The Dawn of the Scientific Age

With
The Sun of Quran and
Nahjolbalaghe

1
For the readers of this book, its preface is a

must

2
To my daughter Zahra, my only companion in the past
eight years of study and research that yielded to this
book

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Preface

It was around 2007 that I accidentally came across a speech by Dr. Abdolkarim Soroush who

was a popular philosopher and advocator of pluralism of religious context interpretation at the

time. His main point in that particular speech was to compare Quran with Masnavi and so, the

prophet Mohammad (PBUH) with Moulavi when it comes to present their respective perceptions

of the reality. In his view, as a poet like Moulavi portraits his understanding of reality through

his imagination (that is subject to false beliefs of his era), the same is true for the prophet who is

constrained by the knowledge of his era. Thus, we should understand and interpret the verses of

Quran according to the understanding of people at the time Quran was revealed to the prophet.

According to Mr. Soroush, this conclusion is supported by many evidences from the verses of

Quran among them is the concept of Falak (‫) ﮐﻞ ﻓﯽ ﻓﻠﮏ ﯾﺴﺤﺒﻮن‬, seven heavens ( ‫)ﺧﻠﻖ ﺳﺒﻊ ﺳﻤﺎوت‬,

describing the heaven as a roof (‫) و ﺟﻌﻠﻨﺎ اﻟﺴﻤﺎء ﺳﻘﻔﺎ ﻣﺤﻔﻮظﺎ‬, etc. And since these concepts were

known to Arab people before Quran was revealed, they were among the common beliefs of

public that found their way through Quran. Not to mention that this is pretty much the same as

those who claim that Quran was taught to the prophet by a Jewish since many of the verses of

Quran have roots in the Bible.

And, stranger than this claim - that Quran is some random imaginations or dreams of prophet - is

the solution given by Mr. Soroush for his self-made dilemma. He proposes to keep faith on

Quran while accepting its many false verses! This is like someone who is sawing the branch on

which he is sitting. How can I trust someone who has told me to do all those hard practices in

Islam such as fasting in the summer or waking up for prayer early morning every day, yet believe

that these are just his random imaginations mixed with wrong perceptions of reality?! How could

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an honest believer convince himself that some verses of Quran are right and others are wrong?!

Unfortunately, nowadays podiums are in hands of people with apparent flaws in their basic

reasoning yet carrying big prefixes such as Ayatollah or philosopher in front of their names,

which is a misery in our society.

However, to me the problem raised above has only two resolutions: either the whole pack of

Islam including Quran is truly from Allah – the creator of everything or it is the dreams of some

dream weaver - who like a poet such as Moulavi - has both right and wrong thoughts. In the first

case, I should be proud of all Islamic practices so far performed and continue doing them, while

for the latter I must regret wasting my life acting according to the dreams of a dream weaver, and

perhaps convert to the school of thought of Mr. Soroush. So, I decided to seriously start a

journey through scientific verses in Quran. But, at that time I was doing my PhD in Computer

Engineering at the University of Calgary in Canada and so I couldn't spend much time on my

plan.

After finishing my PhD in April 2009, I returned to Iran and became a faculty member at the

Lorestan University where I could spend more time on my quest for testing the scientific validity

of Quran. Meanwhile, I also came across Nahjolbalaghe (Nahjolbalaghe means “the way of

rhetoric”) – a book of some of the speeches and sayings of Imam Ali (PBUH) – that also

involves many scientific sayings similar to Quran but in this case with a bit more details. Here,

the problem was doubled for me since according to what I have been taught, Imam Ali has the

same trustworthiness as the prophet. So, any scientifically false issue in Nahjolbalaghe is also an

indication that something is going wrong. In fact, there exist a lot of scientific material in Quran

and Nahjolbalaghe (hereafter Q&N) especially about the physics of the early universe that could

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be tested against recent achievements in physics and cosmology. My reasoning for doing this

"tough" work that is not my expertise was the simple fact that "if Q&N that I trust them for the

world after death" are truly from the creator of the universe, first their reports about the physics

of the current world must pass the established physics. Otherwise, all their reports on unseen

universes, hell, and paradise shouldn’t be trusted. So, this quest was somehow a measure to

"keep or lose" my faith. However, there also was another less important but more ambitious goal

for doing research on scientifically validating Q&N i.e. to see whether they have any potential in

advancing scientific frontiers. This is an important issue in its own place since we have often

heard people saying that if Q&N are truly from Allah, why then they haven't had a distinct role

in scientific discoveries. For instance, one might say why the revolution of earth around sun or

the force of gravity haven’t been directly addressed in Q&N, before they have been discovered

by Galileo and Newton. Thus, we should trust scientists more than Q&N because it is the

scientific methodology that is able to reveal the rules of the nature and making life more

affordable. So, for the last couple of years I have been working on physics and cosmology and

their current conundrums. Interestingly, not only I found that the most fundamental laws of

physics (such as relativity) are clearly expressed in Q&N but I found answers to important

questions in physics that currently are puzzling scientists. Thanks to these valuable books, the

most important questions in the history of physics that are otherwise out of reach of experimental

physics are answered. For instance, a picture for the development of earth and cosmos is drawn

that given the occurrences in the very far points of time and space, is impossible for human

beings to comprehend it. Also, the reality of time and length scales is clarified, the inevitable fate

of our world is derived, the peculiarity of quasars compared to other celestial objects could be

resolved, and the exact number of the dimensions of the universe is determined. Other open

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questions that I have found their footprints in Q&N are the validity of string theory, why there

exist only 5 variations of string theory, and many more.

Thus, the book is also an attempt to see to what extent Q&N are trustful for being references for

scientists around the world. Through revealing a glimpse from Q&N, it will be shown that they

are the only sources for paving the road for understanding super far away spaces and out of reach

times in our universe. More importantly, they are the only sources that can evade the deadlocks

currently encountered in physics and cosmology. As it is reasoned and explained in the book of

“the twilight of scientific edge” by Martin Corredoira (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013), now we have

reached at twilight in our scientific quest. This book shows that there is no way but to adhere to

the guidance of Q&N in order to see the next bright dawn of science and extend its frontiers.

