B737 Autothrottle (A/T) - Normal and Non-Normal   Operations

The AutoThrottle (A/T) is part of the Automatic Flight System (AFS) comprising the
Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) and the Autothrottle (A/T).  The A/T can
provide automatic thrust control through all phases of flight. 

LEFT:  Mode Control Panel (MCP) showing A/T on/off solenoid switch and speed
window.  The MCP shown is the Pro model manufactured by CP Flight in Italy (click
image to enlarge).

The A/T functionality is designed to operate in unison with the Autopilot (A/P),
Nevertheless, a flight crew will not always adhere to this use, some crews preferring
to fly manually or partially select either the A/P or A/T.

A search on aviation forums will uncover a plethora of comments concerning the use
of the A/T which, combined with A/P use and non-normal procedures (conditions),
can be easily be misconstrued.  An interesting discussion can be read here.

This post will examine, in addition to normal A/T operation, some of the non-normal
conditions  and there advantages and possible drawbacks.  Single engine operation
will not be addressed as this is a separate subject.

For those interested in revising the AFDS system in detail, I recommend perusing
the  Boeing B737 Automatic Systems Review.

When to Engage / Disengage the Autothrottle (A/T)

The A/T is engaged whenever the A/T toggle is armed and the speed annunciator is
illuminated on the Mode Control Panel (MCP).  Either of these two functions can be
selected together or singularly.  Likewise, during the takeoff roll the A/T can be
engaged (usually after reaching 80 knots ground speed) by pressing the TO/GA
buttons located under the thrust lever handles.  This will engage the A/T in the TO/GA
command mode.  The main reason that TO/GA command mode is engaged to control
the A/T during takeoff and climb is that it simplifies thrust procedures during a busy
segment of the flight.

Once engaged, the TO/GA command mode will control all thrust outputs to the
engines until the mode is exited, either at the designated altitude set on the MCP, or by
activating another automaton mode such as Level Change (LVL CHG).  When TO/GA is
engaged, the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) will announce TO/GA providing a visual
cue.

ABOVE:  FMA Captain-side PFD showing TO/GA annunciated during takeoff roll.

A question commonly asked is: ‘When is the A/T disengaged and in what
circumstances?’  Seemingly, like many aspects of flying the Boeing aircraft, there are
several answers depending on who you speak to.

Ultimately, A/T use is at the discretion of the pilot flying, however, airline company
policy often dictates when the crew can engage and disengage the A/T.  The Flight
Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

‘A/T use is recommended during takeoff and climb in either automatic or manual
flight, and during all other phases of flight’. 

In the FCTM, Boeing recommends the A/T is only used when the A/P is engaged (the
A/T and A/P are coupled).
In general, a flight crew should disengage the A/T system at the same time as the
A/P.  This enables complete manual input to the flight controls and follows the
method recommended by Boeing.

My preference during a non-precision approach is to disconnect the A/T and A/P no

later  than between 1500 and 1000 feet, or for precision approaches at whatever
height is stipulated on the approach chart.  It is not uncommon that a flight crew will
manually fly an aircraft from 10,000 feet to landing using the ILS, VNAV and LNAV
cues for guidance and situational awareness.  Many pilots enjoy hand-flying the
aircraft during the approach phase.

When hand flying the aircraft with the A/T not engaged, it is very important to
monitor the airspeed.  This is especially so when during the final approach as thrust
can easily decay to a speed very close to stall speed. 

The Autothrottle is Designed to be used in Unison with the Autopilot

The A/T is a sophisticated automated system that will continually update thrust
based on minor pitch and attitude changes, and operates exceptionally well when
coupled with the A/P.  But, when the A/P is disengaged and the A/T retained, its
reliability can be questionable.

Some crews believe that if a landing is carried out with the A/P off and the A/T
engaged, and a fall in airspeed occurs, such as during the flare, then the A/T will
engage to apply thrust causing the potential for a tail strike.  Likewise, if during the
approach there are excessive wind gusts, pitch coupling (discussed below) may occur.

The advantages  of using the A/T and A/P together are:

•      Speed is stabilized
•      Speed floor protection is maintained
•      Task loading is reduced
•    Flight crews can concentrate on visual manoeuvring and not have to be overly
concerned with wind additives

The disadvantages  of using the A/T  without the A/P engaged are:

•      Additional crew workload and possible loss of situational awareness
•      Potential excessive and unexpected throttle movement caused by pith and attitude
changes
•      Potential excessive airspeed when landing in windy conditions with gusts
•      The potential for pitch coupling to occur (discussed below)
•      A loss of thrust awareness (out of the loop)

Boeing 737 Design

The design of the Boeing 737 is prone to pitch coupling because of its under wing
mounted engines.  This causes the thrust vector to pitch up with increasing thrust,
and pitch down with a reduction in thrust.

LEFT:  B737 NG style thrust levers.

The A/T is designed to operate in conjunction with the A/P, to produce a consistent
aircraft pitch under normal flight conditions.  If the A/P is disengaged but the A/T
remains engaged, pitch coupling may develop.

Pitch Coupling

Pitch coupling is when the A/T system actively attempts to maintain thrust based on
the pitch/attitude of the aircraft. It occurs when the A/P is not engaged and manual
inputs (pitch and roll) are used to control the aircraft. 
If the pitch inputs are excessive, the A/T will advance or retard thrust in an attempt to
maintain the selected MCP speed.    This coupling of pitch to thrust can be potentially
hazardous when manually flying an approach, and more so in windy conditions.

Scenario - pitch coupling

For example, imagine you are in level flight with A/T on, A/P off, and a brief wind
change causes a reduction in airspeed. The A/T will slightly advance the throttles to
maintain commanded speed. This in turn will cause the aircraft to pitch slightly
upwards, triggering the A/T to respond to the subsequent speed loss by increasing
thrust, resulting in further upward pitch. The pilot will then correct this by pushing
forward on the control column decreasing pitch. As airspeed increases, the A/T will
decrease thrust causing the aircraft to decrease more in pitch.

The outcome is that a coupling between pitch and thrust will occur causing a roll-a-
coaster type ride as the aircraft increases and then decreases pitch, based on pilot
input and A/T thrust control.

Non-Normal Operations of the Autothrottle (speed button not engaged)

The primary function that the A/T ARM mode is to provide minimum speed
protection.  A crew can ARM the throttle but not have it linked to a speed.  To
configure the A/T in ARM mode, the solenoid A/T toggle is set to ARM, but the SPEED
button located on the MCP is not selected (the annunciator is not illuminated).

LEFT:   A/T ARM solenoid, N1 and speed button.  The N1 and speed button illuminate
when either is in active mode.  In the image, the A/T is armed; however, the speed
option not selected allowing thrust to be controlled manually.

Scenario - speed button not engaged during TO/GA

To facilitate a  TO/GA, some flight crews arm the A/T but do not engage the speed
option (speed button on MCP).  This allows a TO/GA to be accomplished more
expediently and with less workload during a non-precision approach (the pilot flying
only has to push the TO/GA button and the A/T will automatically become
operational). 
If a Go-Around is not necessitated during the approach, the A/T solenoid switch is
disengaged prior to landing, either by manually 'throwing' the toggle or pressing the
A/T buttons located on the thrust levers.  Although favoured by some flight crews, this
practice is not authorized by all airlines, with some company policies expressly
forbidding the ARM A/T technique.

The recommendation by Boeing in the B737 Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM)
states:

  ‘The A/T ARM mode is not normally recommended because its function can be
confusing. The primary feature the A/T ARM mode provides is minimum speed
protection in the event the airplane slows to minimum manoeuvring speed. Other
features normally associated with the A/T, such as gust protection, are not provided’. 
(When the A/T is armed and the speed button option not selected).

A/T Speed Protection and Vref in Windy, Gusty and Turbulent Conditions

When using the A/T during an approach in windy conditions, to provide sufficient
wind and gust protection, the command speed should be set to Vref +5 knots. 
Variances above or below command speed will cause the A/T to either increase speed
(if command speed falls) or conversely decrease speed.  The Vref +5 knots will provide
a safety buffer to protect against these variances.    During turbulence, the A/T will
maintain a thrust that is higher than necessary (an average) to maintain command
speed (Vref).

If the A/T is disengaged or the speed option not engaged, minimum speed protection
will be lost.

Refer to ‘Crosswind Landings Part 2’ for additional information on Vref.

Manual Override - Engaging the Clutch Assembly

Occasionally, for any number of reasons, the flight crew may need to override the A/T
automation. 

LEFT:  A/T disengage button on throttle thrust lever.  This is an OEM throttle from a
B737-300 series.  The button is identical to that used in the NG with the exception that
the handles are white and not grey.  Depressing this button will disengage the A/T
and disconnect the A/T solenoid switch on the MCP.

The Boeing A/T is fitted with a clutch assembly that allows the flight crew to either
advance or retard the thrust levers whilst the A/T is engaged.  Moving the thrust
levers during automation will engage the clutch allowing the thrust to be controlled
manually.

Whilst this style of flying is usually not recommended, the clutch is there to allow the
A/T to be manually overridden, such as in an emergency or for immediate thrust
control.

Most flight crews, will not use this override facility, preferring to dial into the speed
window of the MCP an altered speed.

Currently ProSim737 does not support manual A/T override.

Simulation Nuances
This discussion relates to the flight dynamics of a real aircraft. Whether these traits
present in a simulation depends on how well the flight controls are calibrated, the
finesse of the avionics package used, and the accuracy of the aircraft flight model.

For example, depending on which avionics suite is used, the A/T may not maintain the
speed selected in the MCP.  This is especially prevalent during extended turns such as
during a procedure turn in windy conditions.  To counter against incorrect airspeed
you must either, change the speed in the MCP speed window, disengage the A/T and
manually alter thrust,  or press the speed annunciator on the MCP.  Pressing the
speed annunciator will cause the throttle automation to be turned off; however, the
A/T remains in the arm mode.

The last option is a good way to overcome this shortfall of not having manual
override.  By disconnecting the speed option, the thrust levers can be jiggled forward
or aft to adjust the airspeed.  When the turn has been completed with manual input to
maintain the correct airspeed, the automation (A/T) can be engaged again by
depressing the speed annunciation button.

It is important if the A/T is not engaged, or is in the ARM only mode, that the crew
maintains vigilance on the airspeed of the aircraft.  There have been several incidents
in the real world whereby crews have failed to observe airspeed changes.

Manual Flying (no automation engaged)

The benefit of flying with the A/T and A/P not engaged is the ease that the aircraft
manoeuvres.  The crew sets the appropriate %N1 that produces the correct amount
of thrust to maintain whatever airspeed is desired; gone are the thrust surges as the
A/T attempts to maintain airspeed.

Granted, it does take considerable time and patience to become competent at flying
manually in a variety of conditions, but the overall enjoyment increases three-fold.

Company Policies
Airline company policies often dictate how a flight crew will fly an aircraft, and while
some policies are expedient, more often they relate to cost savings for the company in
question.

Policies vary concerning A/T use.  For example, Ryanair has a policy to disconnect the
A/T and A/P simultaneously, as does Kenya Airways.  Air New Zealand and QANTAS
have policies that encourage a crew to disengage the A/T and A/P by a certain
altitude for non-precision approaches. 

Confusion and Second Guessing - Vref with A/T Engaged or Disengaged

There is considerable confusion and second guessing when it comes to determining

the Vref to select dependent on whether the A/T is engaged or disconnected at
landing.  To simplify,

If the A/T is going to be disconnected before touchdown, the command speed should
be adjusted to take into account winds and gusts (as discussed above and in
‘Crosswind Landings Part 2’).  It is vital that a flight crew monitor airspeed when the
A/T is not engaged as during the approach the speed can decay close to stall speed.

If the A/T is to remain engaged during the landing (as in an autoland precision
approach), the command speed should be set to Vref +5.  This provides speed
protection by keeping the engine thrust at a level that is commensurate with the Vref
command speed.

Final Call

There is little argument that the use of the A/T is a major benefit to reduce task
loading; however, as with other automated systems, the benefit can come at a cost,
which has lead several airlines to introduce company policies prohibiting the use of
A/T without the use of the A/P; pitch coupling, excessive vertical speed, and incorrect
thrust can lead to hard landings and possible nose wheel collapse, unwanted ground
effect, or a crash into terrain.
Ultimately, the decision to use or not use the A/T and A/P as a coupled system is at the
discretion of the pilot in command, and depends upon the experience of the crew
flying the aircraft, the environmental conditions, and airline company policy. 
However, as mentioned earlier, the recommendation made by Boeing preclude A/T
use without the A/P being engaged.

Disclaimer

The content in this post has been proof read for accuracy; however, explaining
procedures that are convolved and subjective can be challenging.  Errors on occasion
present themselves. If you observe an error, please contact me so it can be rectified.

Acronyms and Glossary

A/P – Autopilot (CMD A CMD B) 

A/T – Autothrottle
AFDS – Autopilot Flight Director System
Command Speed - In relation to the Autothrottle, Command Speed is Vref +5 knots.
FCTM – Flight Crew Training Manual (Boeing Corporation)
FMA – Flight Mode Annunciator
Manual Flight – Full manual flying. A/T and A/P not engaged
MCP – Mode Control Panel
Minimal Speed Protection  – Function of the A/T when engaged.  The A/T has a
reversion mode which will activate according to the condition causing the reversion
(placard limit). (For example, flaps, gear, etc.)
Pitch Coupling  – The coupling of A/T thrust to the pitch of the aircraft.  A/T thrust
increases/decreases as aircraft pitch and attitude changes.  Pitch coupling occurs
when the A/P is not engaged, but the A/T is enabled
Selected/Designated Speed – The speed that is set in the speed window of the MCP
Take Off/Go Around (TO/GA)  – Takeoff Go-around command mode.  This mode is
engaged during takeoff roll by depressing one of two buttons beneath the throttle
levers
Vref  – Landing reference speed

Boeing 737-800 Takeoff Procedures (simplified)

AUGUST 4, 2014 AT 22:25

One aspect many ‘virtual pilots’ find difficult to grasp is the correct method of flying the aircraft, especially the takeoff
and transition to climb and cruise. 

LEFT:  Captain-side B737 trim tabs with backlighting turned on (OEM throttle quadrant).

The sheer volume of information available on the Internet often results in ‘information overload’ and it is
understandable that many become bewildered to the correct way of completing a task.  The boundaries between fact
and fiction quickly become blurred.  Add to this that many articles on the Internet have not been peer reviewed and you
have a recipe set for disaster!

New Flyers

This post is to cater towards the new flyer rather than the advanced flyer.  I will not discuss before and after takeoff
checklists, how to determine aircraft weights, use of the Control Display Unit (CDU) or how to configure the overhead,
but rather instruct on the basic procedures used to takeoff, climb and transition to cruise.

Variability Allowed

The first aspect to take on board is that there is no absolute correct method for takeoff and climb.  Certainly, there are
specific tasks that need to be completed; however, there is an envelope of variability allowed.  This variability may relate
to how a particular flight crew flies the aircraft, environmental considerations (ice, rain, wind, noise abatement,
obstacles, etc.), flight training, or a specific airline policy. 

Whenever variability is injected into a subject you will find those who work in absolutes having difficulty.  If you’re the
kind of person who likes to know exactly what to do at a particular time, then I’d suggest you find a technique that fits
with your liking and personality. 

Table 1 is a ‘ready reckoner’ that explains much of what occurs during the takeoff roll, climb out and transition to
altitude.  Like anything there are some specific terms that you need to remember and more importantly understand. 

Peer Review

The information in the below chart has been peer reviewed by B737 Captain.  He agreed with the content; however,
reiterated the variability allowed by flight crews when flying the B737. 

TABLE 1: Condensed points that need to be addressed during a takeoff and climb.  The procedures are outlined in more
detail below the table. The table does not reflect any particular airline operation.  The below table can be downloaded
here Takeoff Procedure Table 
Procedure
The following procedures assume other essential elements of pre-flight set-up have been completed.

1.    On the Mode Control Panel (MCP) dial into the altitude window an appropriate target altitude, for example 13,000
feet. 

2.    In the MCP speed window dial in the V2 speed.  The V2 speed is the speed that is followed until acceleration height
is reached and flap retraction begins.  To V2 is added either 15 or 20 KIAS (V2+15 or V2+20).  V speeds are defined by the
CDU based on aircraft weight.  A crew will alter the + figure to lower/increase pitch during takeoff depending on the
weight of the aircraft and other environmental variables.  It is often a company policy whether +15 or +20 is used.  

3.    Turn on the Flight Director (FD) switches (pilot flying side first).

4.    Set flaps 5 and trim the aircraft using the electric trim on the yoke to the correct trim figure for takeoff. This figure is
shown on the CDU (for example, 5.5 degrees) and is calculated dependent upon aircraft weight with passengers and
fuel.  It is usual for the trim figure to place the trim tabs somewhere within the green band.

5.    Arm the A/T toggle (the airline Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) may indicate different timings for this
procedure).

6.    Release the parking brake and advance the throttle levers manually to around %40 N1 (some FCOMS differ to the
%N1 recommended.  For example %60 N1).  Wait for thrust to stablize (roughly 2-3 seconds).  

7.    Once the throttles are stabilized (look at the thrust arcs on the EICAS screen to ensure both arcs are stable) depress
one or both TOGA buttons.  The thrust levers will now be automatically advanced by the A/T to the correct %N1 output
calculated by the Flight Management System. 

 Do not push the thrust levers forward of the target %N1 - let the A/T do it (otherwise you will not know if there
is a problem with the A/T).  See point 10 RE: hand placement.

8.    Maintain slight forward pressure on the control column to aid in tyre adhesion. Focus on the runway approximately
three-quarters in front of the aircraft.  This will assist you to maintain visual awareness and keep the aircraft centered on
the centerline.

9.    During initial takeoff roll, the pilot flying should place their hand on the throttle levers in readiness for a rejected
takeoff (RTO). The pilot not flying should place his hand behind the throttle levers.  Hand placement facilitates the least
physical movement should an RTO be required. 

10.    The pilot not flying will call out ‘80 Knots’.  Pilot flying should slowly release the pressure on the control column so
that it is in the neutral position.  This will soon be followed by V1 indicated on the speed tape of the Primary Flight
Display (PFD).  Takeoff is mandatory at V1 and Rejected Takeoff (RTO) is now not possible.  The flight crew, to reaffirm
this decision, should remove their hands from the throttles; thereby, reinforcing the ‘must fly’ commitment in that the
speed is beyond the limits for a safe RTO.

11.    At Vr (rotation), pilot not flying calls ‘Rotate’.  Pilot flying slowly and purposely initiates a smooth continuous
rotation at a rate of no more than 2 to 3 degrees per second to an initial target pitch attitude of 8-10 degrees.  Rotation
can begin ~5 KIAS before Vr speed is reached.
Normal lift-off attitude for the B737-800 is between 8 and 10 degrees providing 20 inches of tail clearance at flaps 1 and
5. Tail contact will occur at 11 degrees of pitch if still on or near the ground. 

12.    After lift-off, continue to raise the nose smoothly at a rate of no more than 2 to 3 degrees per second toward 15
degrees of pitch attitude.  The Flight Director (FD) cues will probably indicate around 15 degrees. 

Be aware that the cues provided by the flight director may on occasion be spurious; therefore, learn to see through the
cures to the actual aircraft horizon line.

13.    You will also need to trim the aircraft to maintain minimum back pressure (neutral stick) on the control column. 
The B737 is usually trimmed to enable flight with no pressure on the control column.  It is normal following rotation to
trim down a tad to achieve neutral loading on the control column.

14.    When positive rate has been achieved, and double checked against the speed and vertical speed tape in the PFD,
the pilot flying will call ‘Gear Up’ and pilot not flying will raise the gear to minimize drag and allow air speed to increase.

15.    The Flight Director will command a pitch to maintain an airspeed of V2 +15/20.  Follow the Flight Director (FD)
cues, or target a specific vertical speed.  The vertical speed will differ widely when following the FD cues as it depends on
weight, fuel, derates, etc. If not using the FD cues, try to maintain a target vertical speed (V/S) of -2500 feet per minute. 

 If the FD cues appear to be incorrect, or the pitch appears to be too great, ignore the FD and follow vertical
speed guidance. 

 Bear in mind that vertical speed has a direct relationship to aircraft weight - if aircraft weight is moderate use
reduced takeoff thrust (derates) to achieve recommended vertical speed.

V2+15/20 is the optimum climb speed with takeoff flaps.  It results in maximum altitude gain in the shortest distance
from takeoff.

16.    Fly the Flight Director (FD) pitch bars maintaining airspeed of V2 +15/20.  Maintain an air speed of Vr +15/20 until
you reach a predefined altitude called the Acceleration Height (AH).  AH is defined by company policy and is usually 1000
feet or 1500 feet altitude.

17.    At Acceleration Height, push the control column forward, increasing air speed and lowering vertical speed.  A rough
estimate to target is half the takeoff vertical speed.   Press N1 on the MCP (if wanted) and follow FD cues to flaps UP
speed. 

 When N1 is selected the autothrottle will control the speed of the aircraft to the N1 limit set by the Flight
Management System (FMS).  Selecting N1 ensures the aircraft has maximum power (thrust) in case of a single
engine failure.

 This mode does not control aircraft speed. The autothrottle will set maximum N1 power.   Speed is controlled by
aircraft pitch attitude.

 Selecting N1 on the MCP does not provide any form of speed protection.  

18.    Dial into the MCP speed window the climb speed or constraint speed.  Observe the PFD and retract flaps on
schedule following the flaps retraction bugs located on the speed tape. 
  Do not retract flaps unless the aircraft is accelerating and the airpeed is at, or greater than V2+15/20 - this
ensures the speed is within the manoeuvre margin to allow for over-bank protection.  Do not retract flaps below
1000 feet AGL. 

 Some airline FCOMs state that at Acceleration Height (usually 1000 feet RA) or at Thrust Reduction Height
(usually 1500 feet RA), the flaps should be retracted on schedule, and automation engaged (VNAV. LVL CHG, etc)
when the flaps are in the UP position.

 A  common prompt (memory jogger) is speed, N1, flaps (see point 17).

19.    At flaps UP (marked UP on the PFD speed tape), either manually fly (pitch and roll control) to altitude or engage
automation (Level Change, VNAV, LNAV, V/S, CWS, CMD A/B engaged).  Remember that unless you select another
mode, TOGA command mode will be engaged from takeoff until you each the assigned altitude on the MCP.  Selecting
N1 does not change the TOGA mode.

