. ZigBee, a
communication protocol for WSNs, offers a wearable wireless body/personal area network and
provides low cost, low power consumption and portability. Because of the low cost and light weight
of wireless sensors, they are a key device for monitoring systems. However, the short lifetime of these
devices, supplying their power via batteries or other limited sources, means that they cannot offer a
long lasting monitoring service. Thus, energy is a critical issue for sensor lifetime. Generally, sensors
consume energy when they do individual operations such as data sensing and processing, or group-
based operations such as running different communication protocols. There are also several methods
for producing energy, but they cannot eliminate the need for energy management. In most situations,
these techniques increase the complexity of systems and require new methods for energy
management. As a practical example, the critical issues in the quality of service of health care
monitoring systems are reviewed in the next section.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

One of the most important factors of wireless sensor network Communication is electromagnetic
wave propagation through any wireless media which is unreliable by its nature. Amongst the different
issues of wireless sensor network communication multipath channel fading has considerable impact
on the cost of quality of services. Due to the obstacle of object from the line of sight blockage
problem, the receiver accept different signal from different path with different time. This type of
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channel fading problem is called multipath fading. Of course there are different factors that can
prevent a signal reaching to receiver. this occurs when the recipient receives both the signal traveling
over the line-of-sight path from the transmitter, as well as “echoes” of the same signal that have
bounced off objects in the environment (floors, ceilings, doors, people, etc.). Since those copies travel
different distances, they reach the receiver at different times, potentially interfering destructively.
Fades of 20dB to 30dB are not uncommon. Multipath fading depends on the position and nature of
every object in the environment, and is unpredictable in any practical setup. So as much as back off
and bounce off signal happened by different obstacle and incremental bit error ratio and signal noise
ratio that could occur due to the self-interference and external interference which cost the network
retransmission process as well as energy consumption. In order to tackle multipath channel fading
problem of wireless sensor network the following Question should be answered by this thesis.

• What are the major factors of multipath channel fading to happen in dynamically changing
topology of WSN? And How to formulate the probabilistic multipath channel fading
occurrence and probabilistic destructive received frequency by the receiver.

• Is there any possible way to adapt the reaching signal to the receiver by selecting the best
Quality of signal, so that not to request a retransmission of signal which cause long delay and
power consumption in return?

• What could be a good property of topography depicted in the changes of the frequency and
propagation scheme will be favorable for adaptive modulation technics?

• What is the probability of succeeding transmission of signal to be received by the receiver

without the need of retransmitting of signal?

1.3 Objective of the Study

1.3.1 General Objectives

The main objective of this thesis is to enhance the efficiency of wireless sensor network that is
experiencing multipath channel fading problem by applying adaptive modulation technic of selecting
the best quality of Spectral frequency and amplitude of the signal.

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1.3.2 Specific Objectives:

To achieve the above general objective; we will follow predefined procedure step by step by attaining
the following specific objectives:

• To distinguish the major factor for multipath channel fading and detecting mechanism of
signal impairment for channel fading in the case of wireless sensor network spectral
propagation with its specific nature.

• To investigate the possibility of adapting reaching spectral frequency or signal amplitude at

receiver node

• To modify the existing adaptive modulation technics for the betterment of Quality of service
and energy efficiency.

• Propose an enhanced mechanism for improving the Quality of service by adapting existing
channel capability.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Even though an immense growing of demand in wireless sensor network in different fields of study,
there different issues with respect to limited power supply and QoS specially it bigger in case of
heterogeneous WSN. In most cases in wireless sensor farm the sensor node are unique or tailored for
specific purpose, their composition of information tilt to be heterogeneous. QoS of service in WSN
depends on lifetime of battery, the bandwidth of the channel, different algorithms and limitation of
protocols. So ensuring the best QoS in WSN is the big challenge.

There are a lot of different scholars to improve the efficiency of WNS with different algorithm,
protocols and mechanism beginning from the improvement of quality of service, but yet it is far to
be done more. These components are, however, highly integrated within a WSN and their interplay
cannot be easily taken into account every data reliability and quality of service is treated
independently without regard for other constituents. As energy consuming constituents of a WSN are
interrelated intimately, minimizing the quality of service of one constituent may increase the quality

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of service of other constituents and hence may not guarantee the minimization of the overall quality
of service of the entire network.

In our research, the ultimate aim is to produce an energy map architecture of a generic WSN
application with essential and definable energy constituents and the relationship among these
constituents so that one can explore strategies for minimizing the overall quality of service of the
entire application. The benefit of the study will be expected as follow

• This research introduces a novel Architecture and its components as a single overall model
and proposes a feasible formulation to express the overall quality of service of a generic
wireless sensor network application.

• The fundamental aim is to model the quality of service of the entire sensor network by taking
into account of various constraints of channel fading constituents of the network. To achieve
this aim based on proposed architecture, quality of service is modeled in terms of energy
consuming constituents and their input parameters and tasks.

• The study investigates the dependency between extracted parameters and quality of service in
the network and consequently selecting the most important ones by taking advantage of
statistical and machine learning tools.

• The research provides an energy-efficient dynamic topology management algorithm that aims
to increase the overall lifetime of various mesh-topology wireless sensor networks by taking
in to account the interconnection between energy consuming constituents and the most
important parameters.

1.5 Scope and limitation of the Study

The behaviors of wireless communication diversified into many aspects by its nature. From the
diverse wireless network, wireless sensor network issues are wide as its application and its complex
nature. So our scope kept intact to enhancement of efficiency of wireless sensor network using
adaptive modulation only. Under adaptive modulation the major focus will be being from
investigating different research papers, dealing with their contribution to enhance the quality of
service, cons and pros of their investigation, devising a new logical scheme differ from the previous

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investigation, experimentation of the new analyzed technics for Quality of service with the use of
adaptive modulation technics. There are different type of modulation namely QAM and QPSK are
commonly used in IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) and 3G (WCDMA/HSDPA)
wireless technologies. Using Adaptive modulation will increase the QoS in wireless technology by
optimize throughput and which intern cover a long distance. Of Couse there are different phenomena
that can be a challenge for wireless sensor network so called interference, if two independent
transmitters transmit on the same channel such that their signals overlap, they may corrupt each
other’s signal at a receiver’s radio. This requires the transmitter to retransmit, at the cost of additional
time and energy. Interference can come from the same network if the underlying medium access
technology does not schedule contention-free communications. This is particularly problematic if the
two transmitters can hear the receiver, but not hear each other—this is known as the “hidden terminal
problem,” and it requires back off and acknowledgement mechanisms to resolve collisions.
Interference can also come from another network operating in the same radio space, or from a
different radio technology using the same frequency band. The latter, known as “external”
interference, is especially present in unlicensed bands such as the 2.400GHz to 2.485GHz
instrumentation, scientific and medical (ISM) band, crowded with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and 802.15.4.
But in our research interference from different signal propagation is not included and the entire
channel fading problem also is not in our scope.

So our scope will focus on how to enhance the efficiency of wireless sensor network by solving the
multipath channel fading problem using adaptive modulation technics. The whole experimentation
of the theoretical and empirical research will be done using a simulated environment of MATLAB.
Therefore the result and conclusion will be based on simulation result. The limitation of the research
will be the testing and experimental test is not on the actual environment.

1.6 Organization of the Thesis

The organization of this thesis has different chapters with topics and sub-topics which clarify the
subject matter more detail and in understandable way. Every chapter has their own unique part of the
research discussion in harmonious way. The different sections of the chapters of the thesis discuss
the how Adaptive modulation can enhance the efficiency of WSN. The overall concepts of the thesis,

8
the background of the title, statement of the problem and major research question , objective, the
significance of the research and methodology as complement matter have discussed on chapter one.
On the next chapter, what kind of research and related studies have done by different scholar and
their strength and gap have been discussed. Again what kind of research methodology implemented
and how the parameter and metrics are selected, what kind of testing environment used, testing result
and demonstration, and empirical and theoretical proofs used described in chapter three. The result
of the research and the conclusion drawn is discussed on chapter four. Last chapter 5 has held the
summary, conclusion, future work recommendation is inculcated and discussed.

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 Chapter Two

2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

We are living in modern era, where technology is emerged and changing our daily life and living
style day by day. Today sensors are everywhere. Our daily life is surrounded by a lot of sensors that
could help to facilitate to understand our environment. There are a lot of sensor around us practically
access door control, our mobile, bath rooms, computers and so on. Wireless sensor Network (WSN)
can generally be defined as a network of nodes that sense data cooperatively and may control the
environment based on different conditions, enabling interaction among computing devices, persons
and surrounding environment. In WSN each node is equipped with sensor to sense physical
phenomena such as temperature, light, pressure, and humidity etc. process data and transmit to sink
or base station for further processing and analyses.

Research on wireless sensor network was started dates back to the early 1980s, when United State
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DRPA) started distributed sensor network (DSN)
program for US military [15]. Distributed sensor network was expected to have inexpensive nodes
collaborating with each other but expected to operate autonomously, at that time technology was not
as ready as it was assumed to be. Sensors were very large in size (i.e. larger than shoe box) and
number of potential applications was also insufficient. But now, recent development and
advancement in computing, micro-electromechanical and communication technology have resulted
in momentous swing in WSN research and took is near to the innovative vision. New trend for
research on WSN rise in about 1998 and start attracting attention of scientist and researcher
worldwide participation. With starting of this trend WSN research focus on network information
processing and network technologies suitable for ad hoc environment and highly dynamic sensor
nodes. Furthermore, advancement in technology also helped to reduce the size of sensor nodes (I.e.
from deck of card to particle of dust) as cost as well, resulting emergent of many civil applications
such as vehicular sensor network, environment monitoring and body sensors.

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Today, use of WSN can easily be seen in industrial automation applications. According to Fredonia
Group, market share of sensors for industrial use is about 11 million $USD. And according to ON
Word [7], wireless device installed in industrial fields only increase 553% from 2011 to 2016. Around
24 million wireless enabled sensor and actuators are deployed around the globe.

Therefor WSN is a promising research area to mark up the next generation of computing world and
artificial intelligence era as well. Even though the demand increases alarmingly, the challenges of
WSN remain for further investigation to be improved.

2.2. Definitions and Concepts

WSN is a wider concept to deal with hardware architecture to fit the demand, software to serve its
purpose with tiny operating system and application, wireless communication media standards and
technology including batteries type to supply the power. On the narrowed view, the WSN type
categorized in to five based on its area of application. Those are terrestrial WSN, underground WSN,
underwater WSN, multi-media WSN, and mobile WSN. [16]
• Terrestrial WSNs (TWSN): is a type wireless sensor network which consists of multiple
sensor nodes deployed in pre-design or ad-hoc topology. In pre-planned deployment, there is
grid placement, optimal placement, 2- d and 3-d placement models. In ad-hoc deployment,
sensor nodes can be dropped from a plane and randomly placed into the target area.
• Underground WSNs (UWSN): is type of wireless sensor network which consists of many
sensor nodes used underground applications for underground conditions. In this case sink or
base station node are used to collect information from the sensor nodes. An underground WSN
is usually more expensive than a terrestrial WSN in terms of equipment, deployment, and
maintenance.
• Underwater WSNs: These consist of a several sensor nodes and vehicles that are deployed
underwater. As compared to terrestrial WSNs, underwater sensor nodes are more expensive
and fewer no. of sensor nodes are deployed. Autonomous underwater vehicles are used for
exploration or gathering data from sensor nodes. Compared to a dense deployment of sensor
nodes in a TWSN, a sparse deployment of sensor nodes is placed underwater. Typical
underwater wireless communications are established through transmission of acoustic waves.