While whoever reads this book might have their own conclusion, in my opinion the book would

be successful if it could leverage our knowledge of who are the Prophet Mohammad and Imam

Ali (PBUT), respectively the owners of Quran and Nahjolbalaghe. This is the most important

goal in writing the book because currently (as well as in the past), the worst miseries that have

happened for Muslims and their nations come from the lack of knowledge of Q&N and not

knowing who really are the Prophet and the Imam. To fully grasp the importance of this point, it

is enough to look at all the miseries resulted from the establishment of governments under the

name of Islam by comparing their ignorant rulers with the Prophet and Imam for whom this book

is only a sip from the ocean of his knowledge.

I also hope that the book motivates truth seekers around the world to pass through the surface

and go deeper into studying Q&N because I think the most important questions faced with us as

humans are: i) is there an intelligent creator behind our world; ii) who is that creator and who is

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truly representing him; iii) what is his purpose in creating the universe and what are his

expectations with respect to us. Though it is only a drop compared to the vast ocean of the

knowledge in Q&N, I think this book can help for the thirst of those who are honest in pursuing

answers to the above questions. The book tries to show that the answer to the first question is

yes, to the second question is Allah – the god of prophet Mohammad and Ahlolbait (PBUT) –

and to the third question could only be found in Q&N as well as other resources belong to

Ahlolbait (PBUT).

I take the opportunity provided in the preface to clarify the extent of the trustworthiness of the

contents of the book. This is because our understanding of Q&N is subject to some liquidity as a

result of the concise and yet deep contents of those books as well as our ever changing scientific

achievements. Thus, we must distinguish between those results of this book that are firmly

established from those that I am not 100 percent sure. In regard to this question, the content of

the book could be divided into three categories. Some results are already established through our

scientific quest (such as relativity), which are confirmed by Q&N. On the other hand, there are

other results in the book (marked with *) that firmly answer critical questions faced with physics

and cosmology such as the true number of the dimensions of the universe. And, some results of

the book could shed light on the right direction that scientific works should take toward solving

puzzling problems. This last part involves the results that I cannot firmly take a position because

of my incomplete knowledge of either the verses of Q&N or the subject. This last part demands

future research by those who are equipped with enough expertise in the related subject.

I also strongly raise the precaution that deriving scientific conclusions from Q&N and more

generally, interpreting Q&N is a big pitfall that almost none of their interpreters in the history

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has evade it. Unfortunately, Islam has been mostly harmed by its believers than its non-believers

and this best way of life is a big victim of its own interpreters. They all naively feel they should

do something to help Islam while they will be its most dangerous and harmful enemies without

noticing it.

Regarding the book, I know beforehand that its content will not be beneficial for two groups: i)

those that are dogmatic because of their religious idols who are famous interpreters of Q&N; ii)

those that are dogmatic because of their idols that are famous scientists and their own wrong

assumptions that they think are right. These two groups of people never benefit from truth since

the former are proud and confident on religious educations they already have while the latter

presume that what is in Q&N are metaphysics and has nothing to do with the reality of the

universe.

And last but not least, nobody even me is deserved any credit because of the content of this book.

The whole credit of the book goes solely to the Prophet Mohammad and Imam Ali (PBUT) since

what we are generally watching from Muslims is misunderstanding, misinterpretation, and

worse, abusing Q&N.

The book is organized as follows. In chapter 1, we mainly focus on cosmology and the beautiful

and elegant verses of Q&N on this subject. This chapter considers two important concepts in our

universe, namely, the time and length scales. Those verses of Q&N that address these issues are

presented and discussed. When required, further evidence is provided through other narratives

(Hadith). This chapter also provides the basics for the rest of the book. Not only in this chapter,

but in the whole book the scientific contents are kept concise mainly because my intention was to

cover a wider range of subjects. Thus, those readers with less background in the subjects might

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need further reading to fully comprehend the points. In Chapter 2, some verses of Q&N are used

to infer a solution for some long lasting puzzles encountered in studying quasars. Chapter 3

presents solutions for some well-known open problems in cosmology and geology. Finally,

Chapter 4 presents a few verses in Q&N that touches the tiny scale of our world.

Abdolmajid, 2/9/2020
frenchmailerg@gmail.com

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 Table of Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 14
1.1 Do Extra Dimensions Exist? ......................................................................................................... 15
1.2 The Exact Number of the Dimensions of the Universe* .............................................................. 16
1.3 Our World as a Brane* ................................................................................................................ 16
1.4 The World of Shadows ................................................................................................................ 18
1.5 Two Properties of the Brane ....................................................................................................... 22
1.6 Why do Lorentz Invariance and Relativity Hold? ........................................................................ 24
1.7 Is Our World Flat or is it Curved? ................................................................................................ 27
1.8 Relativity and the Fate of Our World?* ...................................................................................... 29
1.9 Do Strings of String Theory Really Exist?..................................................................................... 33
1.10 Why Only 5 Versions of String Theory? ....................................................................................... 34
1.11 Gravitational Waves and GRBs ................................................................................................... 38
2 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 41
2.1 Quasars ....................................................................................................................................... 46
2.1.1 A Brief Account of the Luminosity versus Redshifts of Quasars .......................................... 47
2.2 A Tent Over Earth ........................................................................................................................ 47
2.3 The Homeland of Quasars ........................................................................................................... 48
2.4 Anisotropic Pattern of the Gas Clouds Ionization ....................................................................... 52
2.5 Association of Quasars and Galaxies .......................................................................................... 53
2.6 The Lack of Time Dilation ............................................................................................................ 54
2.7 Anti-Correlation between Luminosity and Amplitude of Variation in Light Curves .................... 55
2.8 The Proximity Effect .................................................................................................................... 57
2.9 The Luminosity vs. Redshift Distribution ..................................................................................... 58
2.10 The Abundance............................................................................................................................ 59
2.11 The Periodicity ............................................................................................................................. 60
2.12 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 62
3 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 65
3.1 Evidenc from Theoretical Physics ................................................................................................ 69
3.1.1 Superfluidity/Condensed Matter Theory and Effective Gravity .......................................... 69
3.1.2 Scale Invariance Cosmology ................................................................................................ 72