 Some flight crews when reaching acceleration height (AH) call 'Level Change, Set Top Bug'.  This ensures that
TOGA speed is cancelled and causes the Flight Director (FD) cues to lower; thereby, increasing speed as Level
Change increases thrust.

 Other flight crews may engage Control Wheel Steering (CWS) following flaps UP and fly in this mode to 10,000
feet before engaging the autopilot (CMD A/B).  Whatever the method, it is at the discretion of the pilot in
command and the method is often stipulated by company policy.

 If using automation, VNAV can be engaged no lower than 400 feet RA (company policy may indicate otherwise). 
Note that selecting VNAV does not provide flaps overspeed protection.

 Engaging VNAV will automatically blank out the MCP speed window and increase the speed of the aircraft to
that defined in the CDU (usually 250 KIAS).  The speed can be observed in the PFD.  Follow the Flight Director
(FD) cues. 

20.    The aircraft is usually flown at a speed no faster than 250 KIAS to 10,000 feet.  At 10,000 feet, climb speed is
automatically populated if automation (VNAV) was engaged at a lower altitude.  The same will occur for cruise speed. 

 If the aircraft is being flown by hand (manually), then the appropriate climb and cruise speeds will need to be
dialed into the MCP.  At 10,000 feet, dial 270 KIAS into the MCP speed window and then at 12,000 feet dial in
290 KIAS.  Follow the Flight Director (FD) cues or maintain roughly 2000-2500 fpm vertical speed.  At cruise
altitude, transition to level flight and select on the MCP speed window 290-310 KIAS or whatever the optimum
speed is (see CDU).
 Guidelines Only (FCOMs Differ)

The above guidelines are general.  Specific airline policy for a particular airline may indicate otherwise.  Likewise, there is
considerable variation in how to actually fly the B737, and when and what type of automation to engage. 

LEFT:  Qantas Airways departs Queenstown, New Zealand.

There are also, located within the CDU, several parameters which if altered before takeoff can have a marked effect on
aircraft performance.

Confusion

It is very easy to become confused during the takeoff phase - especially in relation to automation, V speeds and how and
when to change from TOGA to MCP speed.  The takeoff phase occurs quickly and there is a lot to do and quite a bit to
remember - there is little time to consult a manual or cheat sheet. 

One way to gain a little extra time during the takeoff transition, is to select an appropriate derate.  Apart from being
standard practice in the real-world for many takeoffs, a derate will also help control over-pitching and high vertical
speeds which are common when the aircraft is light due to minimal fuel loads and cargo.

% N1

During the initial takeoff, thrust (%N1) is automatically selected when you engage the TOGA buttons.  N1 (%N1) is a
measurement in percent of the maximum rpm, where maximum rpm is certified at the rated power output for the
engine (most simple explanation).  Therefore, 100%N1 is maximum thrust while 0%N1 is no thrust.

At 80 knots the automated system will engage thrust to N1 at a percentage commensurate with the settings set in the
CDU (aircraft weights, climb etc.).  N1 (TOGA command mode during takeoff) always controls the speed of the aircraft
with pitch.   To determine what is controlling the thrust of the aircraft, always refer to the Flight Mode Annunciations
(FMA) in the PFD.

To enable a quick overview of annunciations during the takeoff refer to Table 2.

After acceleration height has been reached, the nose lowered to increase speed, and flaps retracted; it is at the
discretion of the pilot flying (or company policy) to what mode of automation is selected.  It is common place to either
use Level Change (LVL CHG) or Vertical Navigation (VNAV) and Lateral navigation (LNAV). 

Theoretically, a crew can fly the F/D cues at V2+15/20 to the altitude set in the MCP; however, there will be no speed
protection available.  If the pitch recommendation (Flight Director cues) are not followed, then airspeed may be either
above or below the optimal setting.
Unless an alternative mode is selected, the aircraft will remain in TOGA command mode and be controlled by N1 until
the altitude set in the MCP is reached.  Other modes which will exit the TOGA mode are LVL CHG, VNAV and Vertical
Speed (V/S), or you can engage Altitude Hold (ALT HOLD).  Engaging the A/P will also disengage TOGA command mode.

It is important to understand what controls which command mode.  For example, LVL CHG is controlled by N1 and pitch
and in this mode the A/T will use full thrust while the speed will be controlled by pitch.

TABLE 2:  PFD and FMA annunciations observed during takeoff and climb.

Speed Protection

Various modes provide speed protection with or without flaps extended.

When you select LVL CHG the speed window will open allowing you enter a desired speed.  LVL CHG is speed protected
meaning that the speed should not precede past your MCP entered speed.  The mode, which is controlled by N1, will
adjust the pitch of the aircraft to match the desired speed.  

VNAV also has speed protection but not with flaps extended.  The speed in VNAV is defined by the value (speed) set in
the CDU.  In contrast, Vertical Speed (V/S) provides no speed protection as it holds a set vertical speed.  In V/S, if you are
not vigilant, you can easily encounter an over speed or under speed situation.  Selecting N1 only on the MCP without any
other mode engaged does not provide speed protection and only ensures maximum thrust (as set in the FMS).

It is imperative that you carefully scrutinise the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) to ensure you are flying in the correct
mode.
 Think Ahead

The takeoff can be very fast, especially if you have an aircraft which is light in weight (cargo, passengers and fuel). 

LEFT: B737 CDU showing Takeoff page.  A takeoff can occur without the completion of data; however, some automation
features such as VNAV and LNAV will not be available, and V1, V2 and Vr will not be propagated on the speed tape (click
to enlarge).

Soon after rotation (Vr), the aircraft will be at acceleration height and beyond…  It’s important to remain on top of what
is happening and try to think one step ahead of the automated system that is flying the aircraft. 

Flight crews typically fly manually at least until all the flaps are retracted and the aircraft is in clean configuration.  A
command mode is then selected to continue the climb.

If the aircraft is light, flight crews often limit the takeoff thrust by one of several means.  Typically, it is by using a thrust
derate and selecting either CLB 1 or CLB 2, or entering an assumed temperature thrust reduction - both done in the
CDU.  Selecting either option will cause a longer takeoff roll, delay the rotation point (Vr) and cause a less aggressive
high pitch climb than observed if these variables were not altered.

Final Call

Reiterating, the above guidelines are generalist only.  Flight crews use varying methods to fly the airliner and often the
method used, will be chosen based on company policy, crew experience, aircraft weight and other environmental
factors, such as runway length, weather and winds.

Additional information concerning takeoff - mainly in relation to acceleration height, thrust reduction height and
derated thrust can read on this page.

The two tables in this post can be downloaded in PDF format: 

Takeoff Proceedure Table

PFD and FMA Annunciations

Disclaimer

The content in this post has been proof read for accuracy; however, explaining procedures that are  convolved and
subjective can be challenging.  Errors on occasion present themselves.  if you observe an error (not a particular airline
policy), please contact me so it can rectified.

Acronyms and Glossary

AFDS – Autopilot Flight Director System
AH - Acceleration Height.  The altitude above sea level that aircraft’s nose is lowered to gain speed for flap retraction. 
AH is usually 1000 or 1500 feet and is defined by company policy.  In the US acceleration height is usually 800 feet RA.
CDU / FMC – Control Display Unit / Flight Management Computer (term used interchangeably on this website).  The
visual part of the Flight Management System (FMS)
CLB 1/2 – Climb power
Command Mode – The mode of automation that controls thrust
EICAS – Engine Indicating and Crew  Alerting System
F/D – Flight Director (Flight Director cues/crosshairs)
FMA – Flight Mode Annunciation located upper portion of Primary Flight Display (PFD)
KIAS – Knots Indicated Air Speed
LNAV – Lateral Navigation
LVL CHG – Level Change Command Mode
MCP – Mode Control Panel
RTO – Rejected Take Off
T/O Power – Takeoff power
Throttle On & Off-Line – Indicates whether the throttle is being controlled by the A/T system.
TOGA – To Go Around Command Mode
TRA - Thrust Reduction Altitude.  The altitude that the engines reduce in power to increase engine longevity.  The height
is usually 1500 feet; however, the altitude can be altered in CDU
V/S – Vertical Speed Command Mode
V1 – is the Go/No go speed.  You must fly after reaching V1 as a rejected take off (RTO) will not stop the aircraft before
the runway ends
V2 – Takeoff safety speed.  The speed at which the aircraft can safely takeoff with one engine inoperative (Engine Out
safe climb speed)
VNAV – Vertical Navigation
Vr – Rotation Speed.  This is the speed at which the pilot should begin pulling back on the control column to achieve a
nose up pitch rate
Vr+15/20 – Rotation speed plus additional knots (defined by company policy)

Crosswind Landing Techniques Part Two - Calculations  

JULY 1, 2014 AT 17:37

Determining Correct Landing Speed (Vref)

Vref is defined as landing speed or the threshold crossing speed, while Vapp is defined as the approach speed with
wind/gust additives.

LEFT:  Final Approach:  Finals using 'crab approach' (Airbus A320)

When landing with a headwind, crosswind, or tailwind the Vref and Vapp must be adjusted accordingly to obtain the
optimal speed at the time of touchdown.  Failure to do this may result in the aircraft landing at an non-optimal speed
causing runway overshoot, stall, or floating (ground affect).

Mathematical calculations can be used to determine Vref and Vapp based on wind speed, direction, and gusts.

Normal Conditions:

When using the autothrottle, position command speed to VREF + 5 knots.

If the autothrottle is disengaged or is planned to be disengaged prior to landing, the recommended method of

approach speed correction to obtain Vapp, is to add one half of the reported steady headwind component plus the full
gust increment above the steady wind to the reference speed.

One half of the reported steady headwind component can be estimated by using 50% for a direct headwind, 35% for a
45-degree crosswind, zero for a direct crosswind, or interpolation between.

When making adjustments for wind additives, the maximum command speed should not exceed VREF + 20 knots or
landing flap placard speed minus 5 knots, whichever is lower.

The minimum command speed setting with autothrottle disconnected is VREF + 5 knots.  The gust correction should be
maintained to touchdown while the steady headwind correction should be bled off as the airplane approaches
touchdown. 

It is important to note that Vref + 5 knots is the speed that is desired when crossing the threshold of the runway - it is
NOT the approach speed.  The approach speed (Vapp) is determined by headwind with/without gusts.  If the wind is
calm, Vref + 5 knots will equal Vapp.

When landing in a tailwind, do not apply wind corrections. Set command speed at VREF + 5 knots (autothrottle engaged
or not engaged).

Non-Normal Conditions:

When VREF has been adjusted by the non-normal procedure, the new VREF is called the adjusted VREF and is used for
the landing.  To this speed is added the wind component (if necessary).

For example, if a non-normal checklist specifies 'Use flaps 15 and VREF 15 + 10 for landing', the flight crew would select
flaps 15 and look up the VREF 15 speed (in FMC or QRH) and add 10 knots to that speed.  The adjusted VREF does not
include wind corrections.

If the autothrottle is disengaged, or is planned to be disengaged prior to landing, appropriate wind corrections must be
added to the adjusted VREF to arrive at command speed.  Command speed is the safest speed used to fly the approach
(Vapp).

For example, if the checklist states 'use VREF 40 + 30 knots', command speed should be positioned to adjusted VREF
(VREF 40 + 30) + Wind Correction (5 knots minimum, 20 knots maximum).

An interesting publication (powerpoint presentation) concerning the use of the autothrottle during Vref can be read
here.  Search for Auto Throttle Useage - Training Alert.

Guideline (an easy way to remember the above - cheat sheet)

This information assumes the autothrottle will be disengaged prior to landing.

 Headwind less than 10 knots:  Vref +5

 Headwind greater than 10 knots:  Vref + headwind / 2 (half your headwind) - This is your Vref

 If Vref is > 20 knots, then:  Vref +20 (as per placard guide)

With Gusts

 Formula (Wind < 10 knots):  Vref + 5 + gust – headwind

 Formula (Wind > 10 knots):  Vref + headwind/2 (half your headwind) + gust – headwind

Calculating Directional Wind

A wind component will not always be at 90 Degrees or straight on to your landing direction.  The following calculation is
often used to determine the directional component.  One half of the reported steady headwind component can be
estimated by using 50% for a direct headwind, 35% for 45 degree crosswind, zero for a direct crosswind and
interpolation in between.

Using the CDU

The CDU if configured correctly can provideainformation concerning wind components.  Press the key on the CDU
named  'PROG' followed by'PREV PAGE'.  This page provides an overview of the wind component including head, tail and
crosswind.

Tail Winds 

Tail winds are very challenging for conducting a stabilized approach.  Because of the increased ground speed caused by a
tail wind, Boeing does not publish Vref correction factors for tail winds. 

Typically, to maintain the proper approach speed and rate of descent while maintaining glideslope, thrust must be
decreased which minimizes the available safety envelope should a go-around be required.  If a go-around is required,
precious seconds might be lost as the engines accelerate; the aircraft would continue to descend and might touch down
on the runway before the engines produce enough thrust to enable a climb.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommends that the tail wind component must not exceed 5 knots
plus gusts on a designated runway; however, adherence to this recommendation varies among members.  Several
airlines have been certified for operation with a 15 knot tailwind. 

In the United States, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets the tail wind component limit for runways that are clear
and dry at 5 knots, and in some circumstances 7 knots, however FAA allows no tail wind component when runways are
not clear and dry.

Variance

Crosswind components can be variable dependent upon flight crew discretion and airline policy; therefore, the above is
to be used as a 'guide' only.

Entries in Flight Training (29)

Control Wheel Steering (CWS) Explained

NOVEMBER 6, 2015 AT 9:30

CWS is the acumen for Control Wheel Steering.  Broadly

speaking, it is a sub-set of the autopilot (A/P) system which can used on either System A or B.  When engaged, CWS
maneuvers the aircraft in response to control pressures applied to the control wheel or column.

LEFT:  B737 Mode Control Panel (MCP) showing location of CWS buttons on Collins unit .  The CMD and CWS buttons are
located on the First Officer side of the MCP.  Each of the four press to engage buttons has a green annunciator which
illuminates when the mode is engaged.

The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight. When control pressure is released, the autopilot holds
the existing attitude until CWS is disengaged, or the autopilot is engaged. 

The Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

‘Control Wheel Steering (CWS) may be used to reduce pilot workload. Follow the manually flown procedure but instead
of disengaging the autopilot, engage CWS.’

CWS is a similar system to the ‘Fly By Wire’ system utilized by Airbus.

CWS Benefits

The obvious advantage in using CWS is that you do not have to continually apply positive pressure on the yoke and
control column to maintain a set pitch or roll.  The control pressures on the flight controls are in the order of 37 pounds
push/pull value +- 3 pounds and continually applying this pressure for a protracted period of time can be tiring.

Additionally, CWS enables you to fly the aircraft using the flight controls, rather than turning the heading knob on the
Mode Control Panel (MCP) or configuring other automated processes such as Level Change, Vertical Speed, VNAV, etc. 
Being able to ‘feel’ the control surfaces through the yoke and column has obvious benefits that flying using the MCP
cannot convey.

CWS is also advantageous when flying in turbulent conditions (additional information below) as it results in smoother
transitions than when the autopilot is used.  CWS also allows for greater control of the aircraft when performing touch
and goes and circuits at lower altitudes.
 Practical Example

CWS is often used during the climb to altitude, with the A/P being engaged at 10,000 feet.  

LEFT: PFD with CWS engaged during climb following flaps retraction.  FMA displays CWS R & CWS P, vertical speed is
2650 and pitch mode is V/S after changing from TOGA thrust following climb out.  Pitch and roll follows the FD bars and
speed is 240 with altitude set to flight level 20900.  If CWS remains engaged, the aircraft will continue at this attitude.  Of
importance is that the airspeed is NOT protected in certain modes.  In other words, if the attitude is altered, the
airs[peed may increase or decrease accordingly without autothrottle intervention.

Following rotation, the Flight Director (FD) bars will be followed maintaining V2+15/20 until Acceleration Height (AH) is
reached.  At AH, the MCP speed will be increased to climb speed, or to a constraint if required by Air Traffic Control.  As
airspeed increases the flaps will be retracted.  When the flaps are retracted, the control column will be placed in a
position that correlates to the Flight Director bars and CWS A or B will be engaged – the attitude of the aircraft will now
be fixed.  

The aircraft, in TOGA thrust, will maintain the established pitch as it ascends to the altitude set on the MCP.  TOGA
thrust is speed protected; therefore, as long as the FD bars are followed there will not be a speed incursion.  If a roll
mode is selected, the navigational data provided by this mode is also supplied to the Flight Director.  Once the desired
altitude has been reached, LNAV / VNAV is engaged.

Whether a flight crew used CWS is personal preference and some flight crews use it regularly while others have never
used it.

Turbulence (autopilot or CWS)

The Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

‘That during times of turbulence the A/P system (CMD A/B) should be disengaged.’

The reason that CWS is beneficial when flying in turbulence is that the A/P (unless it was engaged in CWS) is attempting
to maintain an attitude (pitch) that is based upon a predefined barometric pocket of air that is at your altitude or flight
level.   In severe turbulence, this pocket of air may not be stable which will result in the autopilot seeking to change
altitude or, at its worse disconnecting.
In turbulence, this is exactly what you want to try and avoid and is the reason engaging CWS is important.  If CWS is
engaged, it will maintain an attitude rather than the A/P attempting to match the attitude to the possible changing
barometric pressure.

Flight Crew Training Manuals differ in their content as each manual has been written with a particular airline in mind. 
Many virtual flyers duplicate the procedures followed by Ryanair.  Documentation for Ryanair is relatively easy to find
and the policy of this airline is reasonably conservative.  As such, I have transcribed from the Ryanair FCTM the segment
on the use of CWS during turbulence.

The Ryanair FCTM states:

‘Flight through severe turbulence should be avoided, if possible.  When flying at 30,000 feet or higher, it is not advisable
to avoid a turbulent area by climbing over it unless it is obvious that it can be overflown well in the clear.  For turbulence
of the same intensity, greater buffet margins are achieved by flying the recommended speeds at reduced altitudes. 
Selection of the autopilot Control Wheel Steering (CWS) is recommended for operation in severe turbulence’.

The recommended Ryanair procedures for flight in severe turbulence are:

•    Do not use Altitude Hold (ALT HLD) mode.

•    Airspeed - Target airspeed should be approximately 280 KIAS or 0.76 MACH, whichever is lower.

•    Severe turbulence will cause large and often rapid variations in indicated airspeed.  Do not chase the airspeed.

•    Yaw Damper – Engaged.

•    Autopilot - Optional - If the autopilot is engaged, use CWS position, do not use ALT HLD mode.

•    Autothrottle – Disengage.

•    Attitude - Maintain wings level and the desired pitch attitude. Use the attitude indicator as the primary instrument. In
extreme drafts, large attitude changes may occur.  Do not use sudden large control inputs.  After establishing the trim
setting for penetration speed, do not change the stabilizer trim.

Technical Data (general)

The Mode Control Panel (MCP) has two CWS buttons located on the First Officer side of the MCP beside the CMD A and
CMD B buttons.  Like the autopilot, CWS has a redundancy system (system A or system B).  By default CWS A and CWS B
buttons are off and must be depressed to engage either system.  

When engaged the annunciator will illuminate green and the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) on the Primary Flight
Display (PFD) will annunciate CWS P and CWS R.

CWS can only be engaged when there is no pressure on the flight controls.  Therefore; the method to engage the system
is to depress one of the two CWS buttons and then position the flight controls where you want them.  The system will
then maintain the pitch/roll attitude until either the flight controls are moved, the autopilot is engaged (CMD A or CMD
B), or CWS is disengaged by depressing the CWS button.

CWS cannot be engaged when any of the following conditions are met:

•    Below 400 feet.

•    Below 150 feet RA with the landing gear in the down position.
•    After VOR capture with TAS 250 kt or less.
•    After LOC capture in the APP mode.

The Flight Crew Training Manual states:

‘After autopilot engagement, the airplane may be manoeuvred using the control wheel steering (CWS) pitch mode, roll
mode, or both using the control wheel and column. Manual inputs by the pilot using CWS are the same as those required
for manual flight. Climbs and descents may be made using CWS pitch while the roll mode is in HDG SEL, LNAV or
VOR/LOC. Autopilot system feel control is designed to simulate control input resistance similar to manual flight.' 

Methods of Operation

There are three main methods of operation; however, the detail can blend and easily become confusing.  The following
information has been edited from documentation acquired from Smart Cockpit Airline Training.

1:  CWS A/B Engaged or CWS A/B Annunciator Illuminated.

•    Depressing the CWS A/B button on the MCP engages the A/P pitch and roll axes in the CWS mode and displays CWS P
and CWS R on the FMA on both the Captain and First officer Primary Flight Displays (PFD).

•    With CWS engaged, the A/P maneuvers the aircraft in response to control pressures applied to the control wheel or
column. The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight. When control pressure is released, the A/P
holds existing attitude.
•    Smartcockpit.com BOEING 737 SYSTEMS REVIEW Page 4
•    If column pressure is released with bank angle 6 degrees or less, the A/P rolls the wings level and holds existing
heading. This feature is inhibited when any of the following conditions are met:

1.    Below 150 ft RA with the landing gear down.

2.    After F/D VOR capture with TAS 250 kt or less.
3.    After F/D LOC capture in the APP mode.

2:  CWS Pitch on FMA in CMD A/B or CMD A/B Annunciator Illuminated.

The pitch axis engages in CWS while the roll axis is in CMD when:

•    A/P pitch has been manually overridden with control column force. The force required for override is greater than
normal CWS control column force. This manual pitch override is inhibited in the APP mode with both A/Ps engaged.

•    A command pitch mode has not been selected or was deselected.

•    Command pitch modes can then be selected and CWS P is annunciated on the Flight Mode Annunciators while this
mode is engaged.

•    When approaching a selected altitude in CWS P with the A/P in CMD, CWS P changes to ALT ACQ and, when at the
selected altitude, ALT HOLD engages.