11
 • Multi-media WSNs: These have been proposed to enable monitoring and tracking of events
in the form of multimedia. Multi-media WSNs consist of a several low cost sensor nodes
equipped with cameras and microphones. These sensor nodes usually interconnect with each
other over a wireless connection for data retrieval, process, correlation, and compression.
Multi-media sensor nodes are typically deployed in a pre-planned manner into the
environment to guarantee coverage. Challenges in such WSN include high bandwidth
demand, high energy consumption, quality of service (QoS) provisioning, data processing and
compressing techniques, and cross-layer design.
• Mobile WSNs: MWSN consist of a no. of sensor nodes that can move on their own and also
interact with the physical environment. Mobile nodes have the ability to sense, compute, and
communicate like static nodes. Mobile nodes also have the ability to reposition and organize
itself in the network. A mobile WSN can start off with some initial deployment and nodes can
then spread out to gather information. Information gathered by a mobile node can be
communicated to another when they are within range of each other. Another key difference
is of data distribution. In a static WSN, data can be distributed using fixed routing or flooding
while in a mobile WSN, dynamic routing is used. Challenges in this type of WSN include
deployment, localization, self-organization, navigation and control, coverage, energy,
maintenance, and data process. 1

In wireless sensor network as in all kinds of networks, the wireless nodes in wireless systems have
to share a common medium for signal transmission. Wireless Signal transmission exposed for
interference. To reduce the interference among different wireless communication there is world
standard to use specific wireless media. So using the specific media bypass to scares propagation
channel problem. To tackle the scarcity of signal transmission media, different mechanism designed
and implemented. One of the mechanism to share common medium use Multiple Access Control
(MAC) protocols. MAC protocols in the IEEE 802.15.4 standard defines the manner in which the
wireless medium is shared by the participating nodes. This is done in a way that maximizes overall
system performance. MAC protocols for wireless networks can be roughly divided into three
categories: fixed assignment (TDMA, FDMA and CDMA), random access assignment (CSMA/CA),
and demand assignment protocols (e.g. polling). In this section, only the most basic concepts of

12
multiple accesses for wireless networks are presented begins from Frequency hopping and shown the
details definition of MAC protocols.

2.2.1 Frequency-Hopping/Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) divides the scientific band in the ISM band into 79
channels of 1 MHz each. The transmitter divides the information and sends each part to a different
channel. The process is known as frequency hopping. The order of the channels or hop sequence used
by the transmitters is predefined and has already been communicated to the receiver. Bluetooth uses
FHSS for its transmission. Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) divides each bit into a pattern
of bits called a chip. The chip is generated by performing an XOR (exclusive-OR) operation on each
bit with a pseudo random code. The output of the XOR operation, i.e. the chip, is then transmitted.
The receiver uses the same pseudo random code to decode the original data.

2.2.2 FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

When the spectral propagation of wirless communication as scare resource in the consumption energy
and bandwidth, different mechanisms are device to solve a given spectral propagation for multi
concurrent users a given channel, those methods are FDMA, TDMA and CDMA [17].

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) divides the available spectrum into sub bands (i.e.
channels) each of which is used by one or more users. Using FDMA, each user is allocated a dedicated
channel, different in frequency from the channels allocated to other users. The user exchange
information using the dedicated channel. The largest problem with FDMA is the fact that the channels
cannot be very close to one another. A separation in frequency is required, in order to avoid inter-
channel interference, as transmitters that transmit on a channel’s main frequency band also output
some energy on sidebands of the channel. Time division multiple access (TDMA) allow users to share
the available bandwidth in the time domain, rather than in the frequency domain. TDMA divides a
band into several time slots and each active node is assigned one or more time slots for the
transmission of its data. Code division multiple access (CDMA) follows a different approach. Instead
of sharing the available bandwidth either in frequency or time, it places all nodes in the same

13
bandwidth at the same time. The transmissions of various users are separated by a unique code that
has been assigned to each user. CDMA is often referred to as direct-sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS). CDMA can be understood by considering the example of various conversations using
different languages taking place in the same room. In such as case, people that understand a certain
language listen to that conversation and reject everything else in the other language.

2.2.3 CSMA/CA

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocols are the basis of the
IEEE 802.11MAC layer. A CSAM node that has a packet to transmit listens to see if another
transmission is in progress. If this is true, the node waits for the current transmission to complete and
then continues to wait for a span of time known as the short inter frame space. Then, if there is still
no traffic on the medium, the node will start transmission; otherwise, it has to wait again for the
medium to become clear.

2.3. Theoretical and Empirical Reviews

In wireless communication at large the concept of adaptive modulation is the practical part of
networks now days, the increasing demand of mobile multimedia services including VoIP, mobile
TV, audio and video streaming, video conferencing, FTP and internet access require intelligent
communication systems able to adapt the transmission parameters based on the link quality. Changing
the modulation and coding scheme yield a higher throughput by transmitting with high information
rates under favorable channel conditions and reducing the information rate in response to degradation
effects of the channel. The idea behind the Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) is to dynamically
change the modulation and coding scheme to the channel conditions. If good Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR) is achieved, system can switch to the highest order modulation with highest code rates (e.g.
64-QAM with code rate𝐶𝑅 = 3⁄4). If channel condition changes, system can shift to other low order

modulation with low code rates (e.g. QPSK with 𝐶𝑅 = 1⁄2 ) [18].
The authors supposed to get the clue how AMC works, to develop our own simulation tools and
validate the simulation results with the real measurements of the HSPA+ mobile network. This thesis

14
is organized as follows; first they present the design of the proposed system model for mobile
communication networks, followed by the simulation results of the static and the adaptive modulation
and coding and the validation from real measurements and finally a conclusion. The authors presented
the simulations of the adaptive modulation and coding for mobile communication networks. They are
simulated HSPA+ with 4dB receiver gain they have observed that the through put could be increased
by increasing the modulation order and the coding rate with the increase of Signal-to-Noise Ratio.
The AMC gives higher throughput by changing the modulation and coding in function of the Signal-
to-Noise ratio. But their test only laid upon mobile network and only focus on the calculation of
signal-to-Noise Ratio achievement. But in the case of shortest distance multipath fading problem
needed to investigate more.

On the other hand, the Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) concentrates on saving
energy and reducing the communication power consumption. In LEACH, a few wireless sensor nodes
are selected randomly to act as cluster-heads. By repeating this cluster-head selection process, the
wireless sensor nodes will share the energy consumption. If the cluster-heads are fixed, then they will
die quickly as they consume more energy than ordinary nodes, which will prevent the other linked
nodes from joining the network. LEACH works in two discrete phases. The first phase is the setup
phase, which includes defining the cluster-heads. The second phase is the steady state phase, which
includes transferring the data. In the setup phase, a group of nodes (P) choose themselves to act as
cluster-heads. These nodes should select a random number between zero and one. If this random
number is greater than a threshold value T (n), then the node n cannot act as a cluster-head. The
LEACH all in all concentrates on the minimization of energy consumption. Even though Energy
maximization is part of QoS, it doesn’t concern the through put optimization.

2.4 Conceptual Model/Frameworks

2.4.1 Conceptual model of LEACH

In the case of the low energy Adaptive Clustering hierarchy concentrate reduction of energy the
author’s states the conceptual model of LEACH the threshold T (n) is calculated below, where G is
the number of nodes that did not act as a cluster head in the last rotation (1/P).

15
 Figure 1: Neighbor nodes join cluster-based in LEACH

Where p- Is the desired percentage of cluster head (CH), r - Is the current round, G- Is the set of nodes
that have not been CHs in the last 1/p rounds.

All the designated cluster-heads send an advertisement to all non-cluster-head nodes to join them as
shown in Figure. 5 After receiving this advertisement, the non-cluster-head nodes will take a decision
as to which cluster-head they want to join. This decision is based mainly on the strength of the signal
from the cluster heads that have reached the node. Therefore, the non-cluster-head will choose the
cluster-head that requires the lowest communication energy. After that, the non-cluster nodes will
report their decision about the choice of the cluster-head to the other cluster-heads [19]. Each cluster-
head will build a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) schedule for all the nodes with in its
cluster. Each node will transfer the data to the cluster-head according to the time schedule. The
cluster-head then aggregates the data in order to reduce the data size. Finally, the aggregated data will
be sent to the sink node. In LEACH there is no way to systematically distribute the cluster-head role
to the sensor nodes inside the network. Moreover, LEACH assumes that all the energy levels in the
network are the same. LEACH also assumes that each node has data to send at a particular time.

16
 Chapter Three

3. Research methodology

3.1 Research Setting

To enhance the efficiency of the wireless sensor network understanding the subject matter is very
important entity. Most of the wireless nodes are dedicated for single purpose; they accumulate an
embedded hardware and embedded software, so by their very nature tilts to be heterogeneous. If we
take automotive tracking system as an example, the tracking system track the location of the vehicle
using GPS, it track the amount of fuel consumption and system, the condition of engine, electrical
system of the vehicle and the controlling system information accessed using different purposed and
specific purposed sensors. And automotive tracking system serves for more than a single automotive.
So the system gathers information in heterogeneous character. What is more, most of the time they
are installed in harassed environment and it expose them for simple damage and disaster. If we
consider the underwater wireless sensors, all the sensor are expected to be water proof and they are
exposed for circuit shortage and signal reflection. There are a lot of disaster we can mention in the
case of wireless sensor node. Among the disasters in WSN nodes is channel impairment. On this
thesis among the channel impairment, we focus on multipath channel fading only. There are different
methodology to comply detecting the multipath signal fading at the signal receiver side, but in our
case we use the define the parameter and metric how to know the channel fading , design system
model and formulate the problem and implement system design using different techniques, Testing
the model and drive conclusion and recommendation

3.1.1 Parameterization and Performance Metrics

3.1.1.1 Parameters

In the case of wireless of communication channel fading is one of the impairment that can be a cause
for loss of quality of service, so as the definition of Adaptive modulation is changing of modulation

17
in relative to channel fading, in general term it is to cope with the varying of radio links quality, link
adaptation scheme are used for many new generation system. Adaptation modulation is an example
of such schemes that can provide optimal data rate for all channel qualities or application requirement.
On the other way round adaptive modulation mean a technics to reduce channel impairment.
Modulation mean mapping of amplitude or frequencies to sinusoidal carrier. There are many types
of link adaptation like, power optimization, ARQ (Automatic re-bit request), holding, spreading, and
interleaving div all these parameter that can adapt base on the requirement of quality.

There are also the main parameters of Adaptive modulation, such as Constellation size,
Transmitting power, Instantaneous BER, Symbol time and Coding rate/scheme. Of course using
one of these parameter has an impact one on to the other, but for the good performance result, we are
expect to select at least 1- 2 degree of freedom. In the case of our study, we will select constellation

Size and transmitting power adaptation scheme for the optimization criteria of maximizing the
throughput and minimize average power requirement and minimize average BER at large.

4-QAM 16 –QAM 64-QAM

Figure 2: Multiple Quadrature Amplitude Modulation order constellation size

As it shown in Figure 6 In case of parameters of constellation size there are different types of
modulation order which measure in the form of MQAM (Multiple Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation), In 4-QAM the number of symbols are 4 and their distance are far apart, in 16-QAM the
number of symbol increase and their distance are narrowed than 4-QAM, in 64-QAM the number of
symbol increase progressively and their separation is very small. If the distance between the symbols
is small in the constellation size mean more prone to errors. As the symbol distance increases, the
degree of freedom also increases, which mean 4-QAM has more degree of freedom than 16-QAM.
So we can conclude that the modulation order affects the distance between the symbols at the same
time it affects the bit error rate. As we have increase the modulation order we can increase our

18
possibility of data encoding size. For example in the case of 4-QAM we use two bit encoding where
as in the case of 64-QAM we use 6 bit for encoding data. This show that 16-QAM is more spectrally
efficient than 4-QAM but it makes more error.

On the other hand the bit error rate also depends not only with the constellation size but also it can
depends on the constellation shape. Using the same modulation order with different amplitude and
phase, we can have different performance and experience different bit error rate. As shown in the
following figures

Figure 3:16 QAM, 3 amplitude, 12 phases Figure 4:16 QAM, 4 amplitude, 8 phase Figure 5:16 QAM, 2 amplitude, 8 phases

As shown in the figure we can use different constellation diagram using the same constellation size
by changing amplitude and phases, so different amplitude have different performance with the same
of order of modulation. Even though they have the same spectral efficiency of the same order of
modulation with different phase diagram, there bit error rate are not the same. On Figure 6 the 16
QAM have rectangular shape 3 amplitude with 12 phases and on figure 7 have rectangular shape with
4 amplitude and 8 phase whereas on figure 8it has circular shape with 2 amplitude and 8 phases.