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 3.1.3 The Rh(t) = ct Universe ......................................................................................................... 73
3.1.4 The Hoˇrava Gravity ............................................................................................................ 74
3.2 Observational Pending Problems ................................................................................................ 75
3.3 Could Earth be Older than Stars? ................................................................................................ 77
3.4 The Model ................................................................................................................................... 80
3.5 Cosmological Tests and our Model ............................................................................................. 81
3.5.1 Supernovae.......................................................................................................................... 81
3.5.2 Quasars ............................................................................................................................... 81
3.5.3 Angular Size Test ................................................................................................................. 81
3.5.4 The Tolman Surface Brightness Test ................................................................................... 82
3.5.5 Alcock-Paczynski Test .......................................................................................................... 82
3.5.6 CMBR ................................................................................................................................... 84
3.5.7 Lyman-𝛼 Lines ..................................................................................................................... 85
3.6 Evidence from Geology ............................................................................................................... 87
3.6.1 Big Fossils ............................................................................................................................ 87
3.6.2 Early Life on Earth ............................................................................................................... 88
3.6.3 A Soaked in Water and Mountain-less Earth ...................................................................... 89
3.6.4 Missing r-Process Sites ........................................................................................................ 90
3.6.5 Radioactive Dating .............................................................................................................. 91
3.6.6 Deep-Sea 224Pu .................................................................................................................. 92
3.6.7 Conclusive Remarks ............................................................................................................. 92
3.7 Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 94
4 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 98
4.1 The Tiny Scales of the Universe ................................................................................................... 98
4.2 The 19 Parameters in Quran ....................................................................................................... 99
4.3 The Case of Neutrinos ............................................................................................................... 101
4.4 Peculiarity of Neutrinos ............................................................................................................. 102
4.5 Some Conclusions from Q&N .................................................................................................... 102
4.6 Remarks .................................................................................................................................... 106
5 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 107

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Chapter 1: No Metaphysics in Q&N: All
Therein is Physics

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1 Introduction
After the golden era of physics in the last century, it seems that now we are witnessing the

twilight of physics because it has been cripple in answering its own fundamental questions.

Examples are: the true dimensionality of the universe, the experimental validity of string theory,

the existence of extra dimensions and extra universes, the mysterious values of the 19 free

parameters for the standard model of particle physics, reconciling quantum theory and gravity,

the conundrum of quantum fluctuations and the cosmological constant, and many more.

Furthermore, with the onset of the precision cosmology, observational data from deep cosmos

show the inconsistency/failure of the current cosmological models – most notably the big bang

and the standard model - for the origin and evolution of our universe. If continued, the current

trend seems to diverge more such that it produces more self-made problems without a clear

horizon for their solutions. All these failures though, might be the results of wrong assumptions

about the beginning, the development, and our position in the universe upon which theories are

developed and observations are interpreted. Accordingly, in the following chapter inspired from

Q&N, a phenomenological framework for the emergence and development of our universe will

be developed that by changing our basic assumptions helps in getting out from the deadlocks in

physics and cosmology. The given solutions have some radical deviations from the current

mainstream cosmology despite some commonalities such as the accommodation of the

expansion of space. However, the most notable contribution of Chapter 1 is its answer to one of

the most important (if not the most important) open questions in physics i.e. the number of

dimensions of the universe. This is a big step forward for physics since while all of our

experiments are performed in 4 dimensions, some prominent theoretical achievements have

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inevitably pointed toward extra dimensions. An example is string theory that requires a 10

dimensional spacetime. Thanks to guidance of Q&N, this chapter definitely answers the question

of dimensionality of the universe alongside other important contributions.

1.1 Do Extra Dimensions Exist?

The question of the exact number of the dimensions of the universe is perhaps the most critical

question faced with the current physics that is the entry for solutions to other problems in

physics. During the second half of the 19th century, there have been sporadic results from physics

and cosmology that point toward a multidimensional/multi-universe scenario during the birth of

our universe. Interestingly, those results are all counter-intuitive in the sense that they are not

readily comprehendible by our common sense or even our advanced laboratory facilities.

Examples are the work of Kaluza-Klein (Duff, 1994) on 5 dimensional formulation of gravity,

inflation cosmology (Linde, 2005; Linde, 1994) which inevitably has a multi

bubble/multiuniverse outcome, string theory and its landscape (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2004; Duff,

2008), (Blencowe, 1988), shadow and mirror worlds (Kolb, 1985), [Silagadze, 2000), and other

sporadic quantum gravitational theories such as (Petit, 2003), (Petit, 1995), which starting with

more than 4 dimensions and independent from string theory arrives at an 11 dimensional scale

invariance theory for the expanding spacetime and an antipodal universe alongside our own

universe (Petit, 1995).

While string theory (Bedford, 2011) and M-theory (Li, 1995) respectively require 10 and 11

dimensions for the universe, F-theory (Vafa, 1996) is a 12 dimensional recent development in

string theory with an extra non-Lorentzian (time) dimension. Apart from that string theory in

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general demands extra dimensions, F-theory opens doors to the existence of an extra time

dimension that is not interwoven in space as our Lorentzian spacetime requires.