•    If pitch is manually overridden while in ALT HOLD at the selected altitude, ALT HOLD changes to CWS R If control
force is released within 250 ft of the selected altitude, CWS P changes to ALT ACQ and the A/P returns to the selected
altitude and ALT HOLD engages.  If the elevator force is held until more than 250 ft from the selected altitude, pitch
remains in CWS PITCH.

3:  CWS Roll on FMA in CMD A/B or CMD A/B Annunciator Illuminated.
The roll axis engages in CWS while the pitch axis is in CMD when:

•    A/P pitch has been manually overridden with control column force. The force required for override is greater than
normal CWS control column force.  
•    A command roll mode has not been selected or was deselected.

•    Command roll modes can then be selected and CWS R is annunciated on the Flight Mode Annunciators while this
mode is engaged.

•    CWS R with an A/P engaged in CMD can be used to capture a selected radio course while the VOR/LOC or APP mode
is armed. Upon intercepting the radial or localizer, the F/D and A/P annunciation changes from CWS R to VOR/LOC
engaged and the A/P tracks the selected course.

Final Call

The use of CWS is very much underused and underappreciated.  Although surface control loading in a simulator rarely
matches that of a real aircraft, the use of CWS in a simulator environment can still have positive benefits equating to
better aircraft handling, especially when flying circuits and flying in turbulence.

FLAPS 2 APPROACH | Comments Off |  1 Reference |  Share Article

tagged  B737 Flight Simulator,  B737-800 Flight Simulator,  CWS,  Control Wheel Steering in  Flight Training

10 Mile ARC to VOR 30 Approach - Hobart, Tasmania Australia  (YMHB)

AUGUST 27, 2015 AT 21:31

Recently, I flew from Brisbane to Hobart and the pilot flying made a different
style of approach to what normally is made at this airport.  After landing, I approached the pilots and queried the
approach.  The Captain stated that he had decided to fly a semi-automated VOR approach along an arc to land at runway
30. 
The reason being, that Air Traffic Control (ATC) had warned them of turbulent conditions near the airport.  He
commented that in such conditions, he felt more confident using the older style arc approach using LNAV/VNAV
with Speed Intervention (SPD INTV) engaged, with a transition to Vertical Speed and VOR once on final.

LEFT: Approach chart depicting VOR 30 Approach to YMHB.  Important points to note are: initial approach courses to
intercept the arc (295 & 334), the D10 HB arc, the altitude increments of 4000, 3000 and at 7 miles, 2400, and the Initial
Approach Fix (IAF) and speed of 210 kias (click to enlarge).

The First Officer stated that this was the first time he had seen an arc being used to set-up for a VOR approach.  He said
that usually they use ILS into RWY 12 or RNAV into RWY 30.  He commented that the only time he had made a VOR
approach was during simulator training, and then he would probably only use such an approach, if the ILS was
inoperative or there was an issue with RNAV.

The use of this approach is a prime example of the variation offered to pilots in relation to how they fly and land the
Boeing 737. 

Screen Images

Several screen captures from the Instructor Station, CDU and Navigation Display (ND) which I hope will make it easier to
understand this post.  The avionics suite used is ProSim737 distributed by ProSim-AR.  Note that some of the mages are
not sequential as I captured the images over two simulator sessions.

How To Set-Up An Arc

To set-up an approach using an arc is very easy.  

The following example is for Hobart, Tasmania Australia (YMHB).  The instructions assume that you are conversant with
operating the CDU and have a basic understanding of its use.  

Essentially, an arc is using a Place/Bearing/Waypoint to define an arc around a point at a set distance.  The distance
between each of the generated waypoints along the arc, is at the discretion of the flight crew.

Approach Charts

To determine the correct distance to create the arc, the approach chart for the airport should be consulted.  The chart,
in addition to providing this information, will also aid you in decided where to place the final waypoint (if wanted) along
the approach course.

In this example, the YMHB VOR 30 approach states that the aircraft must fly an arc 10 miles from the airport between an
altitude of 4000 and 3000 feet before descending to be at 2400 feet 7 miles from the runway  threshold.

The approach chart depicted is provided by Lufthansa Systems (LIDO/FMS) distributed by Navigraph. 

 Navigraph Charts Review.

CDU Instructions

(i)    Open the FIX page and type in the scratchpad the airport code (YMHB).  After uploading, type the distance (/10
miles).  This will create a green-dotted citcle around YMHB with a radius of 10 miles.
(ii)    Open the LEGS page and type into the scratchpad the airport code (YMHB).  Immediately following YMHB, type the
required radial1 (in degrees) from the airport that you wish the initial waypoint to be generated.  Follow this with a slash
and type in the distance from the airport (YMHB340/10).  

This will generate a waypoint 10 miles from YMHB on the 340 radial.  This is the waypoint from which you will begin to
build your arc.  

Obviously, the radial you use to define the location of your first waypoint will depend upon the bearing that you are
flying toward the airport.

(iii)    To Generate the ARC you must repeat the above process (ii) changing the radial by 10 degrees (or whatever you
believe is needed) to generate the required waypoints around the arc at 10 miles from the airport.  As an example:
YMHB320/10, YMHB340/10, YMHB000/10 and so forth until the arc is built.

As you upload each of the radials you will note that the name for the waypoint is changed to a sequential number
specific to each waypoint.  As an example; the above waypoints will each be named YMH01, YMH02 and YMH03.

If you make a mistake, you can delete a waypoint and start again; however, realize that the sequential numbers will not
be in order.  This is not an issue (it is only a number) but it is something be aware of.

In our example, the VOR approach is for runway 30.  Therefore; your final waypoint on the arc will be YMHB121/10. 
Prior to reaching this waypoint, if flying manually, begin the right hand turn to intercept the approach on the 121 radial
(bearing 300 degrees).

A Note About /-+

The more observant will note that the distances in the example above do not utilise the /+ key before the distance
(YMHB340/+10).  When entering the distance it can be with or without the + key.  

Variation 

Before going further, there are many ways to fly the B737.  The method selected is at the discretion of the pilot in
command and is dependent upon airline preferences, environmental conditions, and pilot experience.  This statement
was stressed to me when I spoke with the Captain of the aircraft.

Often an approach will incorporate a number of automated systems including VNAV, LNAV, Vertical Speed, Level
Change, VOR Localizer and old fashioned manual VFR flying.  In most cases the particular approach will be programmed
into the CDU, at the very least for situational awareness.  However, the CDU does not have to be used and often a step
down approach is a good way to maintain flying skills and airmanship.

Handy Hints

The following hints will assist with situational awareness and in allowing the aircraft to be guided by the autopilot to a
point to which manual flight can commence.

If you carefully study the approach chart for YMHB VOR 30, you will note that the altitude the aircraft should be at when
at 7 miles from the threshold should be 2000 feet.  The chart also depicts the letter D at this point meaning that a
continuous descent can be made this point.

Hint One - visual descent point (VDP)

To make the transition from the arc to the approach easier, create a waypoint at the 7 mile point from the airport along
the radial used for the approach (YMHB121/7).  Using a waypoint allows the aircraft’s Lateral Navigation (LNAV) to be
used.  This type of waypoint is usually refered to as a Visual Descent Point (VDP).

When the waypoint at 7 miles from the threshold is reached, a transition to manual flying can commence, or Vertical
Speed can be used to maintain a 3 degree glidepath (GP) while following the VOR.  Remember to change the EFIS from
MAP to VOR so you can use the VOR indicator during the approach.

Hint Two - extend runway line

Assuming you have not inserted an approach into the CDU, an aid to increase situational awareness is to select the
correct runway from the CDU and enter a distance that the runway line is to be extended from the threshold.

To do this, select runway 30 from the ARRIVALS (ARR) page in the CDU (RWY30) and type the numeral 7 (or whatever
distance you require) into the scratchpad and upload.  This will extend the green line from the runway threshold to the
previously generated waypoint at 7 miles.  Ensure you clean up any discontinuity (if observed) in the LEGS page.

This enables three things:

1. The generation of a 3 degree glidepath (GP) from the distance entered (example is 7 miles) to the runway
threshold.

2. It enables LNAV (even if the autopilot is not engaged) to continue to provide the Flight Director (FD) with
heading information during the approach, and 

3. It enables the Navigation Performance Scales (NPL) on the Pilots Flight Display (PFD) to provide glidepath (GP)
guidance (assuming that the correct runway or approach is selected in the CDU and NPL is enabled within the
ProSim737 avionics suite).

UPPER LEFT: Screen capture from the instructor station PFD

and ND for the approach into YMHB.  The aircraft, after turning right from the 10 mile arc, is aligned with the 121 radial
approaching the waypoint YMH07 (the WP entered at the 7 mile point).  LNAV is engaged and the aircraft is being
controlled by the autopilot.  As RWY 30 was inserted into the route, the Navigation Performance Scales (NPS) show
Glidepath (GP) data in the Primary Flight Display (PFD).  Note that the EFIS is still on MAP and is yet to be turned to VOR. 
In real life, VOR would have been selected earlier (click to enlarge).

LOWER LEFT:  The transition from LNAV to VOR has occurred and the autopilot and autothrottle are not controlling the
aircraft. The aircraft is on short final with gear down, flaps 30 and the airspeed is slowly decaying to VREF+5.  The EFIS
has been changed from MAP to VOR to allow manual tracking using the VOR needle. The NPS show good vertical
alignment with a lateral left offset; the VOR indicator confirms this.  The Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) displays LNAV
(although the autopilot is disengaged) and the Flight Director (FD) and NPS show glidepath (GP) data.  The Flight Path
Vector (FPV) symbol shows a continuous descent at roughly 3 degrees.  The altitude window and heading on the MCP
has been set to the appropriate missed approach (4200/300).  Click image to enlarge.

Do Not Alter Constraints

As alluded earlier, there are many ways to accomplish the same task.  However, DO NOT alter any constraints indicated
in the CDU if an approach is selected and executed.  CDU generated approaches have been standardised for a reason. 

Finding the Correct Radial/Bearing to Build Your Arc

Finding the correct bearing to use on the arc can be challenging for those less mathematically inclined.  An easy method
is to use one of the two MCP course selector knobs.  

Rotate the knob until the green dotted line on he Navigation Display (ND) lies over the area of the arc that you wish the
waypoint to be created.  Consult the MCP course selector window - this is the figure you place in the CDU.  Next, rotate
the knob a set number of degrees and repeat the process.  You can also consult the data displayed along the course
indicator line on the Navigation Display (ND). 

When you build the arc, ensure you have set the EFIS to PLN (plan).  PLN provides more real estate to visualize the
approach on the Navigation Display (ND).  You can use STEP in the LEGS page to cycle through the waypoints to ensure
you have an appropriate view of the surrounding area.

Important Points

 Always double check the Place/Bearing/Waypoint entries in the CDU and in the ND (PLN) before executing.  It is
amazing how easy discrepancies can occur.

 Always check the approach plate for the approach type you are intending to make.  Once again, mistakes are
easy to make.

 If using VNAV, double check all speed and altitude constraints to ensure compliance with the approach chart and
situation (some airlines promote the use of the speed intervention button (SPD INTV) to ensure that appropiate
speeds are maintained).

 If need be, select the approach (ARR) in the CDU to provide added situational awareness.

Final Call

I rarely use automated systems during landing, unless environmental conditions otherwise dictate.  I prefer to hand fly
the aircraft where possible during the approach phase, and often disengage the autopilot at 5000 feet.  If flying a STAR
and when VNAV/LNAV is used, I always disengage the autopilot no later than 1500 feet.  This enables a safe envelope in
which to transition from automated flight to manual flight.
Using an arc to fly a VOR approach is enjoyable, with the added advantage that it provides a good refresher for using the
Place/Bearing/Waypoint functionality of the CDU.

Other posts that deal with similar subjects are:

 Creating Waypoints on the Fly.

 Direct to Routing, ABEAM  PTS and INTC CRS – Review and Procedures.

Glossary

CDU – Control Display Unit (aka Flight Management Computer (FMC).

EFIS – Electronic Flight Instrument System.
LNAV – Lateral navigation.
RADIAL/BEARING – A radial radiates FROM a point such as a VOR, whilst a bearing is the bearing in degrees TO a point. 
The bearing is the direction that the nose of the aircraft is pointing.
VNAV – Vertical Navigation.

Images

The following are screen captures from the instructor station CDU and Navigation Display (ND).  Ignore altitude and
speed constraints as these were not set-up for the example.

LEFT: Circular FIX ring has been generated around YMHB at 10

mile point.  The arc waypoints will be constructed along this line (click to enlarge).

 
 LEFT:  Various waypoints have been generated along the 10
mile fix line creating an arc.  The arc ends at the intersection with the 212 radial for the VOR 30 approach into YMHB. 
The route is in plan (PLN) view and is yet to be executed (click to enlarge).

LEFT:  The constructed arc as seen in MAP view.  From this view it is easy to establish that the aircraft is approaching TTR
and once reaching the 10 mile limit  defined by the 10 mile FIX (green-coloured dotted circle), the aircraft will turn to the
left to follow the arc waypoints until it intersects with the 121 radial (click to enlarge).

 
LEFT:  This image depicts the waypoint generated at 7 mile from the threshold (YMHB121/7).  This waypoint marks the
point at which the aircraft should be on the 121 radial to VOR 30 and at 2400 feet altitude (according to the VOR 30
approach plate  (click to enlarge).

LEFT:  In the example, RWY 30 has been selected from the

arrivals (ARR) page.  In addition to situational awareness, the selection of the runway in the CDU provides glidepath (GP)
assistance.

The result of this is that the runway line is extended from the threshold to 7 miles out; the same distance out from the
threshold that the final waypoint was generated.

The course line is coloured pink indicating that LNAV is enabled and the aircraft is following the programmed route. 

At the final waypoint (YM10) the autopilot (if used) will be disengaged and the aircraft will be flown manually to the
runways using the VOR approach instrumentation and visual flight rules (VFR).  The EFIS will be changed from MAP to
VOR.  LNAV will remain engaged on the MCP to ensure that the NPL indications are shown on the PFD.  The NDL
indicators provide glidepath (GP) guidance that is otherwise lacking on a VOR approach (click to enlarge).

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Training

Autobrake System - Review and Procedures

FEBRUARY 17, 2015 AT 12:00

The autobrake, the components which are located on center

panel of the Main Instrument Panel (MIP), is designed as a deceleration aid to slow an aircraft on landing.  The system
uses pressure, generated from the hydraulic system B, to provide deceleration for preselected deceleration rates and for
rejected takeoff (RTO). An earlier post discussed Rejected Takeoff procedures.  This post will discuss the autobrake
system.

LEFT:  Ryanair B737-800 -  autobrake set, flaps 30, spoilers deployed, reverse thrust engaged (photograph copyright
Pierre Casters).

General

The autobrake selector knob (rotary switch) has four settings: RTO (rejected takeoff), 1, 2, 3 and MAX (maximum). 
Settings 1, 2 and 3 and RTO can be armed by turning the selector; but, MAX can only be set by simultaneously pulling the
selector knob outwards and turning to the right; this is a safety feature to eliminate the chance that the selector is set to
MAX accidently.  

When the selector knob is turned, the system will do an automatic self-test.  If the test is not successful and a problem is
encountered, the auto brake disarm light will illuminate amber.

The autobrake can be disengaged by turning it to OFF, by activating the toe brakes, or by advancing the throttles; which
deactivation method used depends upon the circumstances and pilot discretion.  Furthermore, the deceleration level
can be changed prior to, or after touchdown by moving the autobrake selector knob to any setting other than OFF. 
During the landing, the pressure applied to the brakes will alter depending upon other controls employed to assist in
deceleration, such as thrust reversers and spoilers.

The numerals 1, 2, 3 and MAX provide an indication to the severity of braking that will be applied when the aircraft lands
(assuming the autobrake is set).

In general, setting 1 and 2 are the norm with 3 being used for wet runways or very short runways.  MAX is very rarely
used and when activated the braking potential is similar to that of a rejected take off; passenger comfort is jeopardized
and it is common for passenger items sitting on the cabin floor to move forward during a MAX braking operation.  If a
runway is very long and environmental conditions good, then a pilot may decide to not use autobrakes favouring manual
braking.

Often, but not always, the airline will have a policy to what level of braking can or cannot be used; this is to either
minimize aircraft wear and tear and/or to facilitate passenger comfort. 

The pressure in PSI applied to the autobrake and the applicable deceleration is as follows:

•    Autobrake setting 1 - 1250 PSI / 4 ft per second.

•    Autobrake setting 2 - 1500 PSI / 5 ft per second.
•    Autobrake setting 3 - 2000 PSI / 7.2 ft per second.
•    Autobrake setting MAX and RTO - 3000 PSI / 14 ft per second (above 80 knots) and 12 ft per second (below 80 knots).

Conditions

To autobrake will engage upon landing, when the following conditions are met:

(i)    The appropriate setting on the auto brake selector knob (1, 2, 3 or MAX) is set;
(ii)    The throttle thrust levers are in the idle position immediately prior to touchdown; and,  
(iii)   The main wheels spin-up.

If the autobrake has not been selected before landing, it can still be engaged after touchdown, providing the aircraft has
not decelerated below 60 knots.

To disengage the autobrake system, any one of the following conditions must be met:

(i)   The autobrake selector knob is turned to OFF (autobrake disarm annunciator will not illuminate);
(ii)  The speed brake lever is moved to the down detent position;
(iii) The thrust levers are advanced from idle to forward thrust (except during the first 3 seconds of landing); or,
(iv)  Either pilot applies manual braking.

The last three points (ii iii and iv) will cause the autobrake disarm annunciator to illuminate for 2 seconds before
extinguishing.

Important Facet

It is important to grasp that the 737 NG does not use the maximum braking power for a particular setting (maximum
pressure), but rather the maximum programmed deceleration rate (predetermined deceleration rate).  Maximum
pressure can only be achieved by fully depressing the brake pedals or during an RTO operation.  Therefore, each setting
(other than full manual braking and RTO) will produce a predetermined deceleration rate, independent of aircraft
weight, runway length, type, slope and environmental conditions.

Autobrake Disarm Annunciator

The autobrake disarm annunciator is coloured amber and illuminates momentarily when the following conditions are
met:

(i)   Self-test when RTO is selected on the ground;

(ii)   A malfunction of the system (annunciator remains illuminated - takeoff prohibited);
(iii)  Disarming the system by manual braking;
(iv)  Disarming the system by moving the speed brake lever from the UP position to the DOWN detente position; and,
(v)   If a landing is made with the selector knob set to RTO (not cycled through off after takeoff).  (If this occurs, the
autobrakes are not armed and will not engage.  The autobrake annunciator remains illuminated amber).

The annunciator will extinguish in the following conditions:

(i)    Autobrake logic is satisfied and autobrakes are in armed mode; and,
(ii)   Thrust levers are advanced after the aircraft has landed, or during an RTO operation.  (There is a 3 second delay
before the annunciator extinguishes after the aircraft has landed).

Preferences for Use of Autobrakes and Anti-skid

When conditions are less than ideal (shorter and wet runways, crosswinds), many flight crews prefer to use the
autobrake rather than use manual braking, and devote their attention to the use of rudder for directional control.   As
one B737 pilot stated - ‘The machine does the braking and I maintain directional control’.

Anti-skid automatically activates during all autobraking operations and is designed to give maximum efficiency to the
brakes, preventing brakes from stopping the rotation of the wheel, thereby ensuring maximum braking efficiency.  Anti-
skid operates in a similar fashion to the braking on a modern automobile.

Anti-skid is not simulated in FSX/FS10 or in ProSim737 (at the time of writing).

To read about converting an OEM Autobrake Selector navigate to this post.

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Simulator in  Flight Training

Rejected Takeoff (RTO) - Review and Procedures

FEBRUARY 1, 2015 AT 13:15

A takeoff may be rejected for a variety of reasons, including

engine failure, activation of the takeoff warning horn, ATC direction, blown tyres, or system warnings.  For whatever
reason, Boeing estimates that 1 takeoff in every 2000 will be rejected (Boeing Corporation).

LEFT:  The Rejected Takeoff is part of the Auto Brake Selector Panel located on the Main Instrument Panel (MIP).  RTO
can be selected by turning the selector knob to the left from OFF by one click.  
This is an OEM (Original Equipment Manufacture) autobrake assembly that has been converted for use in the simulator. 
Note that the selector knob is not NG compliant but is from a 500 series airframe.  In time this knob will be replaced. 
(click image to enlarge)

Performed incorrectly, an RTO can be a dangerous procedure; therefore, protocols have been are established that need
to be followed.  

This is the first of two consecutive posts that will discuss components of the autobrake system.  In this post RTO
procedures will be explained.  In the second post the auto brake will be examined.

Rejected Takeoff (RTO)

The Auto Brake and Rejected Takeoff (RTO) are part of Auto Brake System, the components which are located on center
panel of the Main Instrument Panel (MIP).  An RTO is when the pilot in command makes the decision to reject the
takeoff of the aircraft.  

The Boeing Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

(i)    ‘A flight crew should be able to accelerate the aircraft, have an engine failure, abort the takeoff, and stop the
aircraft on the remaining runway'; or,
(ii)    'accelerate the aircraft, have an engine failure, and be able to continue the takeoff utilizing one engine’.  

Two important variables of pre-flight planning need to be established for an RTO to be executed safely - V speeds and
runway length.

V Speeds and Runway Length

There are three V speeds that are critical to a safe takeoff and climb out: V1, Vr and V2.  

V1 is the speed used to make the decision to ‘abort or fly’.  Vr is the rotation speed, or the speed used to begin the
rotation of the aircraft by smoothly pitching the aircraft to takeoff attitude.  V2 is the speed used for the initial climb-out,
and is commonly called the takeoff safety speed.  The takeoff safety speed ensures a safe envelope for single engine
operations.

It stands to reason, that the runway must be long enough to cater towards the V speeds calculated from the weight of
the aircraft and outside temperature.

Rejected Takeoff - Conditions and Procedure

In general, the protocol used to execute an RTO, is to:

(i)    Abort the takeoff for ‘cautions’ below 80 knots; and,

(ii)   between 80 knots and V1 speed, abort only for ‘bells’ (fire warning) and flight control problems.

If a problem occurs below V1 speed, the aircraft should be able to be stopped before reaching the end of the runway. 
After exceeding V1 speed, the aircraft cannot be safely stopped and the only option is to takeoff, and after reaching a
safe minimum altitude and speed, troubleshoot the problem.