3.1.1.2 Performance Metrics

Based on the a proposed concept of constellation size concept of signal spectrum, our metrics laid
up on the comparison of BER and SNR experiencing of modulation on different modulation order.
As the modulation order increases the BER get worse, when the modulation order decrease the BER
will getting better, since as the number of symbol increase, the distance between symbol increase so
that the noise increases. We can see the relationship of BER and SNR with the amplitude and phase
shifting. In BPSK (binary Phase shifting key) has smaller BER than QPSK (Quadrature Phase shift

19
key). For the quality of service but for longer period of transmission time we prefer the smallest
modulation order with tradeoff energy. The higher order of modulation will always convey a large
amount of message at a time.

On the simulation, by pass a single-channel and multichannel signal through an AWGN channel
System object, observation will be done in order to compare the amount of noise that could be
reflected on multipath fading problem.

3.1.2 System Model and Algorithm

The basic consideration for system modeling of an Adaptive modulation for Wireless Sensor network
selectively from the parameters of constellation size, fading channel has an impact on signal
constellation. So the system model will solve multipath channel fading with adaptive modulation
technics.

3.1.2.1 System Model

Since WSN is a part of MANET we comply WLAN System Toolbox provides functions for modeling
802.11b/a/j/p/g/n/ac/ah/ad physical layer processing. Format configuration objects are used to
parameterize these functions and to create WLAN waveforms compliant with IEEE® 802.11
standards. [20]

An M-ary Amplitude modulation and phase shifting keying have different extension begins from
BPSK to an MQAM signals. All of these are type of M-ary signal. To adapt the transmitted power,
constellation size, and/or coding technique in order to maintain a given fixed instantaneous BER for
each symbol while maximizing the average data rate We can write the process that describes the
modulated signal in the following forms

20
 Figure 6: Adaptive modulation Model

3.1.2.1.1 The adaptive modulation System model

• SISO system with symbol period 𝑇𝑠 and thus symbol rate 𝑅𝑠 = 1⁄𝑇
𝑠

• We assume ideal Nyquist pulses so the bandwidth is also W = 1/Ts

• We assume a flat fading channel in which each channel use corresponds to one symbol
• The channel power gain is 𝑔[𝑛] = |ℎ[𝑛]|2 , with pdf 𝑝(𝑔) (exponential for a Rayleigh
channel)
𝑁0⁄
• The noise is AWGN with psd 2
• The average transmitted power is 𝑝̅ , and hence the instantaneous SNR is

𝑃̅ 𝑔[𝑛]
𝛾 [𝑛 ] = --------------------------------------------------------------- (32)
𝑁0 𝑊

𝑃̅𝐸[𝑛]
The average SNR is 𝛾̅ = , we estimate the power gain at time n,ĝ[𝑛] (or received SNR 𝛾̂[𝑛]
𝑁0𝑊
and then adapt the data rate R[n] and transmit power P[n]. [21]

21
 𝑟[𝑛]
Adaptive Power Demodulation
Mod. Adapt. √𝑔[𝑛]
and decoding
𝑅[𝑛] 𝑃[𝑛]

AWGN Channel
Estimation
𝑔[𝑛] or 𝛾 [𝑛] 𝐠̂[𝒏] Or 𝜸
̂ [𝒏]

Figure 7: System model for Adaptive modulation and Coding.

• We assume that the estimate is perfect and that the feedback channel involves no delay:
̂[𝒏] = γ[n]
𝐠̂[𝒏] = g[n], 𝜸
• For M-ary modulations R[n] = log(M[n])/Ts bps, where M[n] is the constellation size I The
spectral efficiency (note that it might change with time) is R[n]/W bps/Hz
• For simplicity, and to stress the dependence of the rate, coding, and transmitted power with
the SNR, we will omit the time index and denote P(γ), R(γ), C(γ)
• The rate of channel variation dictates how often the Tx must adapt its transmission parameters
• To further proceed we need to review the BER expressions for the AWGN as a function of
the SNR = γ for different constellations.

3.1.2.1.2 BER expressions for the AWGN channel

We assume that the average symbol energy is divided equally among all bits and that Gray
𝑃
encoding is used, so 𝑃𝑏 = log(𝑠𝑀)

For BPSK -----------------------------------------------------𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑠 =Q (√2𝛾 ) -------------- (33)

For QPSK ---------------------------------------------------- 𝑃𝑠 = 2𝑄(√2𝛾) ------------------ (34)

For MPSK --------------------------------------------------- 𝑃𝑠 = 2𝑄(√2𝛾 sin (𝜋⁄𝑀 ) -------- (35)

22
 2(𝑀−1) 6𝛾
For MPAM ------------------------------------------------- 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑄 (√𝑀2 −1)----------- (36)
𝑀

3𝛾
For MQAM ----------------------------------------------- 𝑃𝑠=4𝑄 (√𝑀−1)---------------------- (37)

−1.5𝛾
⁄(𝑀−1)
A useful approximation for the BER for MQAM modulations is𝑃𝑏 ≤ 0.2𝑒 , which allows
us to obtain M as a function of the target Pb

3.1.2.1.3 Rate adaptation

• R (γ) is changed depending on the received SNR γ. How?

1. We fix the modulation (e.g., QPSK) and change the symbol period → difficult to implement
2. We fix the symbol rate and change the constellation size or modulation type → much
simpler to implement, preferred option
• The modulation parameters are typically fixed over a block of symbols or frame
• The goal to maintain a minimum BER: each constellation is selected for a range of values of
γ

3.1.2.1.4 Continuous power adaptation

• P(γ) is changed depending on the received SNR γ

• The goal is to maintain a fixed BER or, equivalently, a constant received SNR
• We’ve seen that the solution is channel inversion, which converts the fading channel into an
equivalent fixed-SNR AWGN channel

𝛽 𝛽
𝑃 (𝛾 ) = |ℎ|2
= ------------------------------------------------------- (38)
𝛾

Where β is the constant (target) received SNR

• The average power constraint implies that

𝛽
∫ 𝑃 (𝛾 )𝑓(𝛾 )𝑑(𝛾 ) = ∫ 𝛾 𝑓 (𝛾 )𝑑(𝛾 ) = 𝑃̅ ------------------------------------- (39)

23
 ̅
• The constant SNR achieved with channel inversion is 𝛽 = 𝑃⁄ 1
𝐸[ ⁄𝛾 ]

• Suppose we have a target BER of Pb, and we use a fixed modulation. Then, if the value of β
̅
(constant SNR) needed to meet that target is greater than 𝑃⁄ 1 then this target cannot be
𝐸[ ⁄𝛾 ]
met
̅
• Remember that for a Rayleigh channel 1⁄ 1 = ∞ and no BER target can be met I A more
𝐸[ ⁄𝛾 ]
practical alternative was truncated channel inversion

0, 𝛾 < 𝛾0 ,
𝑝 (𝛾 ) = { 𝛽 --------------------------------------------------- (40)
, 𝛾 < 𝛾0,
𝛾

Where the cutoff value γ0 can be based on a desired outage probability 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏(𝛾 < 𝛾0 ) or on
a desired target BER.

𝑃̅
The constant SNR achieved when the channel is in use is 𝛽 = ∞1
∫𝛾 𝛾𝑓(𝛾)𝑑(𝛾)
0

3.1.2.1.5 Discrete power adaptation

• For channel inversion or truncated channel inversion we assume a continuous power variation,
but sometimes only a discrete set of power values is possible at the Tx side

𝑃𝑇𝑥 = {0, 𝑃1 , … … , 𝑃𝑁𝑝 } , where 𝑃𝑇𝑥 = 0 means no transmission, and 𝑃1 > ... > 𝑃𝑁𝑝

• The solution in this case consists of discretizing the fading states of the channel and assign to
each channel state a transmitted power. [22]

24
 Figure 8: Discrete power with fading state

• For a given M-ary modulation (fixed), the levels are chosen to guarantee the target BER: P b

𝑃𝑛 𝛾𝑛
𝐵𝐸𝑅 ( ) = 𝑃𝑏 , 𝑛 = 1, … … … . , 𝑁𝑝 ---------------------------- (41)
𝑁0 𝑊

𝑁0 𝑊
𝛾𝑛 = 𝐵𝐸𝑅 −1 (𝑃𝑏 ), 𝑛 = 1, … … . . , 𝑁𝑝 -------------------------- (42)
𝑃𝑛

• The average transmitted power is

̅ =∑𝑵𝒑 𝑷𝒏 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃(𝑺𝒏 ),
𝑷 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃(𝑺𝒏 ) = ∫𝜸 𝒏
𝜸 +𝟏
𝑷(𝜸)𝒅(𝜸) -------------- (43)
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏

• The spectral efficiency is (1−Prob(E1))log(M)

3.1.2.1.6 Adaptive coding

• In adaptive coding, different channel codes,C(γ), are used to provide different amounts of
channel protection against errors to the transmitted bits
• Intuition: stronger error protection should be provided when γ is small, whereas a weaker
coder should be used when γ is large
• Adaptive coding is typically achieved by puncturing: not transmitting certain coded bits in
convolutional encoders. [23]

25
 Figure 9: Adaptive coding modulation model

3.1.2.1.7 Hybrid techniques

• Hybrid techniques can adapt multiple parameters of the transmission scheme: rate, coding
scheme, power, and even the target BER
• Typical examples include [24]
o Rate and power adaptation
o Adaptive modulation and coding (MCS)

26
 Figure 10: Receiver sensitivity by channel width

Figure 11: comparison of SNR in 802.11 standards

27
We consider the system in Figure 13. It consists of a single AWGN channel, a traffic-load monitor,
and a large number of nodes that generate packets independently and that share the same channel
through random access. The functional abstraction of a node contains components: a packet
generator, an M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (MQAM)-based physical and AWGN channels
Packets in QAM transceiver have the same size, say K bits. A node only contributes an infinitesimal
traffic to the channel. Nodes collectively form a Poisson source with aggregate rate λ packets/second.
The traffic-load monitor, typically a sink in a WSN, periodically samples the traffic load over AWGN
channel (e.g., by counting ACK packets) and decides on an appropriate modulation order, say M, that
will be used by the physical layers at all the nodes under the current traffic load. The MQAM
modulator at a node maps a packet from L bits to klog2 M symbols.

Figure 12: System Model

Denote the Transmission rate of the channel by R symbols/second. So the transmission time of a
packet is

T = K R log2 M seconds ----------------------------------- (44)

We consider a slotted system in which the slot duration τ corresponds to the maximum propagation
time in the network.

Let a def = τ/T.

28
The processing unit at the MAC layer is a packet with length l = T/τ slots. A tagged node will first
sense the channel before it transmits a packet. The activity of sensing the channel is referred to as a
transmission attempt. Depending on the channel occupancy and noise conditions, there are four
possible consequences following a transmission attempt:

I. The channel is busy (occupied by other communications), so the tagged node conducts a back
off before it senses the channel again;
II. The channel is idle and the packet is transmitted, but a collision occurs during the transmission
so the node backs off before trying again;
III. The channel is idle and the packet is transmitted, but the transmission is corrupted by AWGN
so the node backs off before another retransmission attempt; and
IV. The channel is idle and the packet is successfully transmitted.