1.2 The Exact Number of the Dimensions of the Universe*

Quran-Surah Toubeh:

ْ‫ض ِﻣ ۡﻨ َﮩﺎ ٓ أ َ ۡرﺑَﻌَﺔٌ ُﺣ ُﺮ ۬ ٌۚم ذَٲﻟِﻚَ ٱﻟﺪِّﯾ ُﻦ ۡٱﻟﻘَﯿِّ ُﻢۚ ﻓَ َﻼ ﺗ َۡﻈ ِﻠ ُﻤﻮا‬
َ ‫ت َو ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر‬ ‫ٱ�ِ ﯾَ ۡﻮ َم َﺧﻠَﻖَ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
ِ ‫ﺴ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ‬ ‫ﺐ ﱠ‬ ِ ‫ٱ�ِ ۡٱﺛﻨَﺎ َﻋﺸ ََﺮ ﺷَﮩۡ ۬ ًﺮا ﻓِﻰ‬
ِ ‫ڪﺘَ ٰـ‬ ‫ﻮر ِﻋﻨﺪَ ﱠ‬ ‫إِ ﱠن ِﻋﺪﱠة َ ٱﻟ ﱡ‬
ِ ‫ﺸ ُﮩ‬

َ ُ‫ﯿﮩ ﱠﻦ أَﻧﻔ‬
(۳٦ ) …ۚ‫ﺴڪ ُۡﻢ‬ ِ ِ‫ﻓ‬

Lo! the number of the aspects (appearances) from Allah’s perspective is twelve in Allah's book, the day

that He created the heavens and the earth. Four of them are the borderlines: this is the stable procedure.

So wrong not yourselves in them …

The verse 36 of Surah Toubeh is telling us very important facts regarding the universe as a whole

and our world (Donya – see the next sections) as a specific part of the whole universe. It clearly

points out that the number of “aspects” or appearances of the universe is 12. It also highlights

another important point by using the word aspect, which elegantly indicates that a dimension for

an object is in fact its appearance in that dimension.

1.3 Our World as a Brane*

A brane world scenario for the universe in the work of (Rubakov, 1983) is proposed in terms of a

domain wall model for of the universe. The idea is the possibility that space-time has (3+N)+1

dimensions with ordinary particles confined in a potential well which is narrow along N spatial

directions and flat along 3 others. Recently, this same proposal has been revived with the advent

of the new revolution in string theory specifically in the work of (Randall, 1999) and

(Gogberashvili, 2001). They give specific examples of 3-branes embedded in 5 dimensions

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supporting the idea that the Newton’s force law could still be valid in the presence of non-

factorizable background geometry with more than 4 non-compact dimensions.

In (Arkani-Hamed, 1999), a scenario is investigated by which a system of n mutually intersecting

(2+n) branes are embedded in (3+n)+1 dimensions with a bulk cosmological constant. Gravity is

localized to the 3 spatial dimensions intersecting brane (a model for our world). For further

reading, we refer to the comprehensive review of the brane world models given in (Duff, 1996)

and the references therein. Also, see (Dzhunushaliev, 2010).

Differently from the aforementioned works on brane world models where a universal

cosmological time is assumed inside our universe, in (Mars, 2001; Mars, 2007; Mars, 2007) two

radically new ideas have been put forward: one is the possibility of signature change on the brane

and the other is the idea of time expansion (slowdown). This last contribution is an alternative

for the commonly accepted accelerated expansion of the universe (see 1.6). Simply put,

accelerated expansion that is first derived from supernovae data assumes an increasing rate for

Hubble constant starting from a given (albeit not precisely known) redshift down. According to

(Mars, 2007) though, the same supernovae data might be equally interpreted as the cosmological

time slow down. In other words, while in (Mars, 2007) the expansion of space is admitted, the

recent accelerated expansion is related to the cosmological time slowdown. However, this work

cannot explain other side of supernovae data that shows a decelerated space expansion. In

Section 1.6, we will illustrate what is actually behind the perceived accelerated and the

decelerated phases.

The verse 36 of Surah Toubeh clearly points out a brane world scenario for our world (Donya)

where it says “Four of them are the borderlines: this is the stable procedure; So wrong not

17
yourselves in them …” It is saying that 4 out of 12 dimensions are the borderlines for our world

and that these 4d brane is formed because of the stability criterion. This point is further

supported in the follow up sentence that says “So wrong not yourselves in them” meaning that

inside this 4d brane (Donya), do not wrong yourself. Closely related to what this verse says about

stability, in (Gogberashvili, 1999) it is shown that the formation of our 4d brane could be the

result of a stability criterion. Furthermore, it is well known that the orbits of celestial objects

would be stable only in 4 dimensions. For less or more than 4 dimensions, the motion of celestial

objects would be unstable and such a world cannot survive and would crash. These results

support what the verse 36 of Surah Toubeh says about the stability requirement as a condition for

our 4d world.

Conclusively, this single verse has the following important contributions: i) the number of the

dimensions of the universe is 12; ii) the world we live in (Donya) is a 4d brane.

1.4 The World of Shadows

Losers and wasters of life are those whose attempts, concerns, fight, and regrets are all about

shadows!

Quran-Surah Forghan:

۬ ِ‫ﻪ َدﻟ‬
‫( ﺛُ ﱠ‬٤٥) ً ‫ﯿﻼ‬ ِ ‫ٱﻟﺸ ۡﻤﺲَ َﻋﻠَ ۡﯿ‬ ‫ﺟ َﻌ ۡﻠﻨَﺎ‬ ‫ﺳﺎﻛِ ۬ ًﻨﺎ ﺛُ ﱠ‬
َ ‫ﺠ َﻌﻠَ ُﻪ ۥ‬
َ َ‫ﺷﺎٓ َء ﻟ‬ ‫ٱﻟﻈ ّ ﱠ‬
َ ‫ﻞ وَﻟَ ۡﻮ‬ َ
ۡ ‫ﻢ َﻗﺒ‬
‫َﻀ َﻨـٰ ُﻪ‬ ‫ﱠ‬ َ ‫ﻢ‬ َ ‫ﻚ َﻛ ۡﯿ‬
ِ ‫ﻒ َﻣ ﱠﺪ‬ ٰ َ‫أﻟَ ۡﻢ ﺗَ َﺮ إِﻟ‬
َ ّ ِ‫ﻰ َرﺑ‬