Before takeoff, a flight crew will position the auto brake selector knob to RTO.  This action will trigger the illumination of
the auto brake disarm annunciator, which will illuminate amber for 2 seconds; this is a self-test to indicate that the
system is working.  After 2 seconds the annunciator will extinguish.
To arm the RTO prior to takeoff, the following conditions must be met:

(i)    The auto brake and anti-skid systems must be operational;

(ii)   The aircraft must be on the ground;
(iii)  The auto brake selector must be set to RTO;
(iv)  The forward thrust levers must be in the idle position; and
(v)   The wheel speed must be less than 60 knots.

Once armed, the RTO system only becomes operative after the aircraft reaches 80 knots ground speed (some manuals
state 90 knots).  If an ‘abort’ is indicated below 80 knots, the aircraft will need to be stopped using manual braking
power.  

The auto brake will remain in the armed mode if the RTO abort was executed prior to 80 knots (the auto brake disarm
annunciator does not illuminate).

To engage the RTO the following conditions must be met:

(i)    The auto brake must be set to RTO;

(ii)   The thrust levers must be retarded to idle position;
(iii)  The aircraft must have reached 80 knots; and,
(iv)  The autothrottle must be disconnected.

When an RTO is executed and the auto brake system engages, the system will apply 3000 PSI to the brakes to enable the
aircraft to stop.  Additionally, if the aircraft has reached a wheel speed in excess of 60 knots, and one or two of the
reverse thrust levers are engaged, the spoiler panels will extend automatically to the UP position (deploy), and the
speed brake lever on the throttle quadrant will move to the UP position.

The auto brake will disengage, if during the RTO either pilot:

(i)    Activates the toe brakes;

(ii)   Turns the selector knob of the auto brake from RTO to off.   

If the reversers have been engaged and the speed brake lever is in the UP position, then the lever will abruptly move to
the DOWN detente position.  When this occurs, the speed brake annunciator will illuminate amber for 2 seconds before
extinguishing.  Braking will then need to be accomplished manually.

RTO Procedure

1. Pilot flying calls ‘STOP’, ‘ABANDON’ or ‘ABORT’.

2. Pilot flying closes thrust levers and disengages autothrottle.

3. Pilot flying verifies automatic RTO braking is occurring, or initiates manual braking if deceleration is not great
enough, or autobrake disarm light is illuminated.

4. Pilot flying raises speed brake lever (if not already in UP position).

5. Pilot flying applies maximum reverse thrust or thrust consistent with runway and environmental conditions.

6. Once stopped, pilot flying engages parking brake and completes RTO checklist.
Point 4 is important as although the spoilers deploy automatically when the reversers are engaged, they must be
extended manually to minimise any delay in spoilers extension, as extension is necessary for efficient wheel braking.

What Circumstances Trigger An RTO

Prior to 80 knots, the takeoff should be rejected for any of the following:

 Activation of the master caution system;

 Unusual noise and vibration;

 Slow acceleration;

 Takeoff configuration warning;

 Tyre failure;

 Fire warning;

 Engine failure;

 Bird strikes;

 Windshear warning;

 Window failure; and/or,

 If the aircraft is unsafe or unable to fly.

After 80 knots and prior to V1, the takeoff should be rejected for any of the following:

 Fire warning;

 Engine failure;

 Windshear warning; and/or,

 If the aircraft is unsafe or unable to fly.

After V1 has been reached, takeoff is mandatory.

Important Points To Remember

Important points to remember when performing a Rejected Takeoff are:

1. Engage the RTO selector knob before takeoff;

2. Retard throttles to idle;

3. Disengage the autothrottle (A/T);

4. Engage one or both reverse thrust levers;

5. Monitor RTO system performance, being prepared to apply manual braking if the auto brake disarm light
annunciates;
 6. Raise speed brake lever if not already in the UP position BEFORE engaging reverse thrust; and,

7. Remember that RTO functionality engages only after the aircraft has reached 80 knots ground speed, and
remains armed if the RTO has been executed below 80 knots.

Procedural Variations

A successful RTO is dependent upon the pilot flying making timely decisions and using proper procedures.  Whether an
RTO is executed fully or partly is at the discretion of the pilot flying (reverse thrust engaged to deploy spoilers).

It should be noted that If the takeoff is rejected before the THR HLD annunciation, the autothrottles should be
disengaged as the thrust levers are moved to idle. If the autothrottle is not disengaged, the thrust levers will advance to
the selected takeoff thrust position when released. After THR HLD is annunciated, the thrust levers, when retarded,
remain in idle.

For procedural consistency, disengage the autothrottles for all rejected takeoffs.

Figure 1 provides a visual reference indicating the distance taken for an aircraft to stop after various variations of the
Rejected Takeoff are executed (copyright, Boeing Flight Crew Training Manual FCTM).
This post has explained the basics of a Rejected Takeoff.  Further information can be found in the Flight Crew Training
Manual (FCTM) or Quick Reference Handbook (QRH).
In the next post the autobrake system will be discussed.

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Direct-To-Routing, ABEAM PTS and INTC CRS - Review and  Procedures

JANUARY 19, 2015 AT 22:49

In an earlier post, a number of methods were discussed in

which to create waypoints ‘on the fly’ using the Control Display Unit (CDU).  Following on a similar theme, this post will
demonstrate use of the Direct-To Routing, ABEAM PTS and Course Intercept (INTC CRS) functionality.

CDU use an appear very convoluted to new users, and by far the easiest way to understand the various functionalities is
by ‘trial and error and experimentation’. 

The software (Sim Avionics and ProSim737) that generates the math and formulas behind the CDU is very robust and
entering incorrect data will not damage the CDU hardware or corrupt the software.  The worst that can happen is having
to restart the CDU software. 

Line Style and Colour

The style and colour of the line displayed on the Navigation Display (ND) is important as it provides a visual reference to
the status of a route or alteration of a route.

Dashed white-coloured lines are projected courses whilst solid magenta-coloured lines are saved and executed routes. 
Similar colour schemes apply to the waypoints in the LEGS page.  A magenta-coloured identifier indicates that this is the
next waypoint that the aircraft will be flying to (it is the active waypoint).

Direct-To Routing

A Direct-To Routing is easily accomplished, by selection of a waypoint from the route in the LEGS page, or by typing into
the scratchpad (SP) a NAVAID identifier and up-selecting this to LSK 1L.  Once up-selected, the Direct-To route will be
represented on the Navigation Display (ND) by a dashed white-coloured line.  Pressing the EXEC button on the CDU will
accept the route modification and precipitate several changes:
  The route line displayed on the ND, previously a white-coloured dashed line will become solid magenta in
colour;

 The previous displayed route will disappear from the ND;

 All waypoints on the LEGS page between the aircraft's current position and the Direct-To waypoint in LSK 1L will
be deleted; and,

 The Direct-To waypoint in LSK 1L will alter from white to magenta.

Once executed the FMS will direct the aircraft to fly directly towards the Direct-To waypoint.

ABEAM PTS

Following on from the Direct-To function is the ABEAM PTS function located at LSK 5R. 

ABEAM points (ABEAM PTS) are one or more fixes that are generated between two waypoints from within a
programmed route.  The ABEAM PTS functionality is found in the LEGS page of the CDU at LSL 5R and is only visible
when a Direct-To Routing is being modified, within a programmed route (the LEGS page defaults to MOD RTE LEGS). 
Furthermore, the ABEAM PTS dialogue will only be displayed if the the up-selected fix/waypoint is forward of the
aircraft's position; it will not be displayed if the points are located behind the the aircraft.

If the ABEAM PTS key is depressed, a number of additional in-between fixes will be automatically generated by the Flight
Management System (FMS), and strategically positioned between the aircraft’s current position and the waypoint up-
selected to LSK 1L.  The generated fixes and a white-coloured dashed line showing the modified course will be displayed
on the Navigation Display (ND).  

To execute the route modification, the illuminated EXEC button is pressed.  Following execution, the white-coloured line
on the ND will change to a solid magenta-coloured line, and the original displayed route will be deleted.  Furthermore,
the LEGS page will be updated to reflect the new route.

Nomenclature of Generated Fixes

The naming sequence for the generated fixes is the first three letters of the original waypoint name followed by two
numbers (for example, TTR will become TTR 01 and CLARK will become CLA01).  If the fixes are regenerated, for instance
if a mistake was made, the sequence number will change indicating the next number (for example, TTR01, TTR02, etc).  

Technique

1. Up-select a waypoint from the route in the LEGS page to LSK 1L, or type into the scratchpad a NAVAID identifier. 
This is a Direct-To Routing; when executed the waypoints between the up-selected waypoint and LSL 1L are
deleted.

2. Press ABEAM PTS in LSK 5R to generate a series of fixes along a defined course from the aircraft’s current
location to the up-selected waypoint.  The fixes can be seen on the ND.

3. Pressing the EXEC button will accept and execute the ABEAM PTS route.

Example and Figures

The below figures are screen captures using ProSim737 avionics suite.  The programming of the CDU has been done with
the aircraft on the ground.  Click any image to enlarge.
FIGURE 1:  The LEGS page shows a route HB-TTR-CLARK-BABEL-DPO-WON.  The route is defined by a solid magenta-
coloured line.   

FIGURE 2:  The Route is altered to fly from HB to BABEL.  Note that in the LEGS page, the title has changed from ACT to
MOD RTE 1 LEGS.  The ND displays the generated ABEAM PTS and projected course (white-coloured dashed line),
beginning from the aircraft’s current position and travelling through HB01, TTR01, CLA01 to BABEL.   The EXEC light is
also illuminated.
FIGURE 3:  When the EXEC light is pressed, the ABEAM PTS and altered route (Figure 2) will be accepted.  The former
route will be deleted and the white-coloured dashed line will be replaced by a solid magenta-coloured line.  The
magenta colour indicates that the route has been executed.  The LEGS page will also be updated and display the new
route, with the waypoint HB01 highlighted in magenta.   

The Intercept Course (INTC CRS)

To understand the INTC CRS, it is important to have a grasp to what a radial and bearing is and how they differ from each
other.  For all practical purposes, all you need to know is that a bearing is TO and a radial is FROM.  For example, if the
bearing TO the beacon is 090, you are on the 270 radial FROM it.  A more detailed explanation can be read by following
the ‘radials’ link in the acronyms section at the end of this article.

The Intercept Course (INTC CRS) function is located beneath the ABEAM PTS option in the LEGS page of the CDU at LSK
6R.  Like the ABEAM PTS function, the INTC CRS function is only visible when a when a Direct-To Routing, is being
modified within a programmed route (the LEGS page defaults to MOD RTE LEGS).

The function is used when there is a requirement to fly a specific course (radial) to the fix/waypoint.  By default, the
INTC CRC displays the current course to the fix/waypoint.  Altering this figure, will instruct the FMS to calculate a new
course, to intercept the desired radial towards the fix/waypoint (1)  The radial will be displayed on the ND as a white-
coloured dashed line, while the course to intercept the radial (from the aircraft’s current position) will be displayed as a
magenta-coloured dashed line.

Visual Cues

An important point to note is that,  if the course (CRS) is altered, is that the displayed (ND) white-coloured line will pass
directly through the fix/waypoint, but the line-style will be displayed differently dependent upon what side of the
fix/waypoint the radial is, in relation to the position of the aircraft.  The line depicted by sequential long and short
dashes (dash-dot-dash) shows the radial TOWARDS the fix/waypoint while the line showing dots, displays the radial
AWAY from the fix/waypoint. 
It is important to understand, that for the purposes of the FMS, it will always intercept a course TO a fix/waypoint;
therefore, the disparity in how the line-style is represented provides a visual cue to ensure a flight crew does not enter
an incorrect CRS direction.

Intercept Heading

However, the flight crew may wish not fly directly to the fix/waypoint, but fly a heading to intercept the radial.  In this
case, the flight crew should select the particular heading they wish to fly in the MCP heading selector window, and
providing LNAV is armed, the aircraft will fly this heading until reaching the intercept course (radial), at which time the
LNAV will engage and the FMS will direct the aircraft to track the inbound intercept course (radial) to the desired
fix/waypoint.

Technique

1. Up-select a waypoint from the route in the LEGS page to LSK 1L, or type into the scratchpad a NAVAID identifier
and up-select.  This is a Direct-To Routing and will delete all waypoints that the aircraft would have flown to
prior to the up-selected identifier.

2. Type the course required into INTC CRS at LSK 6R.

3. This will display on the ND a white-coloured long dashed line (course/radial).  Check the line-style and ensure
that the course is TOWARDS the waypoint.  The line, closest to the aircraft should display sequential long and
short dashes.

4. Prior to pressing the EXEC button to confirm the route change, check that the intended course line crosses the
current course line of the active route (solid magenta-coloured line).

5. If wishing to fly a heading to intercept the radial, use the MCP heading window.  If LNAV is armed the FMS will
direct the aircraft onto the radial.

Example and Figures

The below figures are screen captures using ProSim737 avionics suite.  The programming of the CDU has been done with
the aircraft on the ground.  Click any image to enlarge.
FIGURE 1:  The LEGS page shows a route HB-TTR-CLARK-BABEL-DPO-WYY-WON.  The route is defined by a solid
magenta-coloured line.   ATC request ‘QANTAS 29 fly 300 degrees until intercepting the 345 degree radial of BABEL; fly
that radial to BABEL then remainder of route as filed’.

FIGURE 2:  From the LEGS page, locate in the route the waypoint BABEL (LSK 4L).  Recall that the INTC CRS will only
function in Direct-To Routing mode. Up-select BABEL to LSK 1L.  Note that a dashed white-coloured line is displayed on
the ND showing the new course from HB to BABEL.  The original course is still coloured magenta and the EXEC light is
illuminated.
FIGURE 3:  Type the radial required (345) into INTC CRS at LSK 6R.  This action will generate (fire across the page) a
white-coloured dashed line displaying the 345 course to BABEL (the 165 radial).  Check the line-style and ensure the
radial crosses the aircraft’ current course which is 300.  Recall that this line style indicates that the radial to TO BABEL.

FIGURE 4:   Press EXEC to save and execute the new route.  The dashed line alters to a solid magenta-coloured line and
joins with the remainder of the route at BABEL.  The magenta colour indicates this is now the assigned route.  Note that
the magenta line continues across the ND away from the aircraft and BABEL.  This is another visual cue that the radial is
travelling TO BABEL.
If the aircraft continues to fly on a course of 300 Degrees, and LNAV is armed, the FMS will alter course at the
intersection and track the 345 course to BABEL (165 radial).  The LEGS page is also updated to reflect that BABEL is the
next waypoint to be flown to (BABEL is coloured magenta).

Summary

Direct-To Routings and ABEAM Points are usually used when a flight crew is required to deviate, modify or shorten a
route.  Although the use of ABEAM PTS can be debated for short distances, the technology shines when longer routes
are selected and several fixes are generated. The Intercept Course function, on the other hand, is used whenever
published route procedures (STAR and SID transitions), or ATC require a specific course (radial) or heading to be
followed to or from a navigation fix.

Caveat

The content of this post has been checked to ensure accuracy; however, as with anything that is convoluted minor
mistakes can creep in (Murphy, aka  Murphy's Law, reads this website).  If you note a mistake, please contact me so it
can be rectified.

Acronyms  and Glossary

ATC – Air Traffic Control

CDU – Control Display Unit
Direct-To Routing – Flying directly to a fix/waypoint that is up-selected to LSK 1L in the CDU.  All waypoints prior to the
u-selected waypoint will be deleted
DISCO – refers to a discontinuity between two waypoints loaded in a route within the LEGS page of the CDU.  The DISCO
needs to be closed before the route can be executed
DOWN-SELECT - Means to download from the CDU LEGS page to the scratchpad of the CDU)
FIX – A geographical position determined by visual reference to the surface, by reference to one or more NAVAIDs
FMC – Flight Management Computer
FMS – Flight Management System
Identifiers – Identifiers are in the navigation database and are VORs, NDB,s and published waypoints and fixes
LSK 5L – Line Select: LSK refers to line select.  The number 5 refers to the sequence number between 1 and 6.  L is left
and R is right (as you look down on the CDU in plan view)
MCP – Mode Control Panel
NAVAIDS – Any marker that aids in navigation (VOR, NDB, Waypoint, Fix, etc.).  A NAVAID database consists of
identifiers which refer to points published on routes, etc
ND – Navigation Display
RADIALS – A line that transects through a NAVAID representing the points of a compass.  For example, the 045 radial is
always to the right of your location in a north easterly direction (Bearings and Radials Paper)
ROUTE – A route comprising a number of navigation identifiers (fixes/waypoints) that has been entered into the CDU
and can be viewed in the LEGS page
SP - Scratchpad
UP-SELECT – Means to upload from the scratchpad of the CDU to the appropriate Line Select (LSK)

WAYPOINT – A predetermined geographical position used for route/instrument approach definition, progress reports,
published routes, etc.  The position is defined relative to a station or in terms of latitude and longitude coordinates.

1:  The FMS will calculate the new course based on great circle course between the aircraft’s current location and the
closest point of intercept to the desired course.  This course is displayed on the ND as a white dashed line
Crosswind Landing Techniques Part One - Crab and Sideslip

JUNE 17, 2014 AT 15:07

This video very clearly illustrates my point that landing in a strong crosswind can be a challenging and in some cases
downright dangerous (Video © CargoSpotter (with thanks); courtesy U-Tube).

Generally, flight crews use one of two techniques or a combination thereof to approach and land in crosswind
conditions.  If winds exceed aircraft tolerances, which in the 737-800 is 33 knots (winglets) and 36 knots (no winglets),
the flight crew will divert to their alternate airport(Brady, Chris - The Boeing 737 technical Guide).

Maximum crosswind figures can differ between airlines and

often it's left to the pilot's discretion and experience.  Below is an excerpt from the Landing Crosswind Guidelines from
the Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM).  Note that FCTMs can differ depending on date of publication.

LEFT:  Although not as dramatic as the video clip, the screen shot illustrates the ‘crab approach’.  Wind is right to left at
16 knots with aircraft crabbing into the wind to maintain centerline approach course.  Just before flare, left rudder will
be applied to correct for drift to bring aircraft into line with centerline of runway.  This technique is called 'de-crabbing’.
During such an approach, the right wing may also be lowered 'a tad' (cross-control) to ensure that the aircraft maintains
the correct alignment and is not blown of course by a 'too-early de-crab'.  Right wing down also ensures the main gear
adheres to the runway during the roll out. 
 
There are several factors that require careful consideration before selecting an appropriate crosswind technique: the
geometry of the aircraft (engine and wing-tip contact and tail-strike contact), the roll and yaw authority of the aircraft,
and the magnitude of the crosswind component.  Consideration also needs to be made concerning the effect of the
selected technique when the aircraft is flared to land.

Crosswind Approach and Landing Techniques

There are four techniques used during the approach and landing phase which center around the crab and sideslip
approach.  The crab and sideslip are the primary methods while the de-crab and combination crab-sideslip are used
more during the landing and flare.

1.    Crab (to touchdown).

2.    Sideslip (wing low).
3.    De-crab during flare.
4.    Combination crab and sideslip.

1:  Crab (to touchdown) - wet runway preferable

 Airplane touches down in crab.

  Flight deck is over upwind side of runway (Main gear is on runway center).

 Airplane will de-crab at touchdown.

 Maintain directional control during roll out with rudder and aileron.

With wings level, the crew will use drift correction to counter the effect of the crosswind during approach.  Drift
correction will cause the aircraft to be pointing in a direction either left or right of the runway heading, however, the
forward energy of the aircraft will be towards the centerline.

Most jetliners have the ability to land in a crab, however, it must be remembered that landing in a crab places
considerable stress on the main landing gear and tyre side-walls, which in turn can cause issues with tyre and wheel
damage, not too mention directional control.

Tthe later is caused by the tandem arrangement of the main landing gear that has a strong tendency to travel in the
direction that the nose of the aircraft is pointing at the moment of touchdown.  This can result in the aircraft travelling
toward the edge of the runway during the roll out.  To counter this, and align the nose of the aircraft with the centreline
of the runway, the pilot flying must apply rudder input when lowering the nose wheel to the runway surface.

A reference to the maximum amount of crab that can be safely applied in the B737 was not found, other than maximum
crosswind guidelines must not be exceeded.

2:  The Sideslip (wing low)

 Upwind wing lowered into wind.

 Opposite rudder (downwind direction) maintains runway alignment.

 In a side-slip the aircraft will be directly aligned with the runway centerline using a combination of into-wind
aileron and opposite rudder control (called cross-controls) to correct the crosswind drift.

The pilot flying establishes a steady sideslip (on final approach by applying downwind rudder to align the airplane with
the runway centerline and upwind aileron to lower the wing into the wind to prevent drift.  The upwind wheels should
touch down before the downwind wheels touch down.

The sideslip technique reduces the maximum crosswind capability based on a 2/3 ratio leaving the last third for gusts. 
However, a possible problem associated with this approach technique is that gusty conditions during the final phase of
the landing may preempt a nacelle or wing strike on the runway.

Therefore a sideslip landing is not recommended when the crosswind component is in excess of 17 knots at flaps 15, 20
and 30, or 23 knots at flaps 40.

The sideslip approach and landing can be challenging both mentally and physically on the pilot flying and it  is often
difficult to maintain the cross control coordination through the final phase of the approach to touchdown.  If the flight
crew elects to fly the sideslip to touchdown, it may also be necessary to add a crab during strong crosswinds.

3:  De-crab During Flare  ('crab-de-crab')

 Maintain crab on the approach.

 At ~100 foot AGL you de-crab the aircraft; and,

  During the flare, apply rudder to align airplane with runway centreline and, if required opposite aileron to keep
wings level.

This technique is probably the most common technique used.

The crab technique involves establishing a wings level crab angle on final approach that is sufficient to track the
extended runway centerline.  At approximately 100 foot AGL and during the flare the throttles are reduced to idle and
downwind rudder is applied to align the aircraft with the centerline (de-crab). 

Depending upon the strength of the crosswind, the aircraft may yaw when the rudder is applied causing the aircraft to
roll.  if this occurs, the upwind aileron must be placed into the wind and the touchdown maintained with crossed
controls to maintain wings level (this then becomes a combination crab/sideslip - point 4).