We denote the probabilities of the above four possibilities by P busy, P collision, P corruption, and P
success, respectively. We assume the node learns the result of its transmission immediately after it
completes this transmission. To make our analysis tractable, we further assume that the back off
duration follows a geometric distribution with a parameter p. Later in the simulations, we relax this
assumption by considering more practical back off policies: the uniform back off and the binary
exponential back off [24]. We show that the distribution of the back off has only a minor influence
on the energy efficiency as long as the average back off duration remains the same. Because our
energy optimization involves physical-layer techniques, our model incorporates the effect of the
AWGN on random access through the probability P corruption. In addition, we assume no energy is
consumed during back off, i.e., the node sleeps during back off by turning off most of its circuits. The
bit error rate (BER) for coherent MQAM with two dimensional Gray coding over an AWGN channel
is given by:

P be (M, γ) = 1 5 e− 1.5γ M−1 ------------------------------------------------ (45)

Where γ def = ES/N0 is the received symbol-energy-to-noise-density ratio under ideal Nyquist pulses
for the modulated symbols. The delay, denoted by D, for successfully transmitting a packet is our
quality of service (QoS) metric of interest. Because of the data redundancy in WSNs, here we consider
a soft delay requirement in the form Pr {D > Tlimit} < δ, where Tlimit and δ are given parameters.

29
3.1.2.2 Adaptive Modulation strategy and implementation

QPSK signal is an extension of the BPSK signal. Both of these are type of M-ary signal. We can
write the process that describes the modulated signal in polar form:

2𝜋𝑗
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 𝑃𝑠 (𝑡)cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) ………………-………………………….. (46)
𝑀

In QPSK modulation mapped the symbols information that we would like to transmit by using the
equation of the angle:

2𝜋𝑗
𝜃𝑖 = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (47)
𝑀

M stands for the order of the modulation which is M = 4 for QPSK. For baseband PSK signal, we use
a square pulse. The pulse has an amplitude of A. The energy in this pulse is equal to the power of the
signal times the duration, T it lasts. Power is equal to A2 with R = 1 and T is the symbol for time.

𝐴2 𝑇 1
𝐸=1= Where 𝐴 = √𝑇------------------------------------------------------------- (48)
2

M stands for the order of the modulation which is M = 4 for QPSK. For baseband PSK signal, we use
a square pulse. The pulse has an amplitude of A. The energy in this pulse is equal to the power of the
signal times the duration, T it lasts. Power is equal to A2 with R = 1Ω and T is the symbol for time.

𝐴2 𝑇 1
𝐸=1= where 𝐴 = √ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ (49)
2 𝑇

Which gives this equation for the pulse, the pulse has this amplitude over a period T secs.

2
𝑝𝑠 (𝑡) = √𝑇-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(50)

Substitute (2) into (1) will yield the modulation equation for general M-PSK signal.

2𝐸𝑠 2𝜋𝑗
𝑆𝑡 (𝑡) = √ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ) Here 𝐴𝑐 = √𝐸𝑠 ------------------------------------------(51)
𝑇 𝑀

Now let’s expand equation (3) using the trigonometric identity:

30
 2𝐸𝑠 2𝜋𝑗 𝜋
𝑆𝑡 (𝑡) = √ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + + (2𝑖 − 1) ) 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4 ------------------------------------(52)
𝑇 𝑀 4

Figure 13: An arbitrary modulation signal for QPSK

I and Q channels are ∅1 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 and ∅2 (𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 respectively

Any two signals created through the scaled versions of the basis signals are also orthogonal. So,
let’s scale these and call them I and Q channel:

2𝐸𝑠
𝐼=√ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(53)
𝑇

2𝐸𝑠
𝑄=√ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(54)
𝑇

The above are clearly orthogonal because we just multiplied the basis with a constant. Now multiply
them with equation (4) for 1,2,3,4 i = and M=4. 2 3 5

2𝐸𝑠 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝐼=√ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 (cos ( ) , cos ( ) , cos ( ) 𝑜𝑟 cos ( ))------------------------------------(55)
𝑇 4 4 4 4

31
 2𝐸𝑠 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝑄=√ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 (sin ( ) , sin ( ) , sin ( ) 𝑜𝑟 sin ( ))------------------------------------(56)
𝑇 4 4 4 4

𝑇
Orthogonality requires that 𝑓𝑐 be an integer multiple 𝑀 , but for large carrier frequencies, this is not

important. Now we can express the modulation equation as: The modulation equation for QAM is a
variation of the one used for PSK. The generalized PSK allows changing both the amplitude and the
phase. In PSK all points lie on the circle so that I and Q values are related to each other. PSK signal
are constant envelope because of this. All points have the same amplitude. If we allow the amplitude
to change from symbol to symbol, then we get a modulation (QAM). It can be considered a linear
combination of AM and PM modulation at the same time [4]. This equation can be used to create
a hybrid type of modulation that varies both the amplitude and the phase. Let’s say that M = 16, so
that we have 16 symbol in the constellation each one represent 4 bit word. We can lay these out in a
circle but they would be too close and the error rate is likely to be high.

Figure 14: Block diagram of QPSK-OFDM

The block diagram of the QPSK-OFDM is shown in Fig. 3 and M-QAM-OFDM will be similar. The
binary information sequence from the data source is quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)-mapped
with Gray encoding. The QPSK symbols are

32
 1 1
𝑎𝐾 ∈ {± ± 𝑗. ± } , (𝐾 = 0,1, … . , 𝐼 − 1)-----------------------------------------------(57)
√2 √2

here K is the number of QPSK symbols in one OFDM symbol. The pilot sequence is also inserted in
order to facilitate channel estimation in the receiver. The serial-to-parallel (S/P) converter buffers the
k-th block of symbols. The (N-K) unused subcarriers are padded by zeros. The frequency-hopped
symbols for all the users are modulated with N orthogonal subcarriers in baseband by means of the
N-point IDFT. These symbols are assumed to be independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.), and
a cyclic prefix with length of M is inserted in each IDFT output to reduce the ISI between blocks.
The complex equivalent low-pass transmitted signal s(t) at the base station can be expressed as

𝐾
𝑆(𝑡) = ∑𝑃−1
𝑝=1 ∑𝑘=0 𝑎𝑝𝐾+𝑘 𝑃𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇𝑠 ). 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑗2𝜋. 𝑣𝑘 (𝑝)𝑓′(𝑡 − 𝑝𝑇𝑠 ))-------------------------------- (58)

where f ' is the minimum subcarrier separation, T s is the OFDM-FFH symbol duration including CP
duration t g . v i (k) ∈{0,1,...,N 1} is the subcarrier index for the
transmitted symbol in the FH signal burst according to the frequency hopping pattern. Notice that
different hopping patterns can be assigned to different OFDM symbols. The additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN) will use for both modulation, basically, model is a channel whose sole effect
is the addition of white Gaussian noise process to the transmitted signal. This channel is
mathematically described by the relation:

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) + 𝑛(𝑡)----------------------------------------------------------------------------(59)

where 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) is the transmitted signal and 𝑛(𝑡)is a sample waveform of a zero-mean white Gaussian
𝑁0
noise process with power spectral density of ; and r(t) is the received waveform as in Figure18 [5].
2

𝑠(𝑡) 𝑆𝑖(𝑟, 𝑡) 𝑟(𝑡)

Impulse Response

𝑛(𝑡)
Gaussian Noise

33
 Figure 15: Model for received signal process through AWGN

Recently, we applied some advanced techniques for both QPSK and 16-QAM, such as Rayleigh
channel and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation for more comparison
to real life systems. In Rayleigh channel, which is a multipath environment, it is reasonably intuitive
to visualize that an impulse transmitted from the transmitter will reach the receiver as a train of
impulses as in Figure 19.

Figure 16: Impulse response of a multipath channel

The phase of each path can change by 2π radian when the delay changes. If f c is large, then relatively
small motions in the medium can cause a change of 2π radian. Since the distance between the devices
is much larger than the wavelength of the carrier frequency, it is reasonable to assume that the phase
is uniformly distributed between 0 and 2π radians and the phases of each path are independent [26].
When there are large numbers of paths, applying Central Limit Theorem, each path can be modelled
as circularly symmetric complex Gaussian random variable with time as the variable. This model is
called the Rayleigh fading channel model.We assume the channel is a wide sense stationary
uncorrelated scattering (WSSUS) frequency-selective fading channel with a Jakes power spectrum
density (PSD). The receiver fading waveform can be expressed as

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑐 ∑𝑁−1
𝑖=0 𝑔𝑖 . 𝑒𝑥𝑝[𝑗(2𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡 + 𝜏∅(𝜏𝑖 ))]------------------------------------------------------(60)

where c is a normalization factor, N is the incident number of rays, and d max f is the maximum
Doppler-shift frequency. The delay vector τi specifies the time delay for each path, and the gain
vector gi specifies the gain for each path. ∅(𝜏𝑖 )is the random phase.

34
3.1.2.2.1.1 General QAM Modulator Baseband Algorithms

The General QAM Modulator Baseband block modulates using quadrature amplitude modulation.
The output is a baseband representation of the modulated signal.

The Signal constellation parameter defines the constellation by listing its points in a length-M vector
of complex numbers. The input signal values must be integers between 0 and M-1 (where M=2n, n-
bits) the block maps an input integer m to the (m+1) st value in the Signal constellation vector. This
block accepts a scalar or column vector input signal.

➢ M-ary phase-shift keying modulation with a phase offset of 𝜃 maps an integer m between 0
and M-1 to the complex value

➢ The complex value 𝑥𝑝(𝑗𝜃 + 2𝑗𝜋 𝑚⁄𝑀 ) .

➢ The modulator accepts binary representations of integers between 0 and M-1.

➢ It modulates each group of K bits, called a binary word. The input can be either a vector of
length K or a frame-based column vector whose length is an integer multiple of K.

To achieve higher-speed data communication, a combination of PS and AM can be used, producing

𝜋 3
the QAM method. This makes us of 0-, 𝜋−, 2 −, 2 𝜋 − 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 phase shifting together with ASK

If we define four signals, each with a phase shift differing by 90 0, we have quadrature phase-shift
keying (QPSK). The input binary bit stream {𝑑𝑘 }, 𝑑𝑘 = 0,1,2, … … .,arrives at the modulator input at
a rate of 1/T bps and is separated into two data streams 𝑑𝐼(𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑄(𝑡) containing odd and even
bits, respectively:

𝑑1 (𝑡) = 𝑑0 , 𝑑2 , 𝑑4 , … … … …

𝑑0 (𝑡) = 𝑑1 , 𝑑3 , 𝑑5 , … … … …

35
3.1.2.2.1.2 General QAM Modulation in AWGN Channel Implementation

The other model of Adaptive modulation strategy evaluating the QAM modulation in AWGN
channel. In presences of Gaussian noise the non-rectangular M-ary constellation transmits and
receives data. We plot for different signal-to-noise ratios of noisy constellation for estimation of
symbol error rate (SER).

3.1.2.3 Multipath Fading Channel design and implementation

This model shows how to use the SISO Fading Channel block from the Communications System
Toolbox™ to simulate multipath Rayleigh and Rician fading channels, which are useful models of
real-world phenomena in wireless communications. These phenomena include multipath scattering
effects, time dispersion, and Doppler shifts that arise from relative motion between the transmitter
and receiver. The model also shows how to visualize channel characteristics such as the impulse and
frequency responses, Doppler spectrum and component gains.

3.1.2.3.1 Multipath Fading Model and Parameters

The simulation model simulate in the QPSK and MQAM transmission over multipath Rayleigh
fading channel and a multipath Rician fading channel. Both the channel blocks are configured from
the SISO Fading Channel library block. We can control transmission and channel parameters via
workspace variables.

modelname = 'commmultipathfading';
rayleighBlock = [modelname '/Rayleigh Channel'];
ricianBlock = [modelname '/Rician Channel'];
rayleighCD = [modelname '/Rayleigh Constellation Diagram'];
pathGainBlock = [modelname '/Path Gains (dB)'];
open_system(modelname);

36
 Figure 17: Multipath Rayleigh and Ricain Fading Channels

The following variables control the "Bit Source" block. By default, the bit rate is 10M b/s (5M sym/s)
and each transmitted frame is 2000 bits long (1000 symbols).

bitRate % Transmission rate (b/s)

bitsPerFrame % Number of bits per frame
bitRate = 10000000
bitsPerFrame = 2000

The following variables control both the Rayleigh and Rician fading channel blocks. By default, the
channels are modeled as four fading paths, each representing a cluster of multipath components
received at around the same delay.

delayVector % Discrete path delays (s)

gainVector % Average path gains (dB)
delayVector = 1.0e-06 * 0 0.2000 0.4000 0.8000
gainVector = 0 -3 -6 -9

37
By convention, the delay of the first path is typically set to zero. For subsequent paths, a 1
microsecond delay corresponds to a 300 m difference in path length. In some outdoor
multipath environments, reflected paths can be up to several kilometers longer than the shortest path.
With the path delays specified above, the last path is 240 m longer than the shortest path, and thus
arrives 0.8 microseconds later.

maxDopplerShift % Maximum Doppler shift of diffuse components (Hz)

maxDopplerShift = 200

Together, the path delays and average path gains specify the channel's delay profile. Typically, the
average path gains decay exponentially with delay (i.e., the dB values decay linearly), but the specific
delay profile depends on the propagation environment. On each channel block, we have also turned
on the option to normalize the average path gains so that their average gain is 0 dB over time.