(٤٦) ‫ﺴﯿ ۬ ًﺮا‬ ً ۬ ۡ‫إِﻟَ ۡﯿﻨَﺎ َﻗﺒ‬

ِ َ‫ﻀﺎ ﻳ‬

Hast thou not seen how thy Lord hath spread the shadow - And if He willed He could have made it still -

then We have made the sun its reason; (45) Then We withdraw it unto Us, a gradual withdrawal? (46)

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Quran-Surah Nahl:

ِ ‫ﺠ ۬ ًﺪا ِّ ﱠ‬ ِ َ‫ﻦ ۡٱﻟﯿ‬ ُ ِ ‫ﻰ ٍ۬ء ﻳَ َﺘ َﻔﯿﱠ ُﺆ ْا‬ ُ‫ﻖ ﱠ‬ ْ َ

َ ‫ﺧ ُﺮ‬
‫ون‬ ُ ‫� َو‬
ِ ‫ھ ۡﻢ دَٲ‬ ‫ﺳ ﱠ‬ ِ ‫ﻤﺎٓﯨ‬
ُ ‫�ﻞ‬ ‫ﯿﻦ و ﱠ‬
َ ‫َٱﻟﺸ‬ ِ ‫ﻤ‬ ِ ‫ظﻠَـٰ ﻠ ُﻪ ۥ َﻋ‬ َ ‫ٱ� ِﻣﻦ‬
ۡ ‫ﺷ‬ َ َ‫ﺧﻠ‬ ٰ َ‫أوَﻟَ ۡﻢ ﻳَﺮ َۡوا إِﻟ‬
َ ‫ﻰ ﻣَﺎ‬

(٤۸)

Have they not observed a thing that Allah hath created, how its shadows spread to the right and to the

lefts, making prostration unto Allah, while they give submission? (48)

Hadith- from Imam Bagher (PBUH)- the book of Tafsir Ayashi, Vol 2, page 127:

‫ أ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮى ﻇﻠﻚ ﰲ اﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﺷﻲء و ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﺸﻲء‬:‫ ﻓﻘﻠﺖ و أي ﺷﻲء اﻟﻈﻼل ﻓﻘﺎل‬،‫ﰒ ﺑﻌﺜﻬﻢ ﰲ اﻟﻈﻼل‬

Then, He made them (humans) in shadows, (the narrator asked what are the shadows?), Imam said: do

you see your shadow from the sun that is something yet is not really something?

Hadith- from Imam Sadegh (PBUH)- the book of Kafi, Vol 2, page 133:

‫ﺐ َو اﻟْﻌِْﻠ ِﻢ ِﺎﺑ ﱠﻪﻠﻟِ َﻛ َﻔ ْﻲ ِء اﻟ ِﻈَّﻼ ِل‬

ِ ِ ِ
ّ ‫ﻷَﻧـ َﱠﻬﺎ ﻋْﻨ َﺪ أ َْﻫ ِﻞ اﻟﻠﱡ‬

Since (any entity in) Donya is like the formation of shadows

For the following reasons, there is no doubt that the above verses of Quran (and Hadiths) are

pointing to an important property of the world we live. Why? Because first, any object can have

a single shadow due to the sunshine while in the verse 48 of Surah Nahl “shadows” is used.

Second, for the right direction of a usual shadow there is only one left direction while in the

verse 48 of Surah Nahl the “lefts” is used. Third, why should usual shadows be so important that

19
Allah – the creator of everything – brings them up in those verses in his book? Are the usual

shadows that are created from the sun, deserve this much of attention and explanation in Quran?

It seems not reasonable to naively think that those verses are highlighting an insignificant and

simple event - shadows resulting from sun - as a noticeable phenomenon. Add to these reasons,

the two Hadiths (narratives from Imams) that clearly compare the life inside Donya as shadows.

Consequently, we can understand those verses differently. That is, those verses of Quran are

telling us a very important fact i.e. any physical object inside our 4d brane is just a shadow (or

with a less precise wording a mirror image) of some real object in another universe. Using the

word “shadow” conveys the dynamical nature of the entities in the 4d brane by which

appearance and born, development, and disappearing are all included in this word as the

cornerstones of the life in Donya.

Describing our world as the world of shadows as given in Quran is close to the holographic

model for our universe by which all the entities and phenomena happening in our world are just

holograms of more real entities happening in another universe. This research direction which is

dubbed the “holographic universe” has been specifically shown to hold in the case of a black

hole and its horizon (Maldacena, 1998; Maldacena, 2005), (Afshordi, 2017) .

Of course, one should note that the life in Donya is shadow when it is compared to a next level

of life in another universe that is created by whom that neither we nor our works are comparable

and all the creations are his words as it is emphasized in the following verses:

Quran-Surah Yasin:

َ ‫ﺷ ۡﯿ ۬ـ�ـﺎ أَن ﻳ َُﻘﻮ‬

ُ ‫ل ﻟَ ُﻪ ۥ ُﻛﻦ َﻓﯿ َُﻜ‬
(۸۲) ‫ﻮن‬ َ ‫ﻤﺎٓ أَ ۡﻣ ُﺮ ُه ۥۤ إِ َذآ أَرَا َد‬
َ ‫إِﻧ ﱠ‬

20
 But His command, when He intendeth a thing, is only that he saith unto it: Be! and it is (82)

َۡ ِ ‫ﻮل ﱠ‬ َ ‫إِﻧﱠﻤَﺎ ۡٱﻟ‬...