Upwind aileron control is important, as a moderate crosswind may generate lift by targeting the underside of the
wing. Upwind aileron control assists in ensuring positive adhesion of the landing gear to the runway on the upwind side
of the aircraft as the wind causes the wing to be pushed downwards toward the ground.

Applied correctly, this technique results in the airplane touching down simultaneously on both main landing gear with
the airplane aligned with the runway centerline.

4:  Combination Crab and Sideslip

 De-crab using rudder to align longitudinal axis with runway (point 3).

 Increase aileron to touchdown on upwind tyre, upwind wing slightly low.

The combination of crab and sideslip is used to counter against the turbulence often associated with crosswinds.

As with the sideslip method, there is the possibility of a nacelle or wing strike should a strong gust occur during the final
landing phase, especially with aircraft in which the engines are mounted beneath the wings.
FIGURE 1:  Diagram showing approach technique (copyright Boeing).

Operational Requirements and Handling Techniques

With a relatively light crosswind (15-20 knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing can be conducted with
either; a steady sideslip (no crab) or a wings level, with no de-crab prior to touchdown.
With a strong crosswind (above a 15 to 20 knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing requires a crabbed
approach and a partial de-crab prior to touchdown.

For most transport category aircraft, touching down with a five-degree crab angle with an associated five-degree wing
bank angle is a typical technique in strong crosswinds.
The choice of handling technique is subjective and is based on the prevailing crosswind component and on factors such
as; wind gusts, runway length and surface condition, aircraft type and weight, and crew experience.

Touchdown Recommendations

No matter which technique used for landing in a crosswind, after the main landing gear touches down and the wheels
begin to rotate, the aircraft is influenced by the laws of ground dynamics.

Effect of Wind Striking the Fuselage, Use of Reverse Thrust, and Effect of Braking

The side force created by a crosswind striking the fuselage and control surfaces tends to cause the aircraft to skid
sideways off the centerline. 

Furthermore, the effects of applying the thrust reversers, especially during a crab ‘only’ landing can cause additional
direction forces.  Reverse thrust will apply a stopping force aligned with the aircraft’s direction of travel (the engines
point in the same direction as the nose of the aircraft).  This force increases the aircraft’s tendency to skid sideways.

The effect of braking is often overlooked. 

Autobrakes operate by the amount of direct pressure applied to the wheels.  In a strong crosswind landing, it is common
practice to use a combination of crab and sideslip to land the aircraft on the centerline.  Sideslip and cross-control
causes the upwind wing to be slightly down upon landing and this proceedure is carried through the landing roll to
control directional movement of the aircraft.  The extra pressure applied to the ‘wing-down’ landing gear causes
increased auto-braking force to be applied which creates the tendency of the aircraft to turn into the wind during the
landing roll.

Furthermore, if
the runway is contaminated and contamination is not evenly distributed, the anti-skid system may prematurely release
the brakes on one side causing further directional movement.

FIGURE 2:  Diagram showing reiovery of a skid caused by crosswind and reverse thrust side forces (source: Flight Safety
Foundation ALAR Task Force)

Maintaining Control - braking and reverse thrust

If the aircraft tends to skew sideward from higher than normal wheel-braking force, the flight crew should release the
brakes (disengage autobrake) which will minimize directional movement.  

To counter against the directional movement caused by application of reverse thrust, a crew can select reverse idle
thrust which effectively cancels the side-force component.  When the centerline has been recaptured, pedal braking can
be applied and reverse thrust reactivated.

Runway Selection and Environmental Conditions

If the airport has more than one runway, the flight crew should land the airplane on the runway that has the most
favourable wind conditions.  Nevertheless, factors such as airport maintenance or noise abatement procedures
sometime preclude this.

I have not discussed environmental considerations which come into play if the runway is wet, slippery or covered in light
snow (contaminated).  Contaminated conditions further reduce (usually by 5 knots) the crosswind component that an
aircraft can land.

Determining Correct Landing Speed (Vref)

Vref is defined as landing speed or threshold crossing speed.

When landing with a headwind, crosswind, or tailwind the Vref must be adjusted accordingly to obtain the optimal
speed at the time of touchdown.  Additionally the choice to use or not use autothrottle must be considered. Failure to
do this may result in the aircraft landing at a non-optimal speed causing runway overshoot, stall, or floating (ground
affect).

This will be the subject of the next journal post.

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tagged  B737 Flight Simulator,  B737-800 Flight Simulator,  Crab,  Crosswind Landing Technique,  FSX,  Flight Simulator, 
Flight Training,  Landing,  Sideslip,  X-Wind in  Flight Training

Tools To Assist in Approach: Using the B737-800 Vertical Bearing Indicator, Altitude Range Arc and Vertical
Deviation Scale

MAY 17, 2014 AT 16:37

On 12 February 2012, the flight crew of a Boeing 737 aircraft,

registered VH-TJS and operated by Qantas Airways Limited, was conducting a scheduled passenger service from Sydney,
New South Wales to Canberra, Australian Capital Territory. Due to scheduled maintenance the instrument landing
system at Canberra was not available and the crew prepared for an alternate instrument approach that provided for
lateral but not vertical flight path information. The flight was at night with rain showers and scattered cloud in the
Canberra area.

Shortly after becoming established on the final approach course with the aircraft’s automatic flight system engaged, the
flight crew descended below the minimum safe altitude for that stage of the approach. The crew identified the deviation
and levelled the aircraft until the correct descent profile was intercepted, then continued the approach and landed. No
enhanced ground proximity warning system alerts were generated, as the alerting thresholds were not exceeded.

During those phases of flight when terrain clearance is unavoidably reduced, such as during departure and approach,
situation awareness is particularly crucial. Any loss of vertical situation awareness increases the risk of controlled flight
into terrain. This occurrence highlights the importance of crews effectively monitoring their aircraft’s flight profile to
ensure that descent is not continued through an intermediate step-down altitude when conducting a non-precision
approach (Australian Transport safety Bureau, 2013).

Determining the correct rate of descent (RoD) or vertical speed (V/S) is a critical attribute if an aircraft is to arrive at the
correct altitude and avoid excessive descent rates.  Control of the vertical path uses two different methods: the step-
down method and the constant descent method.  Both methods assume that the aircraft is being flown in landing
configuration at the final approach speed (VaPP) from the final approach fix (FAF) to the landing initiation of the missed
approach.

Non Precision Approaches (NPA)

Historically non precision approaches reference ground navigation aids that exhibit a degree of inaccuracy, which is
often enhanced by the poorly defined vertical path published on an approach chart; NPA charts typically provide only an
assigned altitude at the FAF and the distance from the FAF to the MAP.  Thus, flight crew awareness of the aircraft’s
vertical position versus the intended vertical path of the final approach can be quite low when executing traditional style
step-down approaches.

To determine the best vertical speed to use during a non precision approach, flight crews use a number of 'back of the
envelope' calculations.

Rate of Descent & Glideslope Calculations

There are several calculations that can be used determine rate of descent – some more accurate than others.  Search
‘determine descent rate’ in Google.  Some of the more commonly used rules of thumb are:

 Divide your ground speed by 2, then add a zero (120 kias / 2 = 60, add 0 = 600 fpm).

 Rate of descent (RoD) in ft/min should be equal to 5 times the ground speed in knots (same as above but
different calculation).

 To maintain a stabilized approach, add a zero to your indicated air speed and divide by two (150 kias + 0 = 1500 /
2 = 750 fpm).

 To determine distance from threshold to start a 3 degree glideslope, take the height above ground level and
divide by three hundred (600 ft AGL / 300 = 2 nm).

 To maintain a 3 degree glideslope (ILS), multiply your ground speed by 5.  The resulting number is the rate of
descent to fly (110 kias x 5 + 550 fpm on 3 degree glideslope).
  If the glideslope is not operational on an ILS approach with DME, multiply the distance ‘to go’ by 300.  This will
provide the height in feet above the threshold of the runway (4 nm to the threshold; multiply x 300 = 1200 ft).

Flight crews today, especially those flying in and out of busy intercity hubs, rarely execute step down approaches as
computer and GPS-orientated systems have replaced traditional methods of navigation.  However, as the flight into
Canberra revealed, the best system may at times be inoperative or fail and it is good airmanship to understand and be
able to remember one or more of the above equations. 

Today's systems provide a high level of redundancy and the Boeing 737-800 NG incorporates a number of integrated
aids to assist a flight crew during descent and approach.  In this post some of less commonly understood aids will be
discussed.

Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI))

A method often overlooked is to use the Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) which is functionality available in the CDU.  The
VBI can calculate an accurate rate of descent to a particular spatial point.  It is basically an angle calculator that provides
‘live’ vertical speed information based upon a desired descent angle, the current speed of the aircraft and a end
location.

LEFT:  CDU showing DES Page, waypoint/altitude and VBI interface (Key RSK3 & RSK4).

A flight crew enters into the VBI the final altitude that the aircraft should be at (for example, the Final Approach Fix or
runway threshold). This figure is determined by consulting the appropriate approach chart for the airport.  The CDU will
then calculate the descent rate based on flight variables.  As the aircraft descends, the VBI readout will continually
update the descent rate based upon aircraft speed and rate of descent.

The flight crew can either manually fly the descent rate or use part or full automation to maintain the rate of descent.  A
common method is to use the Vertical Speed (V/S) function on the MCP.

It is important to underatnd that the VBI has nothing to do with VNAV.  The VBI takes the raw distance between the
aircraft and a selected altitude point and calculates a vertical bearing to that point.  If that point is part of a route in the
CDU, then the next altitude constraint will be displayed, unless the user changes this.

Accessing the VBI

Navigate to Descent page on the CDU by pressing the  DES key.

At lower right hand side of the DES page you will see the following: FPA, V/B, V/S.  This is the Vertical Bearing Indicator.
Key RSK3 (right line select 3) allows manual entry of a waypoint and altitude or altitude restriction.  Type the waypoint
and altitude separated by a / slash symbol into the scratchpad of the CDU and upload to the correct line. (for example,
MHBWM/200).

The VBI provides three fields:

1. FPA (Flight Path Angle) is the vertical path in degrees (angle of descent) that the aircraft is currently flying.

2. V/B (Vertical Bearing) is the computed vertical path in degrees that the aircraft SHOULD be flying to reach the
CDU waypoint or altitude restriction.

3.  V/S (Vertical Speed) is the vertical bearing (V/B) converted into a vertical speed (RoD) for easy input into the
MCP.  The V/S is the vertical speed (RoD in feet per minute) required to achieve the displayed vertical bearing.

Observe the V/B.  The idle descent in a B737 is roughly 3.0 degrees.  Wait until the V/B moves between 2.7 and 3.0
degrees (or whatever descent angle you require based upon your approach constraints) and note the descent rate
(V/S).  At its simplest level, the V/S can be entered directly into the MCP and is the rate of descent required to achieve
the computed vertical path..

The VBI can be used for any waypoint, fix and altitude and acts in conjunction with the AFDS. 

Automation will attempt to follow the vertical bearing indicated by the CDU; for example, if a VNAV descent is activated
before the Top of descent (ToD) is reached, the Flight Management System (FMS) commands a 1250 fpm descent rate
until the displayed V/B is captured while maintaining VNAV connection. 

The vertical bearing when the aircraft is on final approach calculates data from the Final Approach Fix (FAF) to the
runway threshold.

To read an earlier post concerning the Vertical Bearing Indicator.

Other Approach Aids

Altitude Range Arc (ARA)

A handy feature often overlooked is the Altitude Range Arc (ARA).  The ARA is a green coloured half semicircle which can
be viewed on the Navigation Display (ND).  The ARA indicates the approximate map position where the altitude, as set
on the mode control panel is expected to be reached.  Once the aircraft is well established on the vertical bearing (V/B)
calculated by the CDU, the ARA semicircle should come to rest on the targeted waypoint.  

LEFT:  Altitude Range Arc and Vertical Deviation Scale and Pointer B737-800NG

Vertical Deviation Scale and Pointer (VDS)

The Vertical Deviation Scale is another feature often misunderstood.  The scale can be found on the lower right hand
side of the Navigation Display (ND).

The VDI will be displayed when a descent and approach profile is activated in the CDU (such as when using VNAV). 
However, the tool can be used to aid in correct glideslope for any type of approach (RNAV, VNAV, VOR, etc).  To display
the VDI, an appropriate approach be selected in the CDU; however, the flight crew fly a different type of approach
without VNAV engaged).

The Vertical Deviation Scale presents the aircraft’s vertical deviation from the flight management computer’s
determined descent path (vertical bearing) within +- 400 feet.  It operates in a similar way to the Glideslope Deviation
Scale on the Instrument Landing System (ILS).

The VDS is a solid white-coloured vertical line with three smaller horizontal lines at the upper, lower and middle section,
on which a travelling magenta-coloured diamond is superimposed.  The middle horizontal line represents the aircraft’s
position and the travelling diamond represents the vertical bearing (V/B). 

When the aircraft is within +- 400 feet of the vertical bearing the diamond will begin to move, indicating whether you
are above, below or on the V/B target.  When the aircraft is on target (middle horizontal line) with the indicated vertical
bearing, the FMA will annunciate IDLE thrust mode followed by THR HLD as the aircraft pitches downwards to maintain
the V/B.

In some literature this tool is referred to as the Vertical Track Indicator (VTI).

Vertical Development (VERT DEV)

The Vertical Development (VERT DEV) is the numerical equivalent of the vertical deviation scale and is found on the
Descent Page of the CDU.  The VERT DEV allows a flight crew to cross check against the VBI in addition to obtaining an
accurate measurement in feet above or below the targeted vertical bearing. The VERT DEV will display HI or LO prefixed
by a number which is the feet the aircraft is above or below the desired glideslope.

The Vertical Deviation Scale and pointer (VDS) will remain visible on the Navigation Display (ND) throughout the
approach, and in association with the Vertical Development display on the CDU are important aids to use for Non
Precision Approaches (NPA). 

Summary

The traditional method of a step down approach, which was the mainstay used in the 1970s has evolved with the use of
computer systems and GPS.  In the 1980s RNAV (area navigation) approaches with point to point trajectories began to
be used, and in the 1990s these approach procedures were further enhanced with the use of Required Navigational
Performance (RNP) in which an aircraft is able to fly the RNAV approach trajectory and meet specified Actual Navigation
Performance (ANP) and RNP criteria.  From the 1990s onward with the advent of GPS, the method that non precision
approaches are flown has allowed full implementation of the RNP concept with a high degree of accuracy.
Although the nature of non precision approaches has evolved to that of a 'precision-like' approach with a constant
descent angle, their are operators that widely use these techniques, despite their flaws, weaknesses and drawbacks.
Even if modern navigational concepts are used in conjunction with traditional methods, aids such as the VBI, ASR and
VDI should not be overlooked.  Appropriate cross checking of the data supplied by these aids provides an added safety
envelope and avoids having to remember, calculate and rely on ‘back of the envelope’ calculations.

The flight crew landing in Canberra, Australia did not use all the available aids at their disposal.  If they had, the loss of
vertical situational awareness may not have occurred.

Abbreviations

ANP - Actual Navigation Performance

ARA - Altitude Range Arc 
CDU – Control Display Unit (used by the flight crew to interface the with the FMC)
FAF - Final Approach Fix
FMS – Flight Management System
FMA – Flight Mode Annunciation
FMC – Flight Management Computer (connects to two CDU units)
ILS – Instrument Landing System
KIAS - Knots Indicated Air Speed
MAP - Missed Approach Point
MCP – Mode Control Panel
ND – Navigation Display
NPA – Non Precision Approach 
RoD – Rate of Descent
RNP - Required Navigation Performance
RNAV - Area Navigation
ToD – Top of Descent
V/B – Vertical Bearing
VBI – Vertical Bearing Indicator
V/S – Vertical Speed 
VDS – Vertical Deviation Scale and pointer (also called Vertical Track Indicator)
VERT DEV – Vertical Development

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Vertical Bearing Indicator,  Vertical Deviation Scale and Pointer in  CDU / FMC,  Flight Training

Changing Pilot Automation Dependency

FEBRUARY 7, 2014 AT 22:58

 Although this website primarily discusses construction and
flying techniques of the Boeing 737, I believe it's pertinent to  include articles that relate to flying in general and have
merit to both real-time aviators and virtual pilots.

This post adds to the post I wrote concerning use of the Speed, VNAV and Altitude Intervention (INTV) system.

Rather than create a link to an interesting article which may at some stage be removed, I’ve copied the article verbatim
below.  The article which came fromAviation Week Space and Technology is a little long, but well worth a read.

How To End Pilot Automation Dependency

It is foolhardy to draw hasty conclusions about accidents. The investigation into the cause of the Asiana 214 Boeing 777-
200ER crash at San Francisco International Airport on July 6 is still in its early stages. While it is not clear exactly how
crew performance figured into the accident that claimed three lives, we believe that there is no excuse for landing short
on a calm, clear day in a fully functioning jetliner. If the NTSB determines that the 777-200ER ‘s engines and systems
were working properly, then how could the Asiana pilots have gotten themselves into that jam?

It may be that the crew was acting primarily as “automation managers” and not remaining sufficiently engaged in
actively flying the airplane. It would not be the first time that this has been a factor in an accident . In the final 2.5 min.
of the flight, the NTSB says, “multiple autopilot modes and multiple autothrottle modes” were inputted—all while
airspeed was allowed to drop far below the 137-kt. target. It also may turn out that software rules governing interaction
of the autopilot and autothrottle in the 777 are not intuitive under some settings and problematic for landing (see page
25). But that would be no excuse for flying into the ground.

On balance, automation has been a major contributor to the safer, more efficient operation of airliners. But automation
has not reached the point where it can handle all contingencies. We have not arrived at the point alluded to in the joke
about the crew of the future being a pilot and a dog (the pilot is there to feed the dog, the dog is there to bite the pilot if
he touches the controls). So humans must be prepared to hand-fly an aircraft at any point .

For years now, concern has been growing that airline pilots’ basic stick, rudder and energy management skills are
becoming weak due to over-reliance on automation systems. Pilots have become, in the words of Capt. Warren
VanderBurgh of American Airlines ‘ Flight Academy,“children of the magenta,” dependent upon computers that
generate the purple-pink cues on cockpit displays.

There is nothing inherently risky about using automation, he explains in a famous lecture, but there is a paradox about
automation that crews must be aware of: In most situations, automation reduces workload. But in some situations,
especially when time is critical, automation increases workload. For example, it is harder to rapidly and correctly
reprogram a flight-management computer to avoid a midair collision than it is to turn off automated systems, grab the
controls and take evasive action on one’s own.

This addiction to automation is particularly troubling because of the rapid growth of the international airline industry in
the last two decades, notably in Asia and the Middle East. Many nations, including South Korea, do not have robust
general aviation, light air freight and commuter airline sectors where pilots can amass hundreds of hand-flown takeoffs
and departures, arrivals and landings before graduating to the cockpit of an Airbus or a Boeing airplane carrying scores
of passengers.

In the wake of the Asiana crash , Tom Brown, a retired United Airlines 747-400 standards captain and former instructor
of Asiana pilots , said in an email to friends that while he worked in South Korea, he “was shocked and surprised by the
lack of basic piloting skills.” Requiring pilots “to shoot a visual approach struck fear into their hearts.”

Other expatriate training pilots who have worked in Asia and the Middle East tell similar stories about lack of basic head-
up airmanship skills and preoccupation with head-down button pushing. They can perfectly punch numbers into the
flight-management computer but if something unexpectedly crops up late in the flight, such as an air traffic control
reroute close to the airport or a runway change, crews may not have time to punch, twist, push and flick all the controls
required for the automation to make critical changes to the aircraft’s flightpath. And head-down, they risk losing
situational awareness.

This pitfall is not peculiar to developing regions, of course. Advanced automation can lull any crew into becoming mere
systems monitors.

So what should be done? The automation dependency paradigm must be changed now. Crews must be trained to
remain mentally engaged and, at low altitudes, tactilely connected to the controls —even when automation is being
employed. They should be drilled that, at low altitudes, anytime they wonder “what’s it doing now?” the response
should be to turn automation off and fly by hand.

Aviation agencies need to update standards for certifying air carriers. There needs to be a new performance-based
model that requires flight crews to log a minimum number of hand-flown takeoffs and departures, approaches and
landings every six months, including some without autothrottles. Honing basic pilot skills is more critical to improving
airline safety than virtually any other human factor.

Click here to watch Capt. Warren VanderBurgh’s “children of the magenta” lecture (VIMEO) to pilots on how the
aviation industry created a culture of maximizing automation.

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tagged  Auto Pilot,  Automation Dependency,  Boeing B737-800 Flight Simulator,  Children of Magenta in  Flight Training,
Reference

Take Off / Go Around (TOGA) - Explained

JULY 10, 2013 AT 14:53

Performing Go-Around can be a confusing procedure, made more so by the effects of inclement weather. 

TO/GA is an acronym for Take Off / Go Around.  TO/GA is used whenever an approach becomes unstable or
environmental conditions alter that do not allow an approach and landing within the constraints that the aircraft is
certified.  If you watch the short video (embedded from U-Tube) you will note that the crew utilized TO/GA when a rain
squall reduced visibility to almost zero as the aircraft was about to cross the runway threshold.
VIDEO: Boeing Business Jet (BBJ)  - Final Approach engaged TO/GA due to inclement weather (courtesy & copyright
"DougLesso" U-Tube).

So why is TO/GA confusing?  It’s not the actual use of TO/GA that is confusing, but more the level of automation you
have in use at the time of engaging TO/GA.  By automation, I am referring to  the command mode selected for the
approach: VNAV, LNAV, V/S, ILS and whether the autopilot is enaged or not (CMD A/B).  In this post three three distinct
scenarios will be discussed; however, engine out (single engine) procedures will not be examined.

Scenario One

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for autoland:  CMD A & B engaged with localizer and glideslope
captured and 'FLARE armed' and annunciated on the Flight Mode annunciator (FMA).  Auto throttle engaged.

 Pushing the TOGA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode & Flight Director guidance will 'come
alive';

 The auto throttle will automatically move forward to produce reduced go around (RGA) thrust;

 The Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will annunciate TO/GA and the appropiate thrust will be displayed;

 The autopilot will remain engaged and will pitch upwards to follow the Flight Director (FD) guidance

 Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

 A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which indicates flap retraction
speeds.