The following variable controls the maximum Doppler shift which is computed as v*f/c, where v is
the mobile speed, f is the carrier frequency, and c is the speed of light. The default maximum Doppler
shift in the model is 200 Hz which corresponds to a mobile speed of 65 mph (30 m/s) and a carrier
frequency of 2 GHz.

The following variables apply to the Rician fading channel block. The Doppler shift of the line-of-
sight component is typically smaller than the maximum Doppler shift (above) and depends on the
mobile's direction of travel relative to the direction of the line-of-sight path. The K-factor specifies
the ratio of average received power from the line-of-sight path relative to that of the associated diffuse
components.

LOSDopplerShift % Doppler shift of line-of-sight component (Hz)

KFactor % Ratio of specular power to diffuse power (linear)
LOSDopplerShift = 100
KFactor = 10

The SISO Fading Channel block can visualize channel impulse response, frequency response, and
Doppler spectrum while the model is running. To invoke it, set the Channel visualization parameter
to the desired channel characteristic(s) before running the model. Note that turning on channel
visualization may slow down our simulation.

38
3.1.2.4 Multipath Fading Simulation modeling and Sampling

3.1.2.4.1 Using Wideband or Frequency-Selective Fading

By default, the channel's delay span (0.8 microseconds) is larger than the input QPSK symbol period
(0.2 microseconds), which causes considerable inter symbol interference (ISI). So the resultant
channel frequency response is not flat and may have deep fades over the 10M Hz signal bandwidth.
Because the power level varies over the bandwidth, it is referred to as frequency-selective fading.

Setting the channel block's Channel visualization parameter to 'Impulse response' shows the band
limited impulse response (yellow circles). The visualization also shows the delays and magnitudes of
the underlying fading path gains (pink stems) clustered around the peak of the impulse response. Note
that the path gains do not equal the Average path gains (dB) parameter value because the Doppler
Effect causes the gains to fluctuate over time.

set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Impulse response');

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'start');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');

Figure 18: shows impulse response on wideband fading

39
As displayed, the channel impulse response coincides with the path gains for this delay profile
because the discrete path delays are all integer multiples of the input symbol period. In this case, there
is also no channel filter delay.

Similarly, setting the Channel visualization parameter to 'Frequency response' shows the channel's
frequency response. We can also set Channel visualization to 'Impulse and frequency responses' to
display both impulse and frequency responses side by side. We can see that the channel's power level
varies across the whole bandwidth.

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'stop');

set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Frequency response');
set_param(rayleighBlock, 'SamplesToDisplay', '50%');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'start');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');

Figure 19: channel visualization of frequency response as a sample code

40
As shown above, we can also control the percentage of the input samples to be visualized by changing
the channel block's Percentage of samples to display parameter. In general, the smaller the
percentage, the faster the model runs. Once the visualization figure opens, click the Playback button
and turn off the Reduce Updates to Improve Performance or Reduce Plot Rate to Improve
Performance option to further improve display accuracy. The option is on by default for faster
simulation. To see the channel response for every input sample, uncheck this option and
set Percentage of samples to display to '100%'.

For the same channel specification, we now display the Doppler spectrum for its first discrete path,
which is a statistical characterization of the fading process. The channel block makes periodic
measurements of the Doppler spectrum (blue stars). Over time with more samples processed by the
block, the average of this measurement better approximates the theoretical Doppler spectrum (yellow
curve).

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'stop');

set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Doppler spectrum');
set_param(modelname, 'StopTime', '3');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'start');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');
while get_param(modelname, 'SimulationTime') < 2
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'continue');
pause(1);
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');
end

41
 Figure 20: shows Doppler spectrum effect using sampling technics

By opening the constellation diagram following the Rayleigh channel block, we can see the impact
of wideband fading on the signal constellation. To slow down the channel dynamics for visualization
purposes, we reduce the maximum Doppler shift to 5 Hz. Compared with the QPSK channel input
signal, we can observe obvious distortion in the channel output signal, due to the ISI from the time
dispersion of the wideband signal.

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'stop');

maxDopplerShift = 5;
set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Off');
set_param(rayleighCD, 'openScopeAtSimStart', 'on')
sim(modelname, 0.2);

42
 Figure 21: Rayleigh constellation diagram

3.1.2.4.2 Using Narrowband or Frequency-Flat Fading

When the bandwidth is too small for the signal to resolve the individual components, the frequency
response is approximately flat because of the minimal time dispersion and very small ISI from the
impulse response. This kind of multipath fading is often referred to as narrowband fading, or
frequency-flat fading.

To observe the effect, we now reduce the signal bandwidth from 10M b/s (5M sym/s) to 1M b/s
(500K sym/s), so the channel's delay span (0.8 microseconds) is much smaller than the QPSK symbol
period (2 microseconds). Effectively, all delayed components combine at a single delay (in this case,
at zero).

43
 bitRate = 1e6 % 50 kb/s transmission
bitRate = 1000000

We can visually validate this narrowband fading behavior by setting the Channel
visualization parameter to 'Impulse and frequency responses' for the Rayleigh channel block and then
running the model.

close_system(rayleighCD);
set_param(rayleighCD, 'openScopeAtSimStart', 'off')
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Change back to the original value
set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Impulse and frequency responses');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'start');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');

To simplify and speed up simulation, narrowband fading channels are often modeled as a single-
path fading channel. That is, a multiple-path fading model over specifies narrowband fading channel.
The following settings correspond to a narrowband fading channel with a completely flat frequency
response.

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'stop');

delayVector = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay
gainVector = 0; % Average path gain of 0 dB
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'start');
set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'pause');

We now return to our original four-path fading channel and observe how narrowband fading causes
signal attenuation and phase rotation, by opening the constellation diagram following the Rayleigh
channel block. In addition to attenuation and rotation, we can see some signal distortion because of
the small amount of ISI in the channel output signal. The distortion is far less than that seen above
for a wideband channel.

set_param(modelname, 'SimulationCommand', 'stop');

delayVector = [0 2 4 8]*1e-7; % Change back to original value

44
 gainVector = (0:-3:-9); % Change back to original value
maxDopplerShift = 5; % Reduce to slow down channel dynamics
set_param(rayleighBlock, 'Visualization', 'Off');
set_param(rayleighCD, 'openScopeAtSimStart', 'on')
sim(modelname, 0.15);

3.1.2.4.3 Using Rician Fading

The Rician fading channel block models line-of-sight propagation in addition to

diffuse multipath scattering. This results in a smaller variation in the magnitude of path gains. To
compare the variation between Rayleigh and Rician channels, we re-configure the channel blocks to
model a single-path delay and make use of a Time Scope block to view their path gains over time.
Note that the magnitude fluctuates over approximately a 5 dB range for the Rician fading channel,
compared with approximate 15 dB for the Rayleigh fading channel. For the Rician fading channel,
this variation would be further reduced by increasing the K-factor (currently set to 10).

delayVector = 0; % Single fading path with zero delay

gainVector = 0; % Average path gain of 0 dB
maxDopplerShift = 200; % Change back to the original value
close_system(rayleighCD);
set_param(rayleighCD, 'openScopeAtSimStart', 'off')
set_param(pathGainBlock, 'OpenAtSimulationStart', 'on');
sim(modelname, 0.1);
% Cleanup
close_system(modelname, 0);

45
 Figure 22: using Rician Fading sample result of path gain

3.1.3 Performance Evaluation technique

The major conceptual model for handling channel fading through adaptive modulation laid up on
detecting received amount of spectral characteristic at receiver side and how it react the problem of
sensing it. At the receiver side should have capability of calculating the reaching spectral size received
physical layer and calculated value at the network layer with the help of protocol. The common
mechanism calculating signal to noise ratio, in these schemes, modulation order in each channel is
adapted based on its amplitude response, if received channel have higher amplitude implies higher
modulation order. As the receiver node get and calculate the amplitude size possibly, it can send ACK
to the sender with indicator of signal amplitude bit, when the sender receive the ACK with the
amplitude indicator bit, it adjust the modulation order to propagate by modifying constellation.

46
3.1.3.1 Digital Modulation Schemes

A modulation scheme is needed to transmit information over a communication channel. Among the
various modulation methods are; amplitude modulation (data encoded by changing the amplitude of
the signal), frequency modulation (data encoded by changing the frequency of the signal), and phase
modulation (data encoded by changing the phase of the signal). The modulation methods chosen for
this thesis are: Binary phase shift keying (BPSK), Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), and
Quadrature amplitude modulation.

There are different type of modulation Techniques in our simulation tools of MATlab, the
Communications System Toolbox™ supports modulation these techniques for digital data. All the
methods at the far right are implemented in library blocks.

Pulse Amplitude modulation

Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Phase Shifting keying (PSK)

Phase Modulation Differential phase shifting keying (DPSK)

offset phase shifting keying (OPSK)

Modulation Methods for digital Data Frequency Modulation Frequency shifting keying (FSK)

Guassian Minimum shifting keying (GMSK)

Continouse Phase Modulation Minimum shifting keying (MSK)

Continouse phase frequency shifting keying

(CPFSK)

PSK

Trellis-coded
Modulation

QAM

Figure 23: Modulation methods for digital data chart.

Like analog modulation, digital modulation alters a transmittable signal according to the information
in a message signal. However, for digital modulation the message signal is restricted to a finite set.
Modulation functions output the complex envelope of the modulated signal. Using the

47
Communications System Toolbox, you can modulate or demodulate signals using various digital
modulation techniques, and plot signal constellations.

As in many digital modulation schemes, the constellation diagram is useful for QAM. In QAM, the
constellation points are usually arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and horizontal spacing,
although other configurations are possible (e.g. Cross-QAM) as shown in figure 7, 8, 9. Since in
digital telecommunications for the sake of sink or base station for wireless sensor network the data
is usually binary, the number of points in the grid is usually a power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …). Since QAM is
usually square, some of these are rare— the most common forms are 16-QAM, 64QAM and 256-
QAM which we call M-array QAM. By moving to a higher order constellation, it is possible to
transmit more bits per symbol. However, if the mean energy of the constellation is to remain the same
(by way of making a fair comparison), the points must be closer together and are thus more
susceptible to noise and other corruption; this results in a higher bit error rate and so higher-order
QAM can deliver more data less reliably than lower-order QAM, for constant mean constellation
energy. Using higher-order QAM without increasing the bit error rate requires a higher signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) by increasing signal energy, reducing noise, or both.

If data-rates beyond those offered by 8PSK are required, it is more usual to move to QAM since it
achieves a greater distance between adjacent points in the IQ plane by distributing the points more
evenly. The complicating factor is that the points are no longer all the same amplitude and so the
demodulator must now correctly detect both phase and amplitude, rather than just phase.

3.1.3.2 Implementing Adaptive Modulation

The implementations of Adaptive modulation of wireless sensor network in a multipath fading

channel in our scenarios consider the following three major considerations: Nodes deployment
consideration, SNR and BER estimation consideration and modulation order selection scenarios.

48
3.1.3.2.1 Nodes deployment

The deployment of nodes is the first step in this work. It is assumed that initially the nodes are at
random and supporting the mobility. They are also fixed nodes and the nodes deployment indicates
at mixed characteristics; however the placement of nodes is random with Gaussian distribution.