(171)... ‫ﻢ‬ ٰ َ‫ﻤ ُﺘ ُﻪ ۥۤ أﻟ َﻘﯩٰ َﮭﺎٓ إِﻟ‬
َ َ‫ﻰ ﻣَﺮۡ ﻳ‬ َ ِ‫ڪﻠ‬
َ ‫ٱ� َو‬ ُ ‫َﺳ‬
ُ ‫ﻢر‬ ُ ‫ﯿﺴﻰ ۡٱﺑ‬
َ َ‫ﻦ ﻣَﺮۡ ﻳ‬ َ ‫ﻋ‬ ُ ‫ﺴﯿ‬
ِ ‫ﺢ‬ ِ ‫ﻤ‬

The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto

Mary …

Assuming that our 4d world is the world of shadows, a few remarks are in order from those two

verses of Surah Forghan and Nahl. First, from the two verses of Surah Forghan, the two phases

of our world (currently named deceleration and acceleration phases) could be deducted. That is,

the verse 45 (extending of shadow) presents the first phase where the time scale of Donya gets

contracted while its length scale get expanded and the verse 46 (contracting of shadow) presents

the second phase where the reverse process happens and Donya returns on its back according to

Imam Ali (PBUH) (see Section 1.6).

Next, we turn our attention to the verse 48 of Surah Nahl and its elegant points in using the word

“right” as single but “lefts” as plural, and also “shadows” of an object not “shadow” of an object!

Why should it be like this?! There is no doubt that right and left are directions (dimensions). So,

first of all this verse is pointing to the dimensions in which the shadows of an object could be

spread (equivalent to the born of an entity in our world and its development). Second, according

to what portrayed in Section 4.4, Chapter 4, about the left-handedness of Donya and the verses of

Quran that discriminate between the fans of left (‫ )اﺻﺤﺎب اﻟﺸﻤﺎل‬with the fans of right ( ‫اﺻﺤﺎب‬

‫)اﻟﯿﻤﯿﻦ‬, the verse 48 of Surah Nahl is telling us the following. The 4d brane or Donya comprises of

4 dimensions, 3 of which are the so called the space dimensions and the 4th one is the time

dimension. What are the dimensions of Donya for which with the lack of any of them a shadow

does not have a full realization while without all of them the shadow completely disappears?

21
Obviously, these are the 3 dimensions of the space. On the other hand, we can ask what

dimension of Donya acts as a terminator for the shadows inside Donya by increasing their

entropy (the third law of thermodynamics) and finishing their lives. As we know, it is the time

dimension of our 4d brane that solely is responsible for ending lives in Donya. Consequently,

verse 48 of Surah Nahl is in fact telling us the story of life in Donya where the 3 dimensions of

space are all designated as “lefts” (so the plural word “lefts” is used in the verse) as these

dimensions are the fuel of life in Donya while the time dimension is designated as “right” as it is

this single dimension that acts oppositely compared to the 3 dimensions of space.

1.5 Two Properties of the Brane

Quran-Surah Hejr:

۬ ‫ٱﺳﺘ ََﺮقَ ٱﻟﺴ ۡﱠﻤ َﻊ ﻓَﺄ َ ۡﺗﺒَ َﻌﮫُ ۥ ِﺷ َﮩ‬

ٌ‫ﺎب‬ َ ‫( َو َﺣ ِﻔ ۡﻈﻨَ ٰـ َﮭﺎ ِﻣﻦ ُﻛ ِّﻞ ﺷ َۡﯿ‬۱٦) َ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ﺑ ُُﺮو ۬ ًﺟﺎ َوزَ ﯾﱠﻨﱠ ٰـ َﮭﺎ ِﻟﻠﻨﱠ ٰـ ِﻈ ِﺮﯾﻦ‬
ۡ ‫( ِإ ﱠﻻ َﻣ ِﻦ‬۱۷) ‫ﻄ ٰـ ۬ ٍﻦ ﱠر ِﺟ ٍﯿﻢ‬ ‫َوﻟَﻘَ ۡﺪ َﺟ َﻌ ۡﻠﻨَﺎ ﻓِﻰ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬

ٌ ۬ ‫ﱡﻣ ِﺒ‬
(۱۸) ‫ﯿﻦ‬

And verily we have placed in the heaven adorning objects and decorated it for observers (16) And We

have guarded it from every outcast devil, (17) Except who stealth the hearing, and them doth a clear

flame pursue

Quran-Surah Saffat:

‫ﺐ‬ ِ َ ‫ﺴ ﱠﻤﻌُﻮنَ إِﻟَﻰ ۡٱﻟ َﻤ‬

ٍ ۬ ِ‫ﻺ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ َوﯾ ُۡﻘﺬَﻓُﻮنَ ِﻣﻦ ُﻛ ِّﻞ َﺟﺎﻧ‬ ِ ‫ﻄ ٰـ ۬ ٍﻦ ﱠﻣ‬
‫( ﱠﻻ ﯾَ ﱠ‬۷) ‫ﺎر ٍ۬د‬ ً ۬ ‫( َو ِﺣ ۡﻔ‬٦) ‫ﺐ‬
َ ‫ﻈﺎ ِّﻣﻦ ُﻛ ِّﻞ ﺷ َۡﯿ‬ ِ ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ َء ٱﻟﺪ ۡﱡﻧﯿَﺎ ﺑِ ِﺰﯾﻨَ ٍﺔ ۡٱﻟﻜ ََﻮا ِﻛ‬
‫إِﻧﱠﺎ زَ ﯾﱠﻨﱠﺎ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬

(۱۰) ٌ‫ﺎبٌ ﺛَﺎﻗ ِ۬ﺐ‬

۬ ‫َﻄﻔَﺔَ ﻓَﺄ َ ۡﺗﺒَﻌَﮫُ ۥ ِﺷ َﮩ‬
ۡ ‫ﻒ ۡٱﻟﺨ‬ ِ ‫( إِ ﱠﻻ َﻣ ۡﻦ ﺧ‬۹) ٌ‫اﺻﺐ‬
َ ‫َﻄ‬ ۬ َ‫ﻮراۖ َوﻟَ ُﮭ ۡﻢ َﻋﺬ‬
ِ ‫ابٌ َو‬ ً ۬ ‫( د ُ ُﺣ‬۸)