Scenario Two

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for manual landing (autopilot on):  CMD A or B engaged.  Auto
throttle engaged.

 Pushing TO/GA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode & Flight Director Guidance will 'come alive';

 The auto throttle will automatically move forward to produce reduced go-around thrust.  However, the autopilot
will disconnect;

 The Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will annunciate TO/GA and the appropiate thrust will be displayed;

 The crew will need to take control and manually fly to follow the Flight Director guidance (around 15 Degrees
nose up);

  Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

  A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which indicates flap retraction
speeds.

Scenario Three

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for manual landing (autopilot off):  CMD A or B not engaged.  Auto
throttle engaged/not engaged.
  Pushing TO/GA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode and Flight Director guidance will 'come
alive';

 The crew will need to take control and manually fly to follow the Flight Director guidance (around 15 Degrees
nose up);

 The auto throttle will not command reduced go around thrust.  The crew must manually move the throttle
levers to roughly 85% N1;

 Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

 A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which indicates flap retraction
speeds.

How is TO/GA Engaged

The Boeing 737 has two buttons on the throttle quadrant for engaging TO/GA.  These buttons are located on each thrust
handle below the knob of the thrust levers.  The TO/GA buttons are not the buttons located at the end of each throttle
knob; these buttons are the auto throttles (A/T) disconnect buttons.

Pushing one or two of the TO/GA buttons will engage the go-around mode and command Flight Director guidance for
attitude pitch.

Depending on the level of automation set, but assuming minimal automation, the pilot-flying may need to push the
throttle levers forward to roughly 85% N1 (Reduced Go Around Thrust).  Boeing pilots often refer to this technique as
the 'Boeing arm' as an outstretched arm grasping the throttle levers moves the levers to 'around' 85% N1.

If the crew pushes the TO/GA button once, reduced go-around power is annunciated on the Thrust Mode Display (above
the N1 indications on the EICAS screen) and also in the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA).  Reduced go-around thrust is
roughly 10% below the green coloured  reference curser on the N1 indicator. 
This thrust setting will generate a rate of climb between 1000 and 2000 fpm.

LEFT (2):  Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) on Primary Flight Display (PFD) indicated TOGA and TOGA will be displayed on
Thrust Mode Display (TMD).  Replace CRZ (1) with TO/GA.

If the TO/GA buttons are pressed again (two button pushes), go-around thrust
will be set to maximum thrust (at the reference curser). Engaging the TO/GA button twice is normally only used if terrain
separation is doubtful.

A Typical Go Around (CAT 1 Conditions)

The pilot flying focuses on the instruments as the aircraft descends to about 200 feet AGL.  The pilot not flying splits his
attention between his responsibilities to both monitor the progress of the approach, and identify visual cues like the
approach lighting system.   If the approach lights of the runway come into view by 200 feet, the monitoring pilot will
announce 'continue' and the flying pilot will stay on instruments and descend to 100 feet above the runway.

If the non-flying pilot does not identify the runway lights or runway threshold by 200 feet AGL, then he will
command 'Go Around Flaps 15'.  The pilot flying will then initiate the Go Around procedure.

The pilot flying will engage the TOGA command by depressing the TO/GA buttons once, resulting in the Flight Director
commanding the necessary pitch attitude to follow (failing this the pitch is roughly 15 Degrees nose up).  The auto
throttle (depending on level of automation selected) will be commanded to increase thrust to the engines to attain and
manage a 1,000 foot per minute climb; a second press of the TOGA buttons will initiate full thrust.  

The pilot not-flying will, when postive rate is assurred, raise the landing gear announcing 'gear up all green'  and begin to
retract the flaps following the 'bug' up schedule as indicated on the Primary Flight Display (PFD).  Once the Go Around is
complete, the Go Around Checklist will be completed.   

Important Points to Remember when using TOGA

 If the Flight Directors (FD) are turned off; activating TO/GA will cause them to 'come alive' and provide go
around guidance.  

 Engaging TOGA provides guidance for the flight modes and/or N1 setting commanded by the auto throttle, It will
not take control of the aircraft.  If the autopilot and auto throttle is engaged then they will follow that guidance;
however, if the autopilot is not engaged the crew will need to fly the aircraft.

 TOGA will not engage the auto throttle unless the autopilot is engaged.  The only way to engage auto throttle is
with your hand (flip the switch on the MCP).  See sidenote below.

 TOGA will engage only if the aircraft is below 2000 RA (radio altitude).
  TOGA will engage only if flaps are extended.

 Remember to dial the missed approach altitude into the Mode Control Panel (MCP) after reaching the Final
Approach Fix (FAF). The FAF is designated on the approach plate by the Maltese cross.  This ensures that, should
TOGA be required, the missed approach altitude will be set.

Side-note:  It is possible to engage the auto throttle using the TO/GA buttons if the auto throttle is in ARMED mode and
the speed deselected on the MCP.  Note this method of auto throttle use is not recommended by Boeing.

Flight Crew Psychology

Flight crews are as human as the passengers they are carrying, but it’s difficult to accept that a Go Around is not a
failure, but a procedure established to ensure added in-flight safety.  Several years ago airline management touted that
a go-around required a detailed explanation to management; after all, a go-around consumes extra fuel and causes an
obvious delay as the aircraft circles for a second landing attempt. This philosophy resulted in several fateful air crashes
as flight crews were under time and management pressure to not attempt a go-around but continue with a landing.

Management today see the wisdom in the go-around and many airlines have a no fault go-around policy.  This policy is
designed to remove any pressure to land in unsafe conditions - regardless of the reason: visibility, runway condition,
crosswind limits, etc.  If one of the pilots elects to go-around, that decision will never be questioned by management.  So
while TO/GA isn't the desired landing outcome, a go-around is not considered a failure in airmanship.

Minimal Discussion

This post has briefly touched on the use of TO/GA in an approach and landing scenario; nonetheless, to ensure a more
thorough understanding, I urge you to read the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) available for download in the
Training and Documents section of this website. 

Acronyms Used

AFDS - Autopilot Flight Director System

A/T - Auto Throttle Category 1 - Decision height of 200 feet AGL and a visibility of 1/2 SM
CMD - Command A or B (autopilot)
FAF – Final Approach Fix
FD - Flight Directors
FMA - Flight Mode Annunciator
FPM - Feet Per Minute
MCP - Mode Control Panel
N1 - Commanded Thrust % (rotational speed of low pressure spool)
RA - Radio Altimeter
RGA – Reduced Go-Around Thrust
TMD - Thrust Mode Display (on EICAS display)
TO/GA - Take Off / Go Around

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tagged  B737 Flight Simulator,  B737-300 Boeing 737 Flight Simulator,  Go Around,  TOGA,  Take Off / Go Around,  To Go
Around in  Flight Training,  Videos
Avoiding Confusion: Acceleration Height, Thrust Reduction Height, Derates, Noise Abatement and the Boeing Quiet
Climb System

JUNE 29, 2013 AT 19:24

During preparation for takeoff, three similar functions that deal with how the autothrottle calculates N1 thrust can
be altered in the CDU: Acceleration Height (AH), Thrust Reduction Height (TRH) and the Quiet Climb System (QCS). 
Although there are similarities, each function is used independently of each other. 

Confusion can also occur deciphering the different methods used to alter N1 thrust, such as: Derated Thrust, Assumed
Temperature and Derated Thrust Climb.

Acceleration Height (AH) 

Acceleration Height is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that a pilot accelerates the aircraft by reducing the aircraft’s
pitch, to allow acceleration to a speed safe enough to raise flaps and slats, and then reach the desired climb speed.

LEFT: Thompson B738NG transitioning to Acceleration Height, Manchester, UK.  Click to see full size.

Part 23 of Federal Aviation Regulations (USA) dictates that the airplane is able to climb at a certain rate in this
configuration up to a safe altitude.

The acceleration height is the altitude that the aircraft transitions from takeoff speed (V2+15/20) to climb out speed. 
This altitude is usually between 1000 and 1500 feet, but may be as low as 800 feet; however, can differ due to noise
abatement, airline policy, or airport specifics such as obstacles, etc.

The reason for acceleration height is to allow a safety envelope below this altitude should an engine problem develop
after rotation; engines are set to maximum thrust, and the plane is pitched for V2 safety speed (V2+15/20).

Acceleration Height is altered in the CDU 'Init/Ref Index/Takeoff Ref Page (lsk4R) Accel HT ---- AGL'

Practical Application 

Once the Acceleration Height has been reached, the pilot flying will reduce attitude pitch by pushing the yoke forward to
increase speed.  As the speed increases Flaps 5 is retracted.  At this time the speed will need to be increased in the MCP
speed window from V2 to climb speed, followed by further flap retraction on schedule. 

Although crews use slightly varying techniques; I find the following holds true for a non-automation climb to 10,000 feet
AGL.
  Set the MCP to V2 +15/20.

 Fly the Flight Director cues to Acceleration Height.

 At Acceleration Height, push yoke forward reducing pitch.

 As forward speed increases you will quickly pass through the schedule for initial flap retraction – retract flaps 5.

 Dial into the MCP speed window the appropriate 'clean up' speed (reference the top bug on the speed tape of
the PFD, usually 210-220 kias).

 Continue to retract flaps as per schedule.

 After flaps are retracted, engage automation (if wanted) and increase speed to 250 kias or as indicated by Air
Traffic Control.

NOTE:  If the acceleration height has been entered into the CDU, then the Flight Director bars will command the
decrease in pitch when the inputted altitude (RA) has been reached - all you do is follow the FD bars.

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH)

The main wear on engines, especially turbine engines, is heat. If you reduce heat, the engine will have greater longevity.
This is why takeoff power is often time limited and a height established that thrust is reduced. The difference between
takeoff thrust and climb thrust may only be a few percent, but the lowering of EGT reduces heat and extends engine life
significantly. 

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH):  The thrust reduction height is where the transition from takeoff to climb thrust takes
place.  TRH can be altered in the CDU 'Init/Ref Index/Takeoff Ref Page (lsk1R) Reduction AGL-- AGL'

The height usually used for thrust reduction, not taking into account noise
abatement, can vary; but, 400 feet AGL is the minimum allowed. 

LEFT:  Figure showing Thrust Mode Display (TMD).  In this example it is displaying CRZ (cruise).Figure copyright FCOM. 

Once takeoff has occurred, examination of the Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will alert the flight crew to the type of climb
that has been choosen.  The TMD will display the acronym TO (takeoff) or R-TO (reduced takeoff thrust) and will alter to
CLB (climb) once the Thrust Reduction Height has been reached.

Confusion between Acceleration Height and Thrust Reduction Height 

Newcomers are often confused between the two similarly-sounding terms, possibly because they both occur at the
interface between takeoff and climb-out.  Simply written:

Acceleration Height is when the nose is to be lowered to allow the aircraft to accelerate. When the aircraft starts
accelerating is when the flight crew will retract flaps as per the schedule.  Thrust Reduction Height is when the
autothrottle will decrease the engine power to the preselected climb thrust; thereby reducing engine wear and tear. 
Both may occur simultaneously or at differing heights above ground level.. Both can be configured in the CDU.
Differing Methods to alter Thrust:  Derated Thrust (CLB-1, CLB-2), Assumed Temperature & Derated Thrust

There are several methods available to flight crews to alter N1 thrust controlled by the autothrottle system, and with the
exception of the N1 speed reference knobs on the Main Instrument Panel (MIP), all are accessed via the CDU interface.

Derated Thrust (Derates):  Derate is a term used for derated thrust (or reduced thrust). 

The CDU displays a list of fixed-rate derates which may differ between aircraft, the reason being that each airframe may
have a different powered engine.

Derates can be accessed from the N1 Limit Page.

Assumed Temperature:  This method calculates thrust based on a higher than actual air temperature and requires the
crew to input into the CDU a higher than normal outside temperature.  This will cause the on-board computer to believe
that the temperature is warmer than what it actually is; thereby, reducing N1 thrust.

The outside air temperature can be altered in the N1 Limit Page (lsk1L) or from the Takeoff Ref Page 2/2 (lsk4L).

Derated Thrust Climb (CLB-1 & CLB-2):  Selecting CLB-1 or CLB-2 commands the autothrottle to reduce N1 thrust during
any climb phase to a higher altitude.  

Rather than use maximum climb or rate, crews often select CLB-1 which is approximately a 10% derate of climb thrust
(climb limit reduced by 3% N1), while  CLB-2 is approximately a 20% derate of climb thrust (climb limit reduced by 6%
N1).   Flight crews routinely preselect a lower than maximum climb thrust before departure.

CLB-1 and CLB-2 can be accessed from the N1 Limit Page. 

The reduced climb thrust setting, no matter which method used, gradually increases to full rated climb thrust by 15,000
feet.

Quiet Climb System (QCS) - Abiding with Noise Abatement Protocols 

Boeing has developed the Quiet Climb System, an automated avionics feature for quiet procedures that causes thrust
cutback after takeoff.  By reducing and restoring thrust automatically, the system lessens crew workload and results in a
consistently less noisy engine footprint, which helps airlines comply with noise abatement restrictions. There are two
variables to enter: Altitude reduction and altitude restoration.

During the take-off checklist procedure, the pilot selects the QCS and enters the altitudes at which thrust should be
reduced (greater than or equal to 800 ft AGL) and restored (typically 3000 feet AGL). With the auto throttle system
engaged, the QCS reduces engine thrust when the cutback altitude is reached to maintain the optimal climb angle and
airspeed. When the airplane reaches the chosen thrust restoration altitude (typically 3,000 ft AGL or as indicated by
noise abatement procedures), the QCS restores full climb thrust automatically.  Note that the minimum altitude that the
QCS can be set is 800 feet AGL.  This allows the safety envelope dictated by Acceleration Height to remain active.

Multiple Safety Features for Disconnect 

The Quiet Climb System incorporates multiple safety features and will continue to operate even with system failures. If a
system failure does occur, there are several methods for exiting QCS.  In the most common method, the pilot selects the
takeoff/go-around (TOGA) switches on the throttle control levers. The pilot can also take control of the throttles easily
by disconnecting the auto throttle and controlling the thrust manually.
The Quiet Climb System, also known as “cutback” can be accessed from the Takeoff Ref Page (lsk6R).  You will observe
the name cutback with on/off.  You can also enter an altitude that you wish the system to restore full thrust.

For completeness, below is a copy of the current Noise Abatement Departure Procedures (NADP).  A copy of these
procedures can be downloaded from the Training and Documents section on this website.  Click image for larger view.

Similarity of Terms

When you look at each of the above-mentioned three functions they appear similar in many respects. 

The way I remember them is as follows:

Acceleration Height (AH) is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that is set to ensure take-off speed (V2+15/20) is
maintained for safety reasons. 

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH) is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that is set to reduce take-off thrust a few percent
to maintain and increase engine life.

The Quiet Climb System (QCS) allows a minimum and maximum altitude to be set in the FMC; thereby, reducing engine
power and engine noise.  The restoration altitude is the altitude that full climb power is restored.  The QCS is used only
for noise abatement. 
Thrust Reduction Caveat

It must be remembered that any thrust reduction made within the CDU is accumulative.  For example, if you select a
lower fixed-rate derate and then select a reduced N1 by the assumed temperature method, the thrust reductions will be
added.  It is imperative that the crew actually look at the N1 power settings to ensure they are suitable for the weight of
the aircraft, environmental conditions, and length of the runway.  To check and confirm the N1 settings, look at the
Thrust Mode Display or the appropiate page in the CDU.

I urge you to read further by downloading the following documents located in the Training and Documents section on
this site.

 Reduced Thrust Operations

 Quiet Climb System

 Reduced Thrust Considerations

 Reduced and Derated Thrust

ProSim 737

As of June 2013, the ProSim737 avionics suite incorporates the Boeing Quiet Climb System and Thrust Reduction Height. 
Acceleration Height is yet to be modelled.

Quality Assurance (QA)

This has been a long post dealing with items that are often confusing in their own right.   Rather than separate the
similar topics into individual posts, I thought it easier to deal with them together.

When explaining procedures, I  attempt to keep the writing style simple and easy to understand for a wide range of
audiences.  If I have failed, or you discover a mistake, please contact me so this can be rectified.

Acronyms Used 

AH – Acceleration Height

AGL – Above Ground Level
CDU – Control Display Unit
CLB-1 & CLB-2 – Climb 1/2
DERATE – De-rated Thrust
FMC – Flight Management Computer
LSK1R – Line Select 1 Right (CDU) 
PFD - Primary Flight Display
QCS – Quiet Climb System
R-TO – Reduced Takeoff (thrust)
RTC – Reduced Takeoff Climb
TRH – Thrust Reduction Height
TO – Takeoff (thrust)
TMD – Thrust Mode Display

Searching for Definitive Answers - Flight Training

JUNE 21, 2013 AT 19:46

 Learning to operate the B737 is not a matter of 1, 2, 3 and away you fly; there’s a lot of technical information that
requires mastering for successful and correct flight technique.  Searching for a definitive answer to a flight-related
question can become frustrating.  Whilst respondents are helpful and want to impart their knowledge, I’ve learnt
through experience that often there isn’t a definitive answer to how or why something is done a certain way.  

Typical Pilot-type Personalities

Typical pilot personalities nearly always gravitate towards one answer and one correct method; black or white, right or
wrong – virtual pilots or “simmers” behave in a similar fashion.  They want to know with certainty that what they are
doing replicates the correct method used in the "real-world". 

In reality, the Boeing 737NG is flown by different crews in different ways all over the globe every minute of the day.  
Often the methods used are not at the discretion of the crew flying but are decided by airline company policy and
procedures, although the ultimate decision rests with the Captain of the aircraft.   Just ask the __________ (you fill in
the nationality or airline) and they will tell you that they are the best and fly the correct way.

For example, climb out procedures vary between different

airlines and flight crews.  Some crews verify a valid roll mode at 500’ (LNAV, HDG SEL, etc) then at 1000’ AGL lower pitch
attitude to begin accelerating and flap retraction followed by automation.  Others fly to 1500' or 3000’ AGL, then lower
pitch and begin to "clean up" the aircraft; others fly manually to 10,000’ AGL before engaging CMD A. 

LEFT:  First Officer conducts pre-flight check list & compares notes.  Whilst check lists are essential in ensuring that all
crews operate similarly, there is considerable variance in how flight crews actually fly the 737 (click for larger view)

Another example is flying an approach.  Qantas request crews to disengage automation at 2500’ AGL and many Qantas
crews fly the approach without automation from transition altitude (10,000’ AGL).  This is in contrast to European
counterparts in Ryanair which request crews use full automation whenever possible.  A further example is the use of
Vertical Navigation, Level Change and Vertical Speed; there are several possibilities.

Considerable Variance Allowed

I have been told by a Qantas pilot, that there is "a huge amount of technique allowed when flying the B737".  "There are
certainly wrong ways to do things; but, there is often no single right way to do something".

Therefore; when your hunting for a definite answer to a question, remember there are often several ways to do the
same thing, and often the method chosen is not at the crew’s discretion but that of the airline.

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tagged  B737 Flight Simulator,  B737-800,  Flight Training,  Pilot Personalities in  Flight Training

Video Lecture on Automation Dependency, Loosing The Ability To Fly

APRIL 24, 2013 AT 13:23

This is an excellent lecture video that discusses the reasons for and the solution to "Automation Dependency".  As
aircraft become increasingly complex, higher levels of automation are made available to allow pilots to minimise task
loading.  In the late 1990's pilots were often referred to as  flight managers, meaning they supervised how and when
various automated systems controlled the aircraft.  Several air crashes during the last decade has revealed that pilots are
loosing the raw ability to actual fly an aircraft and are relying increasingly on automation to solve issues during time of
critical flight stress.  This lecture video discusses the implications arising from automation dependency and how airlines
are attempting to solve the issue.  I found the presentation to be very informative, amusing in parts and helps to
explain "What's it doing now"......   The video has been embedded directly from U-Tube.

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tagged  American Airlines,  Auto Pilot,  Automation Dependency,  Boeing B737 Flight Simulator,  Children of Magenta, 
Flight Management,  Flight Training in  Flight Training,  Reference,  Videos

Reference Nav Data - CDU Functionality  Explained

MARCH 29, 2013 AT 12:24

In past posts, I’ve documented some of the functionality of the Central Control Unit (CDU).  Following on with this
theme, let’s look at four navigation data functions the CDU is capable of: Reference Nav Data, Nav Options, Nav Status
and Nav Frequency Changes.

Before continuing, the CDU is controlled by the avionics suite you are using; whether it is ProSim737, Sim Avionics or
whatever.  Each avionics suite provides differing functionality; therefore, if something does not operate as indicated, it
maybe the limiting ability of your avionics suite.

Note:  This post follows standard terminology.  lsk3R means line select key 3 right.

------------------------------

A:  REFERENCE NAV DATA

Occasionally, you will need to cross check information and the frequency of a specific navaid.  

The Reference Nav Data display is part of the Nav Data page and can be assessed by the INDEX page:

INIT REF / INDEX / NAV DATA (lsk1R)

The screen will show three available options: Enter WPT Ident, Navaid Ident and Airport Ident.

Example:  Type HB into the navaid Ident.  Two pages will be displayed showing all the HB Idents from the navigation
database.  Selection of the appropriate navaid (HB) will present a further page displaying the following information: 
Navaid WPT, Airport and Ident code, Latitude, Longitude, Frequency, Elevation and magnetic variance.
NOTE:  If you cannot identify the ident by name use the Longitude and Latitude coordinates.

------------------------------

B:  NAV OPTIONS & NAV STATUS

Following on from the Reference Nav Data page are:  Nav Options and Nav Status.

Nav Options and Nav Status can be assessed two ways:

1:  INIT REF/ INDEX / NAVDATA (lsk1R) / NAV OPTIONS (lsl6R)  

2:  PROG (progress) / NAV STATUS (lsk6R)  (use when in flight)

Two consecutive pages are available: Nav Options and Nav Status.  By default, Nav Status (page 2/2) is displayed.  Use
the PREV and NEXT PAGE keys to cycle between the two pages.

Nav Status - page 1/2

This page provides you with a list of the closest navaids including frequencies.  It also indicates the currently set
identifier and frequency for NAV 1 and NAV 2 (as set on the NAV 1/2 radio).