3.1.3.2.2 SNR and BER estimation

The performance of some receivers can be improved through knowledge of the noise power present
on the received signal. The noise power can be determined by analyzing the noisy least squares
estimates and the noise averaged estimates. The received signal noise can be estimated in the case of
amplitude modulation

𝑨𝟐𝒄 (𝟏+𝑲𝟐𝒂 𝑷)
(𝑺𝑵𝑹)𝒄,𝑨𝑴 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (61)
𝟐𝑾𝑵𝒐

Where W is the bandwidth and is modulation index.

With the knowledge of the received power the received SNR is calculated. It assumes the gain of the
transmitter antenna and receiver antenna is unity or 0 dB. This simplifies the calculation. Here there
is no adaptation in operating carrier signal’s frequency, so a carrier frequency of 2.4GHz is taken for
estimating the received power.

In the simulation the probability of error is taken in terms of Q-function. Both results in the same
value.
Probability of bit error for BPSK
𝟐𝑬
𝑷𝒆,𝑩𝑷𝑺𝑲 = 𝑸 (√ 𝑵 𝑩)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (62)
𝒐

Probability of bit error for QPSK is given by

𝑬
𝑷𝒆,𝑸𝑷𝑺𝑲 = 𝟐𝑸 (√𝑵𝑩)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (63)
𝒐

Probability of bit error of QAM of square constellation with M x M constellation points

(generalized)

49
 𝟒(√𝑴−𝟏) 𝟐𝑬
𝑷𝒆,𝑸𝑨𝑴 = 𝑸 (√ 𝑵 𝑩)------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (64)
√𝑴 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝑴 𝒐

The Probability of bit error for 16 QAM is simplified as

𝑬𝑩
𝑷𝒆,𝟏𝟔−𝑸𝑨𝑴 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑸 (√𝟎. 𝟖 )-------------------------------------------------------------------------- (65)
𝑵𝒐

The Probability of bit error for 64 QAM is simplified as

𝟕 𝟐𝑬
𝑷𝒆,𝟔𝟒−𝑸𝑨𝑴 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑸 (√𝟕𝑵𝑩)----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (66)
𝒐

The equations 62, 63, 64 and 65 are used in the simulation to calculate the probability of bit error for
the adaptively chosen modulation. In those equations the term Eb/N0 denotes the ratio of energy per
bit to noise power spectral density, which is taken as the signal to noise ratio at the cluster head. In
the next section the simulation results are presented.

3.1.3.2.3 Selection of modulation

The modulation is selected based on the SNR value. For a particular range of signal to noise ratio one
sort of modulation is selected. This further requires the calculation of the BER for the range of SNR
value. The next section provides the details of the BER as a function of SNR to be used for making
the BER limitation criteria. The calculation of BER is done for one round trip. Based on the value of
the BER the modulation is chosen for the next round trip. For each round trip the BER is estimated.

3.2 System model Evaluation Technics

To implement the system model of theoretical part of our research, we have used different type of
simulation tools which support wireless communication configuration and testing software’s such as
MATLab-R2018a Simulink, WLAN Communication Toolbox, as we will discuss on the Simulation
Environment section.

50
3.2.1 Simulation Environment

We have used WLAN tool Box from MATLab-R2018a for Generating General QAM Modulation
in AWGN Channel based on the system model and Algorithm we have proposed and setup the
parameters for simulation of multipath channel fading using Rayleigh and Rician multipath
fading channel System objects and their built-in visualization to model a fading channel. Rayleigh
and Rician fading channels are useful models of real-world phenomena in wireless communication.
These phenomena include multipath scattering effects, time dispersion, and Doppler shifts that
arise from relative motion between the transmitter and receiver.

Processing a signal using a fading channel involves the following steps:

1. Create a channel System object that describes the channel that we want to use. A channel object
is a type of MATLAB® variable that contains information about the channel, such as the
maximum Doppler shift.

2. Adjust properties of the System object, if necessary, to tailor it to our needs. For example, we can
change the path delays or average path gains.

3. Apply the channel System object to our signal using the step method, which generates random
discrete path gains and filters the input signal.

The characteristics of a channel can be shown with the built-in visualization support of the System
object.

We have used the implementation of Adaptive modulation using MATLAB-SIMULINK simulator.

Simulation sampling technics follow out of 50 wireless sensor by 50 wireless sensor grid as clustering
is one of our parameterization technics all are in a fixed position of 200m vertical and 200 horizontal
with supposition of some obstacles to have a multipath fading effects. The transmission range 250
and interference rage 550, agent type TCP Sink with packet size of 1500 byte. Application type CBR
of packet size 1000.

51
 Figure 24: wireless node distributed randomly with in the cluster.

Based on the above sampling model of simulation the rest of 25 wireless sensor nodes are in a moving
within the wireless coverage area for 300 seconds of simulated time. Through the given time the
spectral propagation distributed randomly through the simulation plot emitting from the source to the
destination node, them the noise signal ratio calculated to be able to adjust the modulation by selection
methods from the received signal which have the lowest noise signal to ratio. The movement scenario
we used for each simulation is characterized by a pause time. Each node begins the simulation by
selecting a random destination in the simulation area and moving to that destination at a speed
distributed uniformly between 0 and 20 meters per second. It then remains stationary for pause time
seconds. This scenario is repeated for the duration of the simulation. We carry out simulations with
movement patterns generated for 10 different pause times starting by 0s varying by 100s Step until
900s (the length of the simulation) is reached, which corresponds to limited motion. The physical
52
radio characteristics of each mobile node’s network interface, such as the antenna gain, transmission
power, and receiver sensitivity, were chosen to approximate the Lucent WaveLAN direct sequence
spread spectrum radio.

3.2.2 Simulation Observation and Analysis Techniques

One way to compute the bit error rate or symbol error rate for a communication system is to simulate
the transmission of data messages and compare all messages before and after transmission. This
section describes how to compare the data messages that enter and leave the simulation.

3.2.2.1 Using Simulated Data to Compute Bit and Symbol Error Rates

Since the Bit error rate comparison among the given modulation order as one of a key indicator of
transmission efficiency, we compare the bit error rate and Signal-to noise ration using MATlab
function. The biterr function compares two sets of data and computes the number of bit errors and
the bit error rate. The symerr function compares two sets of data and computes the number of symbol
errors and the symbol error rate. An error is a discrepancy between corresponding points in the two
sets of data.

Of the two sets of data, typically one represents messages entering a transmitter and the other
represents recovered messages leaving a receiver. We might also compare data entering and leaving
other parts of our communication system, for example, data entering an encoder and data leaving a
decoder.

If our communication system uses several bits to represent one symbol, counting bit errors is different
from counting symbol errors. In either the bit- or symbol-counting case, the error rate is the number
of errors divided by the total number (of bits or symbols) transmitted. If the error rate is very small
(for example, 10-6 or smaller), the semi-analytic technique might compute the result more quickly
than a simulation-only approach

53
3.2.2.2 Semi-analytic Technique

On the other hand in Simulated Data works well for a large heterogeneous environment of wireless
sensor network system, but can be prohibitively time-consuming if the system's error rate is very
small (for example, 10-6 or smaller). This section describes how to use the semi-analytic technique as
an alternative way to compute error rates. For certain types of systems, the semi-analytic technique
can produce results much more quickly than a nonanalytic method that uses only simulated data.

The semi-analytic technique uses a combination of simulation and analysis to determine the error rate
of a communication system. The semi-analytic function in Communications System Toolbox™ of
MATlab helps we implement the semi-analytic technique by performing some of the analysis.

3.2.2.2.1 When to Use the Semi-analytic Technique

The semi-analytic technique works well for smaller error rate, but not for others. The semi-analytic
technique is applicable if a system has all of these characteristics:

• Any effects of multipath fading, quantization, and amplifier nonlinearities must precede the
effects of noise in the actual channel being modeled.

• The receiver is perfectly synchronized with the carrier, and timing jitter is negligible. Because
phase noise and timing jitter are slow processes, they reduce the applicability of the semi-analytic
technique to a communication system.

• The noiseless simulation has no errors in the received signal constellation. Distortions from
sources other than noise should be mild enough to keep each signal point in its correct decision
region. If this is not the case, the calculated BER is too low. For instance, if the modeled system
has a phase rotation that places the received signal points outside their proper decision regions,
the semi-analytic technique is not suitable to predict system performance.

Furthermore, the semi-analytic function assumes that the noise in the actual channel being
modeled is Gaussian.

54
3.2.2.2.2 Procedure for the Semi analytic Technique

The procedure below describes how we would typically implement the semi-analytic technique using
the semi-analytic function:

1. Generate a message signal containing at least ML symbols, where M is the alphabet size of the
modulation and L is the length of the impulse response of the channel in symbols. A common
approach is to start with an augmented binary pseudo noise (PN) sequence of total length (log2M)
ML. An augmented PN sequence is a PN sequence with an extra zero appended, which makes the
distribution of ones and zeros equal.

2. Modulate a carrier with the message signal using baseband modulation. Supported modulation
types are listed on the reference page for semi-analytic. Shape the resultant signal with rectangular
pulse shaping, using the oversampling factor that we will later use to filter the modulated signal.
Store the result of this step as txsig for later use.

3. Filter the modulated signal with a transmit filter. This filter is often a square-root raised cosine
filter, but we can also use a Butterworth, Bessel, Chebyshev type 1 or 2, elliptic, or more general
FIR or IIR filter. If we use a square-root raised cosine filter, use it on the no oversampled
modulated signal and specify the oversampling factor in the filtering function. If we use another
filter type, we can apply it to the rectangular pulse shaped signal.

4. Run the filtered signal through a noiseless channel. This channel can include multipath fading
effects, phase shifts, amplifier nonlinearities, quantization, and additional filtering, but it must not
include noise. Store the result of this step as rxsig for later use.

5. Invoke the semi-analytic function using the txsig and rxsig data from earlier steps. Specify a
receive filter as a pair of input arguments, unless we want to use the function's default filter. The
function filters rxsig and then determines the error probability of each received signal point by
analytically applying the Gaussian noise distribution to each point. The function averages the
error probabilities over the entire received signal to determine the overall error probability. If the
error probability calculated in this way is a symbol error probability, the function converts it to a
bit error rate, typically by assuming Gray coding. The function returns the bit error rate (or, in the
case of DQPSK modulation, an upper bound on the bit error rate).

55
 Chapter Four

4. Result and Discussion

4.1 Simulation Result and Interpretation

The simulation analysis show that when the signal-to-noise ratio increase the bit error Rate decreases
as shown on the figure 17, it increases the quality of service. In the case Wireless sensor network both
the quality of service and timelessness of the information are needed. According to the simulation
result shows as when the SNR are in between 10-15db the lower modulation order are preferable.
Whereas when the SNR decibel increase the higher modulation order are preferable. At the Physical
circumstance of WSN, the receiver antenna by investigating the SNR and BER probability
distribution using AWGN at the physical layer of the network. It will determent and adjust the
modulation order. Especially in the case of multipath fading effect of reaching symbol at the receiver
node with different time will force to adjust the modulation order for better signal strength.
As Modulation of from the transmitter side to propagate the different type of Amplitude and phase
modulation constellation size, the receiver node play adjusting itself for the best quality of signal with
the best symbol by calculation SNR and BER. What we should not forget here in the case of Wireless
sensor network the network are considered in Mobile Ad-hoc network conditions.

By Taking the above condition in to consideration the simulation have been tested on two different
senarios, the first sinarios when the sesnor nodes are have a fixed position and are exposed for
multipath fading problem, where as the second senarios focused on when the sensor nodes are in
mobile condition which have not a fixed network topology and comply proactive routing protocols
in the simulation. All the system model for different modulation order of phase shifting keying and
Amplitude modulation of M-ary namely BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM have tested as shown
in the figure 28. Based on the setting of Simulation enviroment and our problem formulation, the
result as follow

56
 Figure 25: BER to SNR comparison for different Modulation Order

The comparason between Bit error Rate and signal noise ration shows that on different modulation
order have different channel gain result, as the node move from a certian position from 0 SNR to 30
SNR values in the same BER QPSK have a good gain than BPSK, and 16-QAM have a good gain
than QPSK and it goes on like this. Which shows that adapting the channel gain by calculating the
BER value and SNR improve the perfomance of wireless channel communication. General it shows
that Adapting the modulation order based on Signal-to-noise ratio gian enhance the efficiency of
wireless sensor network to gian the best though put gian.