Nav Options - page 2/2

This page can be used to inhibit a particular waypoint or station.  By inhibiting a navaid, it will not be able to be used by
the CDU to calculate a navigation solution.  By default all navaid types are activated.  At crew discretion, two VOR and
two DME stations can be inhibited.  When you inhibit a navaid it will be removed from page 1/2 and not be visible in the
Nav Status page list.  The inhibited navaid will be reset when you reset the CDU.  

------------------------------

C: FREQUENCY CHANGE - ALTERING THE THE CDU

In usual practice, crew will alter the navigation, communication, ADF and transponder frequency on the actual panel
located in the central pedestal.  However, often you may need to cross check frequencies, dial in a third frequency for
positional awareness, or use a frequency from an avionics module not present in the pedestal or that is malfunctioning.

The alter Nav Data screen can be assessed by:

MENU / MAINT (lsk6R) / COM/NAV (lsk3L)

This will display a page showing all idents and frequencies currently being used.
COM 1, COM 2, NAV 1, NAV 2, ADF 1, ADF 2 AND EXPR

To alter a frequency, type into the scratch pad the frequency of the navaid and upload to the appropriate line.  To
upload, select and press the key to the left or right of the nominated radio.  Changing a frequency in the CDU will also
cause a corresponding change in the frequency of the selected radio (in the center pedestal).

Flow Route

When you work through the above four functions of the CDU, you will note that the INDEX function is always available. 
This allows you to easily develop a flow route as you move between the various pages.  Once you know how the flow
route operates, you will discover that the CDU is very much like a book with several hundred pages of information that is
easily assessable via a few “select” menu keys.
As with all my posts, if you discover a discrepancy please contact me so it can be rectified.

BELOW:  Montage of images from the CDU showing various pages displayed within the Reference Nav Data.  CDU is
manufactured by Flight Deck Solutions (FDS).  Click image to see larger.

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tagged  B737 Flight Training,  Boeing B737 Flight Simulator,  CDU,  FMC,  FSX,  Nav Options,  Nav Status,  Reference Nav
Data in  CDU / FMC,  Flight Training

Speed & Altitude Intervention (SPD INTV & ALT INTV) & V-NAV - How to Use  It

FEBRUARY 20, 2013 AT 9:00

There are a number of differing levels of automation used

when flying the B737 and the Flight Management Computer (FMC) and/or Mode Control Panel (MCP) is used to engage
these automation features.

The MCP has several features that can be used to control the outputs from the auto pilot:  Level Change (LVL CHG),
Vertical Speed (V/S), Control Wheel Steering (CWS), Lateral Navigation (LNAV), Vertical Navigation (VNAV), Speed
Intervention (SPD INTV) and Altitude Intervention (ALT INTV). 

In this post we will examine the use of altitude and speed intervention and demonstrate the use of these modes in flight
with VNAV and LNAV engaged.  A breif recap of VNAV is provided, however, for the most part it is assumed you already
know the basics of what VNAV is, and what it can do.

Before continuing, you must realize that there is a lot of interconnection between the differing avionics of the 737
aircraft.  When you alter one aspect, often a corresponding change within another system may occur.  These systems are
replicated in the flight avionics suite that you are using, however, functionality is often dependent upon which software
suite you are using.  The following information pertains only to ProSim737’s avionics suite.  

Finally, be aware  that not every Boeing 737-800 has the same functionality. Speed and altitude intervention are
company options that may or may not be ordered at the time of airframe purchase.  The acronyms FMC and CDU are
interchangeable in this post.

VNAV can be confusing

Understanding VNAV and the use of Speed and Altitude Intervention can often be a confusing subject to grasp; real-
world pilots with years of training can become perplexed to how the flight computer is controlling the aircraft.  A report
commissioned by Honeywell (Cognitive Engineering Anaylsis of Vertical Navigation, 2000) indicated that "the use of
VNAV are well known sources of operator confusion, and explain, in part, the operational issues experienced by airline
pilots". 

I've attempted to convey this information succinctly; however, please treat this as a introduction. I recommend reading
the appropriate section in the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) for a more thorough understanding (see bottom
of page for link to download).
VNAV, MCP & FMA

An often misunderstood facet of the MCP is that the illuminated lights indicate whether a function/mode is turned on or
off.  This is not entirely correct.  Illuminated lights indicate modes that can be switched off.  Active modes that cannot be
switched off, extinguish their light on the MCP.  A pilot (virtual or otherwise) would be foolhardy to rely solely on this
method to determine the operational status of a mode or function and cross referencing with the FMA and CDU is
considered wise.

The Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) seen above the Primary Flight Display (PFD) displays various alerts and status
messages and it’s prudent to cross reference between the FMA, MCP and CDU to determine what exactly is happening
at any given time.  When a function is about to be executed, the FMA will draw a green rectangle around the function.  

 If in doubt, always disengage VNAV and then reengage after studying your predicament.

Speed Intervention (SPD INTV) & Altitude Intervention (ALT INTV) – Why?

The flight deck can be an extreme work environment, especially during the high-task descent approach phase of the
flight; speed and altitude intervention were designed to allow pilots to easily and quickly change either the speed or
altitude of their aircraft without re-programming the CDU or disengaging VNAV.  The intervention buttons are
strategically located on the MCP and when engaged (pressed) allow you to quickly change either speed or altitude level
on "the fly".  To engage these buttons they must be depressed for one to two seconds.

Scenario

You are flying at FL280 (28,000’) at 300 kias (.54 Mach).  The CDU has a flight plan engaged (Company Route) and the
CDU LEGS page specifies speed and altitude constraints.  VNAV, LNAV and CMD (A or B) is engaged.  The speed window
located on the MCP should be blank (one indication that VNAV is engaged) and the VNAV, L-NAV and CMD A or B
indication buttons will be illuminated.

LNAV will be controlling the lateral navigation of the aircraft while VNAV will be controlling the altitude of the aircraft
relative to the altitude and speed constraints that have been set in the CDU.

You have been asked by ATC to decrease your speed to 280 kias and lower your altitude to FL260.

Speed Intervention (SPD INTV)

Engaging speed intervention you will immediately observe that the MCP speed window becomes active iand displays
your current speed.  Dial in into the speed window the new speed requirement of 280 kias.  Notice on the PFD that the
speed indicator value above the speed tape has changed from 300 kias to the new speed of 280 kias.  If you cross check
with the cruise altitude (INDEX/PERF INT/CRZ ALT) in the CDU it will still indicate the cruise speed of 300 kias.  

If you wish to stay at this speed (280 kias), you will need to manually alter the cruise speed constraint in the CDU. 
However, in this case the reduction in speed is momentary and ATC advise you to return to your original speed.  

To do this, you press the SPD INTV button and your speed will return to the original speed.  Note the speed indication on
the PFD changes from 280 kias back to 300 kias.  Also note that the MCP speed window is now blank (no actual speed
display). 

If you practice this a few times, it will become second nature and will soon be your preferred method to alter speed
momentarily, but maintaining the original speed constraint within the Vertical Navigation system.
 Altitude Intervention (ALT INTV)

Altitude Intervention is little more convoluted compared to the simpler Speed Intervention.  This is because the
relationship changes between whether the aircraft is ascending or descending.

In normal flight with VNAV and LNAV engaged the FMA will read FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH and the V-NAV, LNAV and
CMD buttons on the MCP will be illuminated.  

Descent using ALT INTV - Let’s assume the same scenario (FL280 to FL260)

Dial into the MCP altitude window the new altitude (FL260).  You will observe the PFD changes from the original altitude
of FL280 to FL260.  Press the ALT INTV button and you will notice the FMA annunciates: FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH.  
The aircraft will then descend at 1000 fpm until FL260 is reached.  

It’s a function of ALT-INTV that all descents are maintained at 1000 feet per minute.  Interestingly, this corresponds to
the same decent rate when using “Descend Now” in the CDU.  

If you cross check with the cruise altitude (INDEX/PERF INT/CRZ ALT) in the CDU it will still show the original cruise
altitude of FL280.  The CDU has NOT been automatically updated to the lower altitude (this is normal). 

To return to the original altitude level of FL280, dial into the MCP the previous altitude level (FL280), press ALT INTV and
the aircraft will ascend to FL280.    

However, if you want to remain at FL260, you will need to manually update the cruise altitude in the CDU.   

 It’s important to remember that VNAV will not engage unless the original altitude level (FL280) is manually
dialed into the altitude window of the MCP.

Company Procedure

Depending upon company procedure, the usual method to accomplish a cruise descent in VNAV is to dial into the MCP
altitude window the lower altitude, then open the  the DES (descent) page on the CDU.  Follow through by typing the
new altitude into the scratch pad and by pressing CRZ DES (cruise descent).  The aircraft will begin a descent at 1000 feet
per minute whilst maintaining VNAV.  The LEGS page and the PERT INT altitude in the CDU will also be updated to reflect
the altitude change.

ASCENT using ALT INTV - Let’s assume the same scenario (FL260 – FL280)
The ALT INTV button operates a little differently when you ascend.   For a start, it automatically updates the cruise
altitude (CRZ ALT) to the new altitude level.  The FMA will annunciate:  N1 / LNAV / VNAV SPD during the climb phase of
the flight, changing to FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH when the new altitude level is reached.

 It’s important to remember the main difference between using ALT INTV during an ascent or decent is the Cruise
Altitude in the CDU ONLYupdates for ascents and not descents.

Special Considerations – ALT INTV

When using ALT INTV, there are several variables pertaining to the altitude constraint that alter depending upon
whether you are in VNAV climb, cruise or descent.  Rather than re-word what already has been written, I’ve scanned the
appropriate page from the Cockpit Companion by BIll Bulfer below.
Other Ways to Change Altitude Maintaining VNAV

There are other ways to either ascend or descend to an assigned altitude and still use VNAV.  You can engage Level
Change (LVL CHG) or use Vertical Speed (V/S); using either will cause the aircraft to descend.  Level Change will cause a
relatively fast descent whilst Vertical Speed allows you to input the descent rate – both of which can be greater than the
1000 fpm ALT INTV uses.  

Dial into the MCP altitude window the new altitude level and press either LVL CHG or V/S and the aircraft will descend to
that altitude.  Note that the V-NAV light on the MCP extinguishes and the speed window becomes active showing the
aircraft’s current speed.  To return to the original altitude level, dial into the altitude window the original altitude level
and press the V-NAV button on the MCP.

I prefer to use LVL CHG or V/S to initiate a descent to be more reliable than using the ALT INTV (read on…..).

Reliability of ALT INTV – ProSim737 

In ProSim737 using Version 1.27, I've observed that the ALT INTV occasionally exhibits difficulty in holding a lower
altitude level. 

The Boeing system is designed in a way that once the V-Path is intercepted, the Flight Director cross hairs maintain the
new altitude by pitch.  In ProSim737 this pitch is often difficult to hold and a resultant pitching of the aircraft (up and
down) occurs as the system attempts to hold altitude.  When using Level Change (LVL CHG) or Vertical Speed (V/S) this
does not occur.

I’m unsure if this behavior is common only to my system or is more widespread; but  a way to solve the issue is to open
the CDU (Index/Perf/Cruise Altitude) and change the cruise altitude to your new height.  Another method is to deselect
V-NAV completely.  If and when you wish to return to a higher altitude, dial in the higher alttiude increment into the
MCP and then select either VNAV or ALT INTV.  The aircraft will return to that altitude and V-NAV will be active.  The
CDU will automatically update its cruise altitude to the new height as well as updating the alttiude in the LEGS page.

I find that V-NAV can cause confusion, especially if you are still learning the system and how it interacts with other FMS
variables.

 If at anytime during a flight you observe a VNAV discrepancy and become unsure of what the aircraft computer
is doing, the best option is to turn VNAV off and on again - usually this solves any potential problem.  

The developers at ProSim737 are continually tweaking these variables.  In future software releases this issue may well be
rectified.

Summary

During a flight there are many of reasons why you may need to alter speed and/or altitude; whether it is to divert
around a localized weather pattern or to abide by an Air Traffic Control request.  Whatever the reason, often the new
requirements are short-lived and a return to the original constraints necessary. 

Both the SPD INTV and ALT INTV functions can be used as time savers to alter either speed or altitude without spending
unnecessary time updating the CDU.  The time saved in the latter being especially important during the high-task
descent and approach phase of the flight.

In this post I've attempted to explain the intervention functionality of the B737 and provide a "work-around" should V-
NAV not operate as anticipated.  However, to fully understand the interrelationship between these systems, the CDU
and flight dynamics I strongly recommend perusing the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) and the “Cockpit
Companion” written by retired aircraft captain Bill Bulfer.  

If I’ve made any glaringly obvious mistakes in this post, please contact me so they can be rectified.

To read a review of the Cockpit Companion.

To download the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) navigate to the documents section where there are several
versions for download.
Table 1:  ALT-INTV FMA indications and notes

Acronyms

FMA – Flight Mode Annunciator

VNAV – Vertical Navigation
LNAV – Lateral Navigation
MCP – Mode Control Panel
ALT INTV - Altitude Intervention
SPD INTV - Speed Intervention
LVL CHG – Level Change
V/S – Vertical Speed
CDU – Control Display Unit
FMC – Flight Management Computer
PFD – Primary Flight Display
FMS - Flight Management System

Ground Effect - Historical Perspective & Technical Explanation

OCTOBER 8, 2012 AT 11:06

 During the Second World War, a crippled Boeing B17
was struggling to maintain altitude.  The aircraft and eleven crew members were over occupied Europe, returning to
England, after a successful bombing mission.

Searchlights, Flak & Enemy Fighters

After negotiating the enemy searchlights that probed the darkness over their target, and then being struck by several
pieces of shell fragment from anti-aircraft flak, they had been pounced upon by German fighters on their homeward leg. 
The ensuring fight was dramatic and left the damaged bomber with only two engines running and third engine having
difficulty.  As the bomber approached France, the enemy fighters, starved of fuel, aborted their repetitive attacks, but
the damage had been done.  Loosing airspeed and altitude the aircraft could not maintain contact with the Bomb Group;
soon they were alone.

The captain, in an attempt to maintain altitude, requested that everything heavy be jettisoned from the aircraft.  This
included machine guns, ammunition and damaged radio equipment; soon the B17 was a flying Skeleton if its former self.

The Captain was concerned that a  fire may develop in engine number three as it was spluttering due to a fuel problem. 
The Captain did not need to concern himself much longer as the engine began to cough uncontrollably before vibrating
and ceasing to function.   The aircraft was now only flying on one engine – something that was not recommended as it
placed great strain on the engine and aircraft superstructure.  

The aircraft continued to loose altitude despite the jettisoning of unwanted equipment.  The Captain decided it was
better to ditch into the English Channel rather than land in occupied France.  His thinking was that Air Sea Rescue maybe
able to pick them up, if their repeated Morse code had been received by England; the power of one engine was nowhere
enough to maintain such a large and heavy aircraft, as the B17 aloft for much longer.  The crew prepared for the
unenviable ditch into the freezing cold water of the channel.

We’re Going In – Good Luck Boys!

“Get ready guys, we’re 300 feet above the water” yelled the Captain into his intercom system.  “As soon as we hit bust
them bubbles and get out.  Try to get a raft afloat”.  “Link up in the water  – Good Luck!”  

Everyone expected the worse.  Surviving a ditching was one thing, but surviving in the cold water of the English Channel
in winter was another!  The rear gunner, since moving forward sat close to escape hatch and gingerly rubbed his rabbit’s
foot; he had carried this on every mission.  The side gunner fumbled repeatedly with his “lucky” rubber band, the
bombardier sat wrapt in private thoughts, a photograph of his loved one held tightly in his hand, and the navigator
frantically punched his Morse set trying to get the last message out before fate took command of the situation.

The aircraft, although trimmed correctly, slowly began to dip towards the sea.  But at 60 odd feet above the waves, the
aircraft began to float  – it felt as if the aircraft was gliding on a thermal.  For some reason the aircraft didn't wish to
descend.  The remaining engine screamed its protest at being run at full throttle, however the glide continued. 

The Captain was amazed and thankful for whatever was keeping this large aircraft from crashing into the sea.  It was as if
the B17 was cruising on a magic carpet of air – why didn’t it crash.  

A tail wind assisted in pushing the B17 toward England and safety; seeing the English coast in sight, the navigator quickly
calculated a route to the nearest airfield closest to the coast.  Twenty minutes later the bomber lumbered over the
runway where the only way to land was to actually reduce power to the remaining engine and push the control wheel
forward lowering the pitch angle.  They were home and safe!

Divine Interaction, Luck, or Skill ?

The crew thought it was divine interaction that the bomber had not crashed – or perhaps luck!

Aviation engineers were baffled to what had occurred.  The aircraft had glided many miles above the surface of the
English Channel and had not crashed.  Boeing, in an attempt to unravel what had occurred, repeated the event in the
confines of a wind tunnel to realize that what had maintained the large aircraft airborne was not divine interaction, but
the interaction of what has since been termed Ground Effect.

The above account, although embellished in detail, did occur and the mishaps of this bomber during the Second World
War demonstrated a previously unknown phenomenon - ground effect.

Ground Effect – Technical Explanation

Ground effect" refers to the increased lift and decreased drag that an aircraft wing generates when an aircraft is about
one wing-spans length or less over the ground (or surface).  Ground effect often gives pilots and/or passengers of light
aircraft the feeling that the aircraft is "floating", especially when landing.

When an aircraft is flying at an altitude that is

approximately at or below the same distance as the aircrafts wingspan, there is, depending on airfoil and aircraft design,
an often noticeable ground effect. This is caused primarily by the ground interrupting the wingtip vortices and down
wash behind the wing.  LEFT:  Diagram depicting ground effect with aircraft in flight.

 
 When a wing is flown very close to the ground,
wingtip vortices are unable to form effectively due to the obstruction of the ground. The result is lower induced drag,
which increases the speed and lift of the aircraft.

LEFT:  Diagram depicting aircraft in ground effect whilst on the ground.

A wing generates lift, in part, due to the difference in air pressure gradients between the upper and lower wing surfaces.
During normal flight, the upper wing surface experiences reduced static air pressure and the lower surface
comparatively higher static air pressure. These air pressure differences also accelerate the mass of air downwards. 
Flying close to a surface increases air pressure on the lower wing surface, known as the "ram" or "cushion" effect, and
thereby improves the aircraft lift-to-drag ratio.  As the wing gets lower to the surface (the ground), the ground effect
becomes more pronounced.

While in the ground effect, the wing will require a lower angle of attack to produce the same amount of lift. If the angle
of attack and velocity remain constant, an increase in the lift coefficient will result, which accounts for the "floating"
effect. Ground effect will also alter thrust versus velocity, in that reducing induced drag will require less thrust to
maintain the same velocity.

The best way to describe ground effect and which many people, both pilots and passengers, have encountered is the
floating effect during the landing flare.
Low winged aircraft are more affected by ground effect than high wing aircraft. Due to the change in up-wash, down-
wash, and wingtip vortices there may be errors in the airspeed system while in ground effect due to changes in the local
pressure at the static source.
Another important issue regarding ground effect is that the makeup of the surface directly affects the intensity; this is to
say that a concrete or other hard surface will produce more interference than a grass or water surface.

Problems Associated With Ground Effect

Take Off

Ground effect should be taken into account when a take-off from a short runway is planned.

Although ground effect may allow the airplane to become airborne at a speed that is below the recommended take-off
speed, climb performance will be less than optimal.  Ground effect may allow an overloaded aircraft to fly at shorter
take off distances and at lower engine thrust than normal.  However, the aircraft will not have the ability to climb out of
ground effect and eventually will cease to fly, or hit something after the runway length is exceeded.

Approach and Landing

As the airplane descends on approach and enters ground effect, the pilot experiences a floating sensation which is a
result from the increased lift and decreased induced drag value. Less drag also means a lack of deceleration and could
become a problem on short runways were roll-out distance is limited.
Therefore, it's important that power is throttled back as soon as the airplane is flared over the threshold and the weight
of the airplane is transferred from the wings to the wheels as soon as possible.

How to Counter Ground Effect

To minimise ground effect on landing, the following must be addressed:

 Pitch angle should be reduced to maintain a shallow decent (reduces ability of the wing to produce more lift).

 Thrust should be decreased.

 Power should be throttled back as you flare across the threshold at RA 50 feet.

 Land the aircraft onto the runway with purpose and determination.  Do not try and grease the aircraft to the
runway (often called a carpet landing).  The weight of the aircraft must be transferred to the wheels as soon as
possible to aid in tyre adhesion to the runway (also important when landing in wet conditions).

Does Ground Effect Occur in Flight Simulator?

If FSX is set up correctly, ground effect will definitely be experienced in flight simulator. 

If you have ever wondered why, after reducing speed on an otherwise perfect approach, your aircraft appears to be
floating down the runway, then you have already experienced ground effect.

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Creating Waypoints on the Fly with the CDU

SEPTEMBER 20, 2012 AT 12:00

Often you need to inject into the flight plan an along track waypoint, that is defined by a distance from a known
waypoint or navigational aid.  There are several ways to achieve this and each method is similar in operation, but is used
in differing circumstances.  Depending upon the software version installed in the Control Display Unit (CDU), you can
either use the LEGS or FIX  page.

To Create a Place Bearing Waypoint and a Along Track Waypoint in the CDU

There are two methods that obtain similar results - a Place Bearing Waypoint (Points 1 through 3) and an Along Track
Waypoint. 

1. In the  LEGS page, type into the scratchpad the waypoint name, vector and distance.  The distance is where the
new waypoint will be created and is measured from the waypoint or navigation aid you are using as an anchor
(LAV340/10).

2. After entering the information into the scratchpad  (LAV340/10), upload to the CDU by key pressing the
appropriate waypoint, where you wish the along track waypoint to be created.

3. Clean up any discontinuity and execute.

  LAV is the waypoint, 340 is the vector, in degrees, that the waypoint will be created, And 10 is the distance from
LAV that the new waypoint will be created.

 To insert the waypoint before the anchor waypoint, use the negative key - (LAV340/-10).  

 To insert the waypoint after the anchor waypoint, do not use any identifier (LAV340/10).

 Note that the / is after the vector, and the waypoint name and vector are joined with no spaces.

To insert an Along Track Waypoint the identifier and distance is typed into the scratchpad and up-selected.  For
example, LAV/-10 or LAV/20.

If the target waypoint is already in the route, then it is not necessary to type the identifier into the scratchpad; rather,
select the identifier from the route list and press the appropriate line select.  The software will automatically insert the
selected waypoint into the scratchpad for editing.

If you want the new waypoint to be created along

the current navigation track, type the vector that is displayed adjacent to the waypoint in theLEGS page of the CDU.  If
you do not type a vector, then the location of the along track waypoint will be automatically assigned by the software,
which may not be along your current track course.

In the example shown (LEFT), I have created an along track waypoint called LAV02 which is located the aircraft side of
the waypoint LAV.  I also have created a circle around LAV (see instructions below).

The CDU software will create along track waypoints with generic names (LAV01, LAV02, LAV03, etc).  In the example, I
have already flown over LAV01 and LAV02 is now the next waypoint.

METHOD 1 - How To Create a Circle around a Waypoint Using the FIX Functionality in the CDU

There are many reasons why you may want to place a circle identifier around a waypoint or navigational fix at a specific
distance.  Least of which to highlight a distance from a waypoint so it can easily be seen on the Navigation display (ND). 
Other reasons are to designate the distance from the runway threshold that the landing gear is to be lowered, or the
beginning of the glideslope for an ILS approach.

1. Press FIX on the CDU to open the FIX page.

 2. Type into the CDU scratchpad, the name of the waypoint or navigation aid (VOR, NDB, etc) and upload to
the FIX page (in the example, LAV).  This will display a small circle around the identifier in the Navigation Display
in green-dashed lines.

3. Type into the scratchpad the distance you require the circle to be drawn around the waypoint.  For example,
/15 and upload this to LSL1.

A quick way to insert a waypoint from a route into the FIX page is to press the waypoint name in the LEGS page.  This will
automatically down select the waypoint to the scratchpad saving you the time typing the name.  Then select FIX and
upload the waypoint from the scratchpad.

In the example shown (ABOVE), I have created a circle at a distance of 15 miles from LAV which can be viewed on the
navigation Display (ND).    The straight, green dashed line displayed from LAV is the vector, which in this example is
unimportant, as we are only creating a circle. 

The vector only becomes important when you want to create a waypoint that intersects the edge of the circle (see
below).

METHOD 2 - How to Create a Single Along-Track Waypoint  (at the edge of the circle)

If you want to create an along track waypoint at the edge of the defined circle, and insert this waypoint in line with the
aircraft's current navigation track (route), then the vector becomes more important. The vector will determine the
bearing, from the waypoint anchor that the waypoint is created. 

A waypoint can be created anywhere along the circle, that is drawn at the nominated distance around the anchor
waypoint.  The location of new waypoint is defined by the vector (bearing).  If the inserted waypoint is in line with
aircraft's current navigation track, the vector shown in the FIXpage or adjacent to the waypoint in the LEGS page should
be used.  The new waypoint will be displayed before the anchor waypoint.  

1. Open the FIX page and type into the scratchpad the waypoint or navigation aid identifier and up-select to the
four digit space at the top of the screen (for example, LAV).  If the identifier is part of a route, open
the LEGS page, select the waypoint from the route and press the appropiate line select button for the waypoint
which will populate the scratchpad.  Then, open the FIX page and up-select from the scratchpad to the FIX page
the waypoint. A dashed-green  coloured circle will be displayed around the waypoint in the Navigation Display.

2. Type into the scratchpad the appropriate bearing vector and distance and up-select to the appropriate line (for
example, 049/5 will generate a waypoint 5 miles from the anchor waypoint on a bearing of 049 degrees).  A
dashed-green coloured circle will be drawn at 5 miles from the anchor waypoint, and the new waypoint will be
shown along that line at the appropriate bearing.

3. To place this new waypoint into the route, press the appropriate line select button adjacent to the entry and
down-select this to the scratchpad.  The CDU software will automatically convert the entry to a format that can
be inserted into the route.

4. Open the LEGS page and up-select the waypoint to the location within the route that you wish the waypoint to
appear.

5. Finally, clean-up any discontinuity (DISCO).

In the example (BELOW), I have created the first, along track waypoint (ADM 01) as an entry point to an arc, directly in
line with the navigation track of the aircraft, before reaching the anchor waypoint - ADMAR.  ADM 01 is at the edge of
the defined circle.

METHOD 3 - How to Insert Additional Along-Track Waypoints Around the Arc of the Circle  

Another variable of the above theme, often used when executing an NDB Approach, is to create several along track
waypoints that intersect a defined circle.  The waypoints which are created at a set distance from an anchor waypoint or
navigation fix, create an arc.

First, ensure you have a circle created around the waypoint at the distance required (FIX  page).

1. Select the anchor waypoint for the arc from the LEGS page and download to scratchpad.

2. Type in the scratchpad as seperate entries: ADMAR100/15, ADMAR130/15, ADMAR160/15, ADMAR190/15 and
so forth and up-select to the appropiate line select in the route.  This will create an arc 15 miles from ADMAR at
the different bearing locations. 

 If you want the first waypoint to be along your navigation track, use the vector for this initial waypoint as
indicated in the LEGS page of the CDU.

 The above can also be generated from the FIX page using the methods outlined in Method 2.

In the example (LEFT), I have created a number of

along track waypoints, separated each by 30 degrees, that intersect the circle 10 miles from ADMAR.  With a little
imagination, it is easy to uncover several uses for such funtionality: terrain avoidance, approach protocols, etc.  Click
image to enlarge.

It is important to note that user and along track waypoints are given generic names by the software (ADMAR01,
ADMAR02, ADMAR03, etc). 

To ensure that the waypoints are sequential when displayed (01,02,03,04,05, etc), upload the new waypoints to the
LEGS page, to the same waypoint name that was used to create the along track waypoint.   In this example it is ADMAR.

Understanding the CDU

What I have described above is but a very brief and basic overview of some functions that are easily performed by the
CDU.
CDU operation can appear to be a complicated and convoluted procedure to the uninitiated.  However, with a little trail
and error you will soon discover a multitude of uses.  It is important to remember, that there are often several ways to
achieve the same outcome, and available procedures depend on which CDU software you are using.

I am not a professional writer, and documenting CDU procedures that is easily understood is challenging.  If this
information interests you, I strongly recommend you purchase the FMC Guide written by Bill Bulfer.  Failing this,
navigate to the training section of this website and download some of the FMC tutorials.

Acronyms

Anchor Waypoint – The waypoint from which additional waypoints are created from

CDU – Control Display Unit

FMC – Flight Management Computer

Target Waypoint – The waypoint that has been generated as a sibling of the Anchor waypoint

Waypoint – Navigation fix, usually an airport, VOR, NDB or similar

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Circles,  Waypoints in  CDU / FMC,  Flight Training

B737-800 Primary Flight Display (PFD)  Diagram

SEPTEMBER 9, 2012 AT 13:00

I recently came across this in the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) for the B738. The simple to understand
picture is an excellent visual reminder to the most important areas of the Primary Flight Display (PFD).

When I was new to jets, I had this image printed in colour above the computer screen as a quick reference guide. It
doesn't take long before the its part of memory.

I've made the image quite large so you can right click, save and print it out if you want to.

If you want to read ther B738 Flight Crew Manual (FCOM) navigate to the Training & Documents section (menu above)
and you can download the manual. There are a lot of Boeing documents that can be read and downloaded from this
section.
 

 
 

KEY

1. Bug 5 (white) 
2. Flaps Manoeuvring Speeds (green)
3. V2+15 (white) 
4. Takeoff Reference Speeds (green)
5. Minimum Manoeuvre Speed (amber)
6. Minimum Speed (red and black)
7. Maximum Manoeuvring Speed (amber)
8. VREF+20 (white)
9. Landing Reference Speed (green)
10. Speed Reference Display (green)
11. 80 Knot Airspeed Bug (white)

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tagged  B737-300 Boeing 737 Flight Simulator,  FCOM,  FSX,  Flight Training,  PFD,  Pilots Flight Display,  Primary Flight
Display in  Flight Training,  Reference

Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) - How To Calculate A Controlled Idle Descent

JULY 23, 2012 AT 14:54

Often you are requested by ATC to alter altitude, or

must intercept a desired point in space at a certain altitude for operational reasons. There are several methods available
to the pilot to initiate the change in altitude; outlined below are three methods.

A: Initiating Level Change or Vertical Speed on the MCP will activate an advancing and contracting green line arc
(Altitude Prediction Line) on the CDU.  This green arc identifies the location that the aircraft will reach ,if the vertical
speed is maintained, in relation to the active CDU waypoint.

B:  You can calculate the distance and vertical descent using mathematics, but this can be cumbersome and may illicit
possible mistakes. 

C:  You can alter the LEGS page of the CDU keying in the new altitude constraints (this assumes you are using VNAV &
LNAV.

The CDU Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) can help you.  The VBI is basically an angle calculator that provides "live"
vertical speed information based upon a desired descent angle.  An example using the waypoint TESSI is provided.

 Navigate to Descent page by pressing the DES key.

 At lower right hand side of the DES page you will see the following: FPA, V/B, V/S.  This is the Vertical Bearing
Indicator.

 Key RSK3 (right line select 3) and enter the waypoint and altitude (TESSI/17000)

The VBI provides 3 fields: 

 FPA (Flight Plan Angle) is the vertical path in degrees that the aircraft is currently flying.

 V/B (Vertical Bearing) is the vertical path in degrees that the aircraft SHOULD be flying to reach the keyed
waypoint (TESSI/17000).

 V/S (Vertical Speed) is the vertical bearing (V/B) converted into vertical speed for easy input into the MCP.

Observe the V/B.  The idle descent in a B737 is roughly 3.0 degrees (PMDG use 2.7 degrees)

Wait until the V/B moves between 2.7 and 3.0 degrees (or whatever descent angle you require)

When the value is reached, dial in the required altitude and indicated Vertical Speed on the MCP
The Altitude Prediction Line will now intersect the selected waypoint (TESSI) and the aircraft should fly a perfect idle
descent to TESSI.  Note that the original altitude selected for the pinpoint in the LEGS page does not reflect the new
change.

Benefits

One of the advantages in using the Vertical Descent Indicator is that the pilot can instigate an accurate controlled idle
descent, following a desired glide path to the desired waypoint.  This advantage can be used in a number of scenarios:

1. Descent from cruise altitude.

2. Approaching the runway from a straight-in approach course.

3. Approach the runway from base or via an ARC approach.

4. Approaching the runway for a downwind approach.

I often use the VBI from FL10 to FAF on approach, when other constraints are not required.

Video

I’ve made a short video showing the procedure. 

In the video, TESSI has been selected from the LEGS page and downloaded to the scratchpad.  Pressing DES opens the
required page where the VBI resides.  In the scratchpad, the altitude constraint is entered for the waypoint
– TESSI/17000 and uploaded to the WPT / ALT section of the Vertical Bearing Indicator (right line select 3). 

If you watch the indicator you will see the V/B and V/S changing as the aircraft approaches TESSI. 

Select the new altitude and vertical speed on the MCP (17000 & 780 - or nearest numeral) and you will note the FPA
begins to change, indicating the new vertical path of the aircraft.  The Navigation Display (ND) will then show the
Altitude Projection Line moving towards and stopping at TESSI.  The aircraft will now descend at the nominated angle of
descent until reaching TESSI.  Note that the original altitude in the LEGS page does not reflect the new change.

To read a later post on the VBI, click here.

 CDU is Flight Deck Solutions (FDS) and MCP is CP Flight (Pro model).  Double click video to view full screen.

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tagged  Boeing B737,  CDU,  FMC,  FPA,  Flight Plan Angle,  Flight Training,  Idle DescentB737 Flight Simulator,  Vertical
Bearing Indicator in  CDU / FMC,  Flight Training,  Videos

Flight Path Vector (FPV) - Explanation and Use

JULY 7, 2012 AT 12:59

 I often get asked what the FPV button does on the
EFIS unit.  Pressing the button doesn’t do anything grand or remotely obvious, unless you are observant and note that an
oddly shaped circle with lines has instantly appeared on the Primary Flight Display (PFD).

LEFT:  FPV button located on the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) unit on the Captain and First Officer side. 
EFIS unit produced by CP Flight (Pro model).

What is the Flight Path Vector and What Does it Do - The Basics

The FPV is a small circular symbol which, when the FPV button on the EFIS is depressed, superimposes over the Attitude
Indicator (AI) part of the Primary Flight Display (PFD). The circular symbol represents the aircraft's axis in relation to the
vertical and lateral movement referenced to the Earth's surface.  If you were stationary on the ground, the circle would
be on the horizon line and centered in the display.

The data received by the FPV is derived mostly from the Internal Reference System (IRS) of the aircraft; therefore, the
Flight Path Vector provides an almost instantaneous display of flight path angle and drift information.

For example, if an aircraft took off in a 15 Knot crosswind the Flight Director (FD) bar would register the pitch of the
aircraft while the circular FPV would be located above the horizon and to the right or left.  The lateral deviation of the
FPV provides a visual indication of drift caused by the crosswind, while the vertical deviation shows the aircraft's attitude
or pitch.
 When the aircraft changes from climb phase to level flight,
the FD bar is commensurate with the configuration of the aircraft (speed, weight, flap, etc.) and the FPV would be on the
horizon line, indicating level flight.

Decending in approach phase on a 3 degree glidepath, the position of the FD and Horizon Heading Scale (aircraft symbol
bar/pitch bar) is  dependent upon the speed, flap and gear extension, but the position of the FPV will stay at 3 degrees,
unless the flight controls are used to alter the aircraft's pitch. 

The FPV will provide greater accuracy than the Horizon Heading Scale as it does not 'lag' behind real time as other
instruments can do; therefore, it is sensible for flight crews to include this tool in their routine scan.

LEFT:  Flight Path Vector (FPV) in ProSim737 avionics suite.  The FPV symbol is in the blue part of the Altitude Indicator
and reads roughly 2.5 - 3 degrees nose up.  The aircraft is in TO/GA command mode ascending at 1100 feet per minute
to flaps up speed.  There is no crosswind so the symbol is does not show a deviation (drift) from center.

Boeing provides a caveat in their literature, stating that the FPV is not a primary flight instrument.  Therefore,
information displayed by the FPV should be used to augment data from the primary instrumentation.

Flight Path Vector (FPV) Advantages

 It allows you, at a glance, to assess the performance of the aircraft. If the FPV is in the blue part of the Primary
Flight Display, you are definitely ascending. Vice-versa when you are 'in the brown'.

 If you are unlucky enough to have a windshear encounter, the first instrument to warn you other than the  aural
warning will be the FPV as it assumes an unusual position (drops away or rushes up). The other instruments
(altitude, vertical speed and airspeed) have significant lag before they accurately show the true picture of what
is occurring, but the FPV provides an almost immediate indication (live-time). 

 It is an ideal tool to use during non-precision approaches as it provides the flight crew with additional situational
awareness, especially during night operations.

 The FPV is an ideal tool to gauge the accuracy with which the aircraft is flying a glideslope and can be used to
cross check against other information.
  The FPV is an ideal tool to monitor non-automation phases of the flight (manual flying) as the flight crew need
only to keep the FPV on the horizon to maintain level flight.

 The FPV registers the smallest trend almost immediately, while the flight director (FD) will only correct an issue
after a deviation has occurred. 

 The FPV can be used to provide additional information during crosswind landings. If you look at the FPV as part
of your usual instrument scan, the FPV will provide visual display to whether you are correctly aligned with the
centerline of the runway (the FPV will display the drift).

The last point requires expanding upon, as the FPV can be used to determine the correct rudder deviation to use when
using the sideslip method for a crosswind approach and landing. A crosswind will push the FPV circle in the direction that
the wind is blowing TO. Rudder inputs will cause the FPV symbol to move towards the the center of the Altitude
Indicator.  Once the the FPV is centred in the Altitude Indicator, the aircraft is aligned correctly (no drift).

The Flight Path Vector is a small unobtrusive icon located on the PFD that pays large dividends when used correctly.  Not
only can this device warn you of impeding problems but it can be used to facilitate greater flight accuracy in a number of
conditions including approach, straight and level flight, and crosswind landings.

BELOW:  Schematic of the Flight Path Vector showing how it relates to aircraft axis, angle and drift.

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

Take Off

Speed Margin

Eng Fail select LVL CHG and MAX CONT after flaps up

Climb w/o FMC

best angle Flaps up maneuvring speed

best rate Flaps up maneuvring speed + 50 kts / .74

Econ 280 / .74

1 Eng Inop Flaps Up Maneuvring Speed / Max Continuous

Cruise

Max Altitude Margin

Optimum Altitude Provides +/- 1.5 load factor ( 48° bank )

2000 ft above allows +/- 45° bank prior buffet

2000 ft above / below optimum increase fuel by 1 / 2 %

4000 ft below optimum increase fuel by 3 / 5 %

Optimum calculation altitude: Distance + ½ distance

8000 ft below optimum increase fuel by 8 / 14 %

Long Range Cruise provides fuel mileage 1 % less than Max Range

M .01 above LRC increase fuel by 1 / 2 %

M .74 gives LRC within 2000 ft of optimum

LRC provides best buffet margin at all cruise altitude

4000 ft climb needs 135 to 225 kgs

but climb only if you cruise 20 min or more

Fuel temperature rate of cooling is 3°C per hour up to 12 °C

Increase of M .01 increase TAT by 0.5 to 0.7 °C

Engine Failure

1 Eng Inop Distance At cruise level & speed : 260 Nm

V2 gives stall margin for 15° + 15° overbank

V2 + 15 gives stall margin for 30° + 15° overbank

Max Altitude is the minimum of

certified altitude, thrust capability to

climb or buffet margin limited

altiude ( 0.3 g / 40° bank )

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

Descent

Planning 3 Nm / 1000 ft

Speed

Target 10 000 ft, 250 kts at 30 Nm

Flaps Up maneuvring at 12 Nm for Straight In

Flaps Up maneuvring at 8 Nm Out for Abeam

Deceleration 25" - 2 Nm from 280 to 250 kts in Level

25" - 3 Nm from 250 to 210 kts in Level

Holding Minimum fuel is Flaps Up maneuvring Speed

Above FL 250, take VREF 40 + 100 kts

Flaps 1 increase Fuel by 10%

Approach

Engine Failure On Final retract flaps to 15° and increase Vref by 15 kts

Flaps 15 Landing All Eng Use Flaps 1 for go-around

Rudder authority and rudder pedal steering are not affected by rudder trim

Landing

Braking with A/S Apply full braking

Braking without A/S Apply progressive constant braking

Reverse thrust with X wind Avoid reverse trust if A/C in crab

X wind landing Reduce X wind by 5 knots if assymetric reverse

Overweight Landing Use Flap 30° for speed margin

Landing distance is less than TO distance

Except on Wet/Contaminated RWY ( check PI )

Reduce Weight by increasing drag

You can go to speed 20 kts below Maneuvring Speed

with normal bank. No 15° protection overbank

No Autoland recommanded

Maneuvers

Rapid Descent 1° Lights, 2° Start Switches, 3° Altitude,

4° LVL CHG, 5° Thrust Levers and 6° Speed Brake

Check MSA, ATC, QNH

Stall Speed

Stick Shaker Speed Fup: 180, F5°: 145, F15°: 125, F30°: 116

M .74 / 280 kts gives 2100 / 3000 ft/min

250 kts gives 1700 / 2400 ft/min

210 kts gives 1400 / 1900 ft/min

Rem: Time and speed decrease by 50% with speedbrake

zero crab landing not

recommanded if x wind exceeds 17

kts or 23 with flaps 40°

Brake Energy Limits not exceeded for F30° or F40°

Fup: 160, F5°: 135, F15°: 118, F30°: 108

Rem: Fup and F5° is for MTOW, others for MLW

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

NN Operations

Ditching

Loss Of Thrust On … Use TO EGT Limit for restart

High Vibration Reduce Power, Speed and Altitude

All Flaps Up Landing Fly manually on Final, Use A/B and full Reverse

Leading Edge Flaps Trans Vref gives protection for 15° + 15° Overbank

Trailing Edge Flaps Config Wanrning can occur if gear up and F>15°

Alternate Flaps Extens. No Assymetry Protection and Slower Speed

Jammed Flight Controls Override with big constant force to keep control

No breakthrough system like the 146

Jammed Stabiliser Force on stabiliser trim wheel

Full control by elevator still available

Fuel Imbalance Limit is for structural life not for controlability

Low Fuel (>453 kgs) Smooth handling in pitch and roll

Leave wings pumps on even with low pressure light

Manual Reversion Gear and leading edge devices cannot retract

Extend and retract trailing edge flaps electrically

Plan a long final, smooth thrust reduction on flare

Landing Gear Lever Jam. Use if gear transfer valve stuck and if time

Tire Failure Advise ATC to check the rwy and land normally

Go to your destination if rwy long enough

Don't use the autobrake, use max reverse

Partial Gear Up Landing Do not recycle the lever. Don't waiste time

Ask fire truck to check your gear condition

One Main Gear Down Do not arm the speedbrakes

Shutdown fuel pumps and critical engine on flare

Tailstrike Do not pressurize tha A/C

Risk in late go-around if you refuse the touchdown

Window Damage With both window 1 damaged, do an autoland

Slide Window Open may be open at or below holding speed

calm air area over the open window

Low Visibility Procedure

Low Vis Take Off Visibility less than 400m

Check Airport Minimas

CATII/CATIII Approach Visibility down to 200m

Captain make a good briefing

Synthesis 1 Verify A/C status

2 Verify airport status

3 Verify weather

4 Verify crew qualification

Use F40°, Reduce Fuel and pitch +/- 10° for touch

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

General Info

Passenger Weight Male: 83 kgs

Charter Flight Europe Female: 69 kgs

All Adult : 76 kgs

Child ( 2 to 12 ): 35 kgs

Infant ( under 2 ) : 0 kg

Baggage Weight 1 piece : 13 kgs

Charter Flight Europe

Fuel Consumption Engine

2500 kgs/h

Or check QRH

APU (ground) 115 kg/hr

Perfo Improvement Method 1 Bleeds off or unpressurized TO

2 Use another rwy

3 Take headwind into account

4 Use improve climb

5 Improve climb + bleeds off

Perfo Information At TO thrust, each 3T below the max climb weight, you increase

your climb gradient by 1%

Both engine running: climb gradient multiplied by 4: 2,4% x 4 = 9,6%