As we increase the phase to 16-QAM and 64 QAM the BER will increase as shown on figure 28 as
sensor node move form o to 30 SNR (dB) to x-axis direction the BER get worse at it is changing it
phase and modulation order. But that doesn’t mean that the smallest phase shift and modulation order
are best. When the modulation order became so small the capability of carrying bit became more
small which mean it need a long time to convey an information from sender to receiver. So the sensor
node expected to adapt based calculating to achieve good SNR and BER.
57
4.1.1 Phase Shifting key scheme

When the Quadrature phase shifting key orthogonally divides the frequency applied of the adaptive
modulation. It Modulate QPSK over AWGN channel using the technique that mapping the Gray code
by set to 4 π radians constellation and calculate the bit error rate using:

𝟏 𝑬
𝑷(𝒆)𝑸𝑷𝑺𝑲 = 𝟐 𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒄(√𝑵𝒃 )---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (67)
𝒐

The MATlab-Simulink system runs for SNR from 1 to 10 dB and yields the result shown in Figure
29. QPSK modulation with OFDM is simulated over Rayleigh Fading Channel based on Maximum
Doppler Shifts power of the signal. Based on this formula in terms of the speed of the mobile, a
signal from a moving car on a freeway might experience a maximum Doppler shift of about 80 Hz,
while a signal from a moving nodes might experience a maximum Doppler shift of about 4 Hz. The
following modulation in Figure 29 has sample time 1⁄192 and using equation of fd the maximum
Doppler shift will be small about 3.2e-6 Hz.

Figure 26: BER of QPSK over AWGN

58
4.1.2 M-ary Quadrature amplitude modulation Scheme

Modulate 16-QAM over AWGN channel using the technique that calculated the BER in inter-
symbol distance and split constellation for 16 different phases using the following rule [4]:

𝑑2
𝐸𝑏 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (68)
2

Substitute the value of Eb in P QPSK (e) equation will generate:

1 𝑑2
𝑃(𝑒)16𝑄𝐴𝑀 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(√ ) ------------------------------------------------------------------ (69)
2 4𝑁𝑜

Figure 27: BER of MPSK over AWGN

59
 Figure 28: BER of MPSK-OFDM over Multipath Fading Channel

To comment in 16-QAM modulation for AWGN so far we have seen that BER is a little bit higher
than the signal keeps its error over 10 dB. That means we need to run it while increasing the SNR so
the system will cost more for the power. Moreover, constellation diagrams for the three different
SNR’s show that the signal at the receiver is not even close to the transmitting modulation phase
angles. Back to what we mentioned earlier, the straightforward solution for improving the signal by
increasing the signal power. Now we will implement the 16-QAM using Multipath Fading channel.
The purpose of this is to move the system simulation toward a real life application where there is
much interference to the wireless signal like there would be in a metropolitan city.

60
 Figure 29: BER for 16QAM over Multipath Fading Channel

Even so, 16-QAM with Multipath Fading channel represents a high percentage of BER. For instance,
from SNR = 6 dB to SNR = 10 dB we have an average of 15% of error which is still pretty high. By
running the previous 16-QAM with OFDM modulation for an optimization purposes we can conclude
that, under the same AWGN Channel either OFDM been used, the results indicate QPSK outperforms
QAM. It does not have an error as high as the 16-QAM. Furthermore, QPSK can handle about 460416
bits with no errors, but 16QAM has obviously more errors. Finally, we tested OFDM over Multipath
Fading Channel from 0dB to 10dB, as shown in Fig. 10. The Simulink experiment was operated with
the same coefficients that we used in the QPSK module and the performance shows no obvious
difference.

61
 Chapter Five

5. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Summary

In this thesis, we show how channel hopping can be used in WSNs to efficiently combat multipath
channel fading using adaptive modulation in wireless sensor network as a result it enhance the
efficiency by improving the channel communication and maximize energy lifetime. The simulation
Averment and Experimental results allow us to compare the channel AWGN result on different
constellation diagram by changing the modulation order and phase shifting in small ranging area of
coverage. These indicate that, in order to transition out of a deep fade, a node can either move its
location by 5.5cm, or change its operating frequency. Depending on the distance between transmitter
and receiver, the change in frequency necessary range from a single to a few QPSK and QAM
channels With OFDM and deferent type of MAC Protocol implementation. Using traces from
simulation of MATLAB Communication Toolbox, We evaluate the diversity in the links that
constitute this network. From this analysis, we propose adaptive modulation techniques of Rate
Adaptation, power adaptation, coding adaptation and Hybrid Adaptation model that helps to calculate
the Bit Error Rate with Signal-to-noise ratio probility estimation using AWGN ensures that
subsequent frequency channels including channel fading estimation done by the receiver and send
back to the transmitter node to adjust the modulation of signal propagation.

Using these all technics the simulation result prove that Adaptive modulation for Wireless sensor
network enhance its efficiency by optimizing the throughput and maximizing the energy. We believe
that the design parameters proposed in this thesis will help the WSN engineer design Mechanism.

62
5.2 Conclusion

This thesis proposed to enhance the efficiency of wireless sensor network using an adaptive
modulation technics which can ensuring quality communication channel with the assumption of
improving throughput and energy efficiency of wireless sensor networks. All the experimental
activities of testing multipath fading of QPSK, MQAM (M=1,2,4,5 and 6) has been done through
MATLAB Simulink for AWGN.

To elaborate, we inspects the different result of QPSK and MQAM (M=1,2,4,5 and 6) over two
different channels. First, AWGN could be a nice performance for QPSK with bit error percentage
0.074% which is far better than 16-QAM since M-QAM has 5%, so we can count on QPSK for high
quality. On the other hand, Multipath Fading Channel has a higher bit error rate in both systems. In
the range of low SNR (0-10dB), Multipath Fading Channel works a little better for QPSK than M-
QAM by comparing BER.

Moreover, It contains the details of few nodes, which includes the modulation and probability of error
which using this modulation. Basically for higher signal to noise ratio values the higher order
modulation techniques like M-ary PSK [12] or MQAM modulations are used. Typically they are used
to support large data rates. For lower signal to noise ratios in order to maintain the BER to be in an
appreciable value the lower order modulations like BPSK, Differential PSK or QPSK are used.

This technique provides very less system complexity because here only one parameter is taken as
criteria for obtaining good link quality with lowest possible BER. From the result of simulation we
can conclude Adaptive modulation technics can enhance the efficiency of Wireless Sensor Network
by improving throughput using Rate adaptation model and Maximize the power usage using Power
adaptation model technics.

5.3 Recommendation

This is not the end of this topic, this work can be extended by including more criteria for choosing
the modulation. The other parameters might be quality of service, throughput and density of nodes in
a given scenario. Though it could increase the complexity and requires more battery power it provides
appreciable link quality the direct analysis of energy efficiency will also be seen in our future works.

63
Since the wireless sensor network demand increase fast, the subject area need more studies on the
accuracy and precision of transmitting signal. This helps to facilitate the advancement of wireless
sensor network. Especially the artificial intelligence computing and sensing the external world with
respect to the human understanding and responding the case intellectually is the big demand in the
calculation and clustering of wireless sensor network. So the future work should be focused more on
optimization of through put and maximization of energy efficiency of the node in wireless sensors.

64
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67
Appendices

6. List of Tables

6.1 Theoretical Results

6.1.1 Common Notation

The following notation is used throughout this Appendix:

Quantity or Operation Notation

Size of modulation constellation M

Number of bits per symbol k=log2M

Energy per bit-to-noise power-spectral-density ratio EbN0

Energy per symbol-to-noise power-spectral-density =k

EsN0 EbN0
ratio

Bit error rate (BER) Pb

Symbol error rate (SER) Ps

Real part Re[⋅]

Largest integer smaller than A⋅B

Table 1: Table of Notions

68
The following mathematical functions are used:

Function Mathematical Expression

∞
Q function 1 2
𝑄 (𝑥 ) = ∫ exp (−𝑟 ⁄2)𝑑𝑡
√2𝑥
1

∞
Marcum Q function 𝑡 2 + 𝑎2
𝑄(𝑎, 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) 𝐼0 (𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2
1

∞ 𝑣+2𝑘
Modified Bessel Function of the first kind of (𝑧⁄2)
𝐼𝑣 (𝑧) = ∑
order 𝑣 𝑘! 𝜏(𝑣 + 𝑘 + 𝐼 )
𝑘=0

Where
∞

𝜏(𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑡 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑡
0

Is the gamma function

Table 2: Functions and mathematical Expression

The following acronyms are used:

Acronym Definition

M-PSK M-ary phase-shift keying

DE-M-PSK Differentially encoded M-ary phase-shift keying

BPSK Binary phase-shift keying

69
Acronym Definition

DE-BPSK Differentially encoded binary phase-shift keying

QPSK Quaternary phase-shift keying

DE-QPSK Differentially encoded quadrature phase-shift keying

OQPSK Offset quadrature phase-shift keying

DE-OQPSK Differentially encoded offset quadrature phase-shift keying

M-DPSK M-ary differential phase-shift keying

M-PAM M-ary pulse amplitude modulation

M-QAM M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation

M-FSK M-ary frequency-shift keying

MSK Minimum shift keying

M-CPFSK M-ary continuous-phase frequency-shift keying

Table 3: Acronym and Definitions

6.2 Formula Definition and Simulation Codes

6.2.1 SER Simulation for OFDM Link

This shows how to perform a symbol error rate (SER) simulation of an over-the-air OFDM
communication link.

70
A basic communications link using OFDM modulation with QPSK symbols is simulated. There is a
single transmit and a single receive antenna.

Create QPSK modulator and demodulator objects.

qpskMod = comm.QPSKModulator;
qpskDemod = comm.QPSKDemodulator;
Create a default OFDM modulator and demodulator pair.

ofdmMod = comm.OFDMModulator;
ofdmDemod = comm.OFDMDemodulator;
Use the info function to determine the required input dimensions for the OFDM modulator.

modDim = info(ofdmMod)
modDim = struct with fields:
DataInputSize: [53 1]
OutputSize: [80 1]

Set the number of frames. Determine the number of OFDM symbols per frame from
the modDim.DataInputSize array.

nFrames = 100;
nSymbolsPerFrame = modDim.DataInputSize(1);
Create an error rate counter with a reset input port. Initialize the symbol error rate vector, SER.

errRate = comm.ErrorRate('ResetInputPort',true);
SER = zeros(nFrames,1);
Run the simulation over 100 OFDM frames (5300 symbols). During loop execution, generate a
random data vector with length equal to the required number of symbols per frame, Apply QPSK
modulation and then apply OFDM modulation. Pass the OFDM modulated data through the AWGN
channel and then apply OFDM demodulation. Demodulate the resultant QPSK data and compare it
with the original data to determine the symbol error rate.

for k = 1:nFrames
% Generate random data for each OFDM frame
data = randi([0 3],nSymbolsPerFrame,1);

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 % Apply QPSK modulation
txQPSK = qpskMod(data);

% Apply OFDM modulation

txSig = ofdmMod(txQPSK);

% Pass OFDM signal through AWGN channel

rxSig = awgn(txSig,23); % Demodulate OFDM data
rxQPSK = ofdmDemod(rxSig); % Demodulate QPSK data
rxData = qpskDemod(rxQPSK); % Compute BER
errors = errRate(data,rxData,1);
SER(k) = errors(1);
end

6.3 AWGN Channel

6.3.1 Section Overview

An AWGN channel adds white Gaussian noise to the signal that passes through it. You can create an
AWGN channel in a model using the comm.AWGNChannel System object™, the AWGN
Channel block, or the awgn function.

The following examples use an AWGN Channel: QPSK Transmitter and Receiver and General QAM
Modulation in AWGN Channel.

6.3.2 AWGN Channel Noise Level

The relative power of noise in an AWGN channel is typically described by quantities such as

• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) per sample. This is the actual input parameter to
the awgn function.

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 • Ratio of bit energy to noise power spectral density (Eb/No). This quantity is used
by BER Analyzer Tool and performance evaluation functions in this toolbox.

• Ratio of symbol energy to noise power spectral density (Es/No)

6.3.2.1 Relationship between Es/No and Eb/No

The relationship between Es/No and Eb/No, both expressed in dB, is as follows:

Es/N0 (dB)=Eb/N0 (dB)+10log10(k)

Where k is the number of information bits per symbol.

In a communication system, k might be influenced by the size of the modulation alphabet or the code
rate of an error-control code. For example, if a system uses a rate-1/2 code and 8-PSK modulation,
then the number of information bits per symbol (k) is the product of the code rate and the number of
coded bits per modulated symbol: (1/2) log2(8) = 3/2. In such a system, three information bits
correspond to six coded bits, which in turn correspond to two 8-PSK symbols.

6.3.2.2 Relationship between Es/No and SNR

The relationship between Es/No and SNR, both expressed in dB, is as follows:

Es/N0(dB)=10log10(Tsym/Tsamp)+SNR (dB) for complex input signals

Es/N0 (dB) =10log10 (0.5Tsym/Tsamp) +SNR(dB) for real input signals

Where Tsym is the symbol period of the signal and Tsamp is the sampling period of the signal.

For example, if a complex baseband signal is oversampled by a factor of 4, then Es/No exceeds the
corresponding SNR by 10 log10(4).

Derivation for Complex Input Signals. You can derive the relationship between Es/No and SNR
for complex input signals as follows:

Es/N0 (dB)=10log10((S⋅Tsym)/(N/Bn))=10log10((TsymFs)⋅(S/N))=10log10(Tsym/Tsamp)+S
NR (dB)

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Where

• S = Input signal power, in watts

• N = Noise power, in watts

• Bn = Noise bandwidth, in Hertz

• Fs = Sampling frequency, in Hertz

Note that Bn= Fs = 1/Tsamp.

Behavior for Real and Complex Input Signals. The following figures illustrate the difference
between the real and complex cases by showing the noise power spectral densities Sn(f) of a real band
pass white noise process and its complex low pass equivalent.

Figure 30: Real Band pass noise power Spectral Density

6.3.2.3 comm.AWGNChannel System object

Add white Gaussian noise to input signal

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Description

comm.AWGNChannel adds white Gaussian noise to the input signal.

When applicable, if inputs to the object have a variable number of channels,

the EbNo, EsNo, SNR, BitsPerSymbol, SignalPower, SamplesPerSymbol, and Variance properties
must be scalars.

To add white Gaussian noise to an input signal:

1. Create the comm.AWGNChannel object and set its properties.

2. Call the object with arguments, as if it were a function.

To learn more about how System objects work, see What Are System Objects? (MATLAB).

Creation

Syntax

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel(Name,Value)

Description

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel creates an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel

System object™, awgnchan. This object then adds white Gaussian noise to a real or complex input
signal.

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel(Name,Value) creates a AWGN channel object, awgnchan,

with the specified property Name set to the specified Value. You can specify additional name-value
pair arguments in any order as (Name1,Value1,...,NameN,ValueN).
Properties

Unless otherwise indicated, properties are nontunable, which means you cannot change their values
after calling the object. Objects lock when you call them, and the release function unlocks them.

If a property is tunable, you can change its value at any time.

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For more information on changing property values, see System Design in MATLAB Using System
Objects (MATLAB).

NoiseMethod — Noise level method

'Signal to noise ratio (Eb/No)' (default) | 'Signal to noise ratio (Es/No)' | 'Signal to noise ratio
(SNR)' | 'Variance'

Eb/No — Ratio of energy per bit to noise power spectral density

10 (default) | scalar | row vector

Es/No — Ratio of energy per symbol to noise power spectral density

10 (default) | scalar | row vector

SNR — Ratio of signal power to noise power

10 (default) | scalar | row vector

BitsPerSymbol — Number of bits per symbol

1 (default) | positive integer

Signal Power — Input signal power

1 (default) | positive scalar | row vector

Samples Per Symbol — Number of samples per symbol

1 (default) | positive integer | row vector

Variance Source — Source of noise variance

'Property' (default) | 'Input port'

Variance — White Gaussian noise variance

1 (default) | positive scalar | row vector

Random Stream — Source of random number stream

'Global stream' (default) | 'mt19937ar with seed'

Seed — Initial seed

67 (default) | nonnegative integer

Usage

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For versions earlier than R2016b, use the step function to run the System object™ algorithm.
The arguments to step are the object you created, followed by the arguments shown in this
section.

For example, y = step (obj, x) and y = obj(x) perform equivalent operations.

Syntax

outsignal = awgnchan(insignal)

outsignal = awgnchan(insignal,var)

Description

outsignal = awgnchan(insignal) adds white Gaussian noise, as specified by awgnchan, to the

input signal. The result is returned in outsignal.

outsignal = awgnchan(insignal, var) specifies the variance of the white Gaussian noise. This syntax
applies when you set the NoiseMethod to 'Variance'and VarianceSource to 'Input port'.

For example:

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel('NoiseMethod','Variance','VarianceSource','Input port');

var = 12;

...

outsignal = awgnchan (insignal, var);

Input Arguments

insignal — Input signal

scalar | vector | matrix

var — Variance of additive white Gaussian noise

positive scalar | row vector

Output Arguments

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 outsignal — Output signal
matrix

Object Functions

To use an object function, specify the System object as the first input argument. For example, to
release system resources of a System object named obj, use this syntax:

release(obj)

Common to All System Objects

Examples

Create Default AWGN Channel System Object

Create an AWGN channel System object with the default configuration. Pass signal data through
this channel.

Create an AWGN channel object and signal data.

awgnchan = comm.AWGNChannel;
insignal = randi([0 1],100,1);
Send the input signal through the channel.

outsignal = awgnchan(insignal);
Add White Gaussian Noise to 8-PSK Signal

Modulate an 8-PSK signal, add white Gaussian noise, and plot the signal to observe the effects of
noise.

Create a PSK modulator System object™. The default modulation order for the PSK modulator
object is 8.

pskModulator = comm.PSKModulator;
Modulate the signal.

modData = pskModulator(randi([0 7],2000,1));

Add white Gaussian noise to the modulated signal by passing the signal through an
AWGN channel.

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channel = comm.AWGNChannel('EbNo',20,'BitsPerSymbol',3);
Transmit the signal through the AWGN channel.

channelOutput = channel(modData);
Plot the noiseless and noisy data using scatter plots to observe the effects of noise.

scatterplot(modData)

Figure 31: Quadrature with in phase scatter plot

scatterplot(channelOutput)

Figure 32: Quadrature in phase with 10db SNR

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Change the Eb/No property to 10 dB to increase the noise.

channel.Eb/No = 10;
Pass the modulated data through the AWGN channel.

channelOutput = channel(modData);
Plot the channel output. You can see the effects of increased noise.

scatterplot(channelOutput)

Figure 33: Quadrature in phase with 30db SNR

Process Signals When Number of Channels Changes

Pass a single-channel and multichannel signal through an AWGN channel System object™.

Create an AWGN channel System object with the Eb/No ratio set for a single channel input. In this
case, the Eb/No property is a scalar.

channel = comm.AWGNChannel('EbNo',15);
Generate random data and apply QPSK modulation.

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 data = randi([0 3],1000,1);
modData = pskmod(data,4,pi/4);
Pass the modulated data through the AWGN channel.

rxSig = channel(modData);
Plot the noisy constellation.

scatterplot(rxSig)

Figure 34: QPSK Modulation SNR

Generate two-channel input data and apply QPSK modulation.

data = randi([0 3],2000,2);

modData = pskmod(data,4,pi/4);
Pass the modulated data through the AWGN channel.

rxSig = channel(modData);
Plot the noisy constellations. Each channel is represented as a single column in rxSig. The plots are
nearly identical, becasue the same Eb/No value is applied to both channels.

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scatterplot(rxSig(:,1))
title('First Channel')

Figure 35: 16-QAM vs SNR scatter plot

scatterplot(rxSig(:,2))
title('Second Channel')

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 Figure 36: 64 QAM Vs SNR scatter plot

Modify the AWGN channel object to apply a different Eb/No value to each channel. To apply
different values, set the Eb/No property to a 1-by-2 vector. When changing the dimension of
the Eb/No property, you must release the AWGN channel object.

release(channel)
channel.Eb/No = [10 20];
Pass the data through the AWGN channel.

rxSig = channel(modData);
Plot the noisy constellations. The first channel has significantly more noise due to its lower Eb/No
value.

scatterplot(rxSig(:,1))
title('First Channel')

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 Figure 37: 264-QAM vs SNR scatter plot

scatterplot(rxSig(:,2))
title('Second Channel')

Figure 38: Add AWGN Noise Variant in 16-QAM

Add AWGN Using Noise Variance Input Port

Apply the noise variance input as a scalar or a row vector, with a length equal to the number of
channels of the current signal input.

Create an AWGN channel System object™ with the Noise Method property set to 'Variance' and
the Variance Source property set to 'Input port'.

channel = comm.AWGNChannel('NoiseMethod','Variance', ...

'VarianceSource','Input port');
Generate random data for two channels and apply 16-QAM modulation.

data = randi([0 15],10000,2);

txSig = qammod(data,16);

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Pass the modulated data through the AWGN channel. The AWGN channel object processes data
from two channels. The variance input is a 1-by-2 vector.

rxSig = channel(txSig,[0.01 0.1]);

Plot the constellation diagrams for the two channels. The second signal is noisier because its
variance is ten times larger.

scatterplot(rxSig(:,1))

Figure 39: Quadrature-in phase scatter plot of AWGN

scatterplot(rxSig(:,2))

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 Figure 40: 64-QAM AWGN scatter plot

Repeat the process where the noise variance input is a scalar. The same variance is applied to both
channels. The constellation diagrams are nearly identical.

rxSig = channel(txSig,0.2);
scatterplot(rxSig(:,1))

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 Figure 41: Constellation diagrams for AWGN

scatterplot(rxSig(:,2))

6.4 General QAM Modulation in AWGN Channel

Transmit and receive data using a nonrectangular 16-ary constellation in the presence of Gaussian
noise. Show the scatter plot of the noisy constellation and estimate the symbol error rate (SER) for
two different signal-to-noise ratios.

Create a 16-QAM constellation based on the V.29 standard for telephone-line modems.

c = [-5 -5i 5 5i -3 -3-3i -3i 3-3i 3 3+3i 3i -3+3i -1 -1i 1 1i];

M = length(c);
Generate random symbols.

data = randi([0 M-1],2000,1);

Modulate the data by using the genqammod function. General QAM modulation is necessary
because the custom constellation is not rectangular.

modData = genqammod(data,c);
Pass the signal through an AWGN channel having a 20 dB signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

rxSig = awgn(modData,20,'measured');
Display a scatter plot of the received signal and the reference constellation, c.

h = scatterplot(rxSig);
hold on
scatterplot(c,[],[],'r*',h)
grid
hold off

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 Figure 42: General QAM Modulation in AWGN Channel

Demodulate the received signal by using the genqamdemod function. Determine the number of
symbol errors and the symbol error ratio.

demodData = genqamdemod(rxSig,c);
[numErrors,ser] = symerr(data,demodData)
numErrors = 1
ser = 5.0000e-04
Repeat the transmission and demodulation process with an AWGN channel having a 10 dB SNR.
Determine the symbol error rate for the reduced SNR. As expected, the performance degrades when
the SNR is decreased.

rxSig = awgn(modData,10,'measured');
demodData = genqamdemod(rxSig,c);
[numErrors,ser] = symerr(data,demodData)
numErrors = 462
ser = 0.2310

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