22
We have adorned the heaven of Donya with stars; (6) And with a guard from every outcasted devil;

(7) They cannot listen to the Higher entities for they are pelted from every side; (8) Outcast, and theirs is

a perpetual torment; (9) Except who takes a fragment, and there pursueth him a piercing flame (10)

Quran-Surah Fosselat:

‫ﯾﺰ ۡٱﻟﻌَ ِﻠ ِﯿﻢ‬

ِ ‫ِﯾﺮ ۡٱﻟﻌَ ِﺰ‬ ً ۬ ‫ﺼ ٰـﺒِﯿ َﺢ َو ِﺣ ۡﻔ‬
ُ ‫ﻈﺎۚ ذَٲﻟِﻚَ ﺗ َۡﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﺳ َﻤﺎٓءٍ أَﻣۡ َﺮھَﺎۚ َوزَ ﯾﱠﻨﱠﺎ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
َ ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ َء ٱﻟﺪ ۡﱡﻧﯿَﺎ ﺑِ َﻤ‬ َ ‫ت ﻓِﻰ ﯾَ ۡﻮ َﻣ ۡﯿ ِﻦ َوأَ ۡو َﺣ ٰﻰ ﻓِﻰ ُﻛ ِّﻞ‬
ٍ ۬ ‫ﺳ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮا‬
َ ‫ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ‬ َ َ‫ﻓَﻘ‬
َ ‫ﻀ ٰﯩ ُﮭ ﱠﻦ‬

(۱۲)

Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We

decked the heaven of Donya with lamps and guard. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower (12)

What properties are highlighted in Quran for the brane that we live in? In this respect, at least

three major properties could be derived from Quran. First, referring to the verses of Surah Hejr,

Saffat, and Fosselat, the brane is decorated with stars. Note that, decorated means something that

is beautiful and/or attracts curiosity and stars do have both. Second, the brane is further attractive

because of its guard against any breakdown or violation, including any attempt to have

measurements (rightfully expressed as “listening” in those verses) beyond the brane. Note that,

the word “listen” is nicely representing what scientists are doing now in terms of getting data

through high energetic smashes in the particle accelerators as it has been expressed by Brian

Greene in one of his books as: “before, we used to observe. Now, we are listening to cosmos”.

Thus, these verses are informing us that there is no way to get data beyond our 4d brane and

attempts at LHC and other high energy accelerators around the world would certainly fail with

some exception for which the verses warn against them i.e. even if an experiment could pass by

the brane, it will end up in a destructible back fireball.

23
1.6 Why do Lorentz Invariance and Relativity Hold?
Quran-Surah Anbia:

(٤٤) َ‫ﺼ َﮭﺎ ِﻣ ۡﻦ أ َ ۡط َﺮا ِﻓ َﮭﺎۚ ٓ أَﻓَ ُﮭ ُﻢ ۡٱﻟﻐَ ٰـ ِﻠﺒُﻮن‬ َ ‫…أَﻓَ َﻼ َﯾ َﺮ ۡونَ أَﻧﱠﺎ ﻧ َۡﺄ ِﺗﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر‬
ُ ُ‫ض ﻧَﻨﻘ‬

…See they not how we visit the earth, reducing its circumference? Can they then be the victors? (44)

Quran-Surah Raad:

(٤۱) … ۚ‫ﺼ َﮩﺎ ِﻣ ۡﻦ أَ ۡط َﺮاﻓِ َﮭﺎ‬ َ ‫أ َ َوﻟَ ۡﻢ ﯾَ َﺮ ۡواْ أَﻧﱠﺎ ﻧ َۡﺄﺗِﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر‬
ُ ُ‫ض ﻧَﻨﻘ‬

See they not how we visit the earth, reducing its circumference? …(41)

Quran-Surah Kahf:

‫( ﻗُ ِﻞ ﱠ‬۲٥) ‫ﺚ ِﻣﺎْﺋ َ ۬ ٍﺔ ِﺳﻨِﯿﻦَ َو ۡٱزدَادُواْ ﺗِ ۡﺴ ۬ﻌًﺎ‬

(۲٦) … ْۖ‫ٱ�ُ أ َ ۡﻋﻠَ ُﻢ ﺑِ َﻤﺎ ﻟَﺒِﺜُﻮا‬ َ ‫َوﻟَﺒِﺜُﻮاْ ﻓِﻰ َﻛﮭۡ ِﻔ ِﮭ ۡﻢ ﺛَﻠَ ٰـ‬

And they tarried in their Cave three hundred years and add nine. (25) Say: Allah is best aware how long

they tarried…(26)

Quran-Surah Baghareh:

ۖ َ‫ڪ ۡﻢ ﻟَﺒِ ۡﺜﺖ‬ ‫ٱ�ُ ﺑَﻌۡ ﺪَ َﻣ ۡﻮﺗِ َﮭ ۖﺎ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣﺎﺗَﮫُ ﱠ‬ ‫ِﻰ ﺧَﺎ ِوﯾَﺔٌ َﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ ﻋ ُُﺮو ِﺷ َﮭﺎ ﻗَﺎ َل أَﻧﱠ ٰﻰ ﯾ ُۡﺤ ِۦ‬ ۬
َ ‫ٱ�ُ ِﻣﺎْﺋَﺔَ َﻋ ۬ ٍﺎم ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ﺑَﻌَﺜَﮫُ ۖۥ ﻗَﺎ َل‬ ‫ﻰ َھ ٰـ ِﺬ ِه ﱠ‬ َ ‫أ َ ۡو ﻛَﭑﻟﱠﺬِى َﻣ ﱠﺮ َﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ ﻗَ ۡﺮﯾَ ٍﺔ َوھ‬
۬ ُ ‫ﺾ ﯾَ ۡﻮ ۬ ٍمۖ ﻗَﺎ َل َﺑﻞ ﻟﱠﺒِ ۡﺜﺖَ ِﻣﺎ ْﺋَﺔَ َﻋ ۬ ٍﺎم ﻓَﭑﻧ‬
ۖ ِ ‫ﺎركَ َو ِﻟﻨ َۡﺠﻌَﻠَﻚَ َءاﯾَﺔً ِﻟّﻠﻨﱠ‬
‫ﺎس‬ ُ ‫ﺴﻨﱠ ۡﮫۖ َوٱﻧ‬
ِ ‫ﻈ ۡﺮ إِﻟَ ٰﻰ ِﺣ َﻤ‬ َ َ ‫ﺎﻣﻚَ َوﺷ ََﺮاﺑِﻚَ ﻟَ ۡﻢ ﯾَﺘ‬ َ ‫ﻈ ۡﺮ إِﻟَ ٰﻰ‬
ِ َ‫طﻌ‬ َ ۡ‫ﻗَﺎ َل ﻟَﺒِ ۡﺜﺖُ ﯾَ ۡﻮ ًﻣﺎ أ َ ۡو ﺑَﻌ‬

ٌ ۬ ‫ڪ ِّﻞ ﺷ َۡﻰ ۬ ٍء ﻗَﺪ‬

(۲٥۹) ‫ِﯾﺮ‬ ‫ﺴﻮھَﺎ ﻟَ ۡﺤ ۬ ًﻤﺎۚ ﻓَﻠَ ﱠﻤﺎ ﺗَﺒَﯿﱠﻦَ ﻟَﮫُ ۥ ﻗَﺎ َل أ َ ۡﻋﻠَ ُﻢ أ َ ﱠن ﱠ‬
ُ ‫ٱ�َ َﻋﻠَ ٰﻰ‬ ُ ‫ﻒ ﻧُﻨﺸ ُِﺰھَﺎ ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ﻧ َۡﻜ‬
َ ‫ڪ ۡﯿ‬ َ ‫ﻈ ۡﺮ إِﻟَﻰ ۡٱﻟ ِﻌ‬
َ ‫ﻈ ِﺎم‬ ُ ‫َوٱﻧ‬

Or (bethink thee of) the like of him who, passing by a township which had fallen into utter ruin,

exclaimed: How shall Allah give this township life after its death? And Allah made him die hundred Aams,

then brought him back to life. He said: How long hast thou tarried? (The man) said: I have tarried a day

or part of a day. (He) said: Nay, but thou hast tarried for hundred Aams. Just look at thy food and drink

which have not rotted! Look at thane! And, that We may make thee a token unto mankind, look at the

24
bones, how We adjust them and then cover them with flesh! And when (the matter) became clear unto

him, he said: I know now that Allah is Able to do all things (259)

Quran-Surah Sajdah:

(٥) َ‫ﺳﻨَ ۬ ٍﺔ ِ ّﻣ ﱠﻤﺎ ﺗَﻌُﺪﱡون‬ َ ‫ارهُ ۥۤ أ َ ۡﻟ‬

َ ‫ﻒ‬ ِ ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء إِﻟَﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر‬
ُ َ‫ض ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ﯾَﻌۡ ُﺮ ُج إِﻟَ ۡﯿ ِﮫ ﻓِﻰ ﯾَ ۡﻮ ٍ۬م َﻛﺎنَ ِﻣ ۡﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﯾُﺪَﺑِّ ُﺮ ۡٱﻷَﻣۡ َﺮ ِﻣﻦَ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬

He directeth the ordinance from the heaven unto the earth; then it ascended unto Him in a Day, whereof

the measure is a thousand years of that ye reckon. (5)

The above two verses of Surah Anbia and Raad refer to some properties of the brane albeit

alongside other verses, for instance in Surah Kahf. “Reducing the circumference of the earth” in

those two verses of Surah Anbia and Raad could be understood in terms of a continuously

contracting length scale for our brane since first the verb “reducing” in Arabic conveys

continuously doing the reduction. Second, since the reduction that these verses are talking about

is not felt (or measured) by us, it requires that the time scale of our brane continuously expands

alongside the length scale so that we do not feel it. The expansion of the time scale could be

inferred from the verse of Surah Kahf, which tells us that Noah (PBUH) has been with his tribe

for thousand years except fifty Aam!

Quran-Surah Ankaboot:

(14)…. ‫ﺳﻨَ ٍﺔ إِ ﱠﻻ ﺧ َۡﻤﺴِﯿﻦَ َﻋﺎ ۬ ًﻣﺎ‬ َ ‫ﺚ ﻓِﯿ ِﮭ ۡﻢ أَ ۡﻟ‬

َ ‫ﻒ‬ َ ِ‫ﺳ ۡﻠﻨَﺎ ﻧُﻮ ًﺣﺎ إِﻟَ ٰﻰ ﻗَ ۡﻮ ِﻣ ِﮫۦ ﻓَﻠَﺒ‬
َ ‫َوﻟَﻘَ ۡﺪ أ َ ۡر‬

And verily we sent Noah (as Our messenger) unto his folk, and he continued with them for thousand

years except fifty Aam (14)

Aam is another word in Arabic which is more general than the word year and can be used as just

a label for representing a particular year without its actual duration. The other use of the term

25
Aam is in Surah Baghareh, which is used to name the time a man was dead without referring to

its duration as it is measured by the revolution of earth around sun. In fact, in Quran when the

physical origin of time is not clear it is measured by the term Aam and when the physical origin

is clear (for instance in the verse 14 of Surah Ankaboot, the origin is when Noah (PBUH) started

as a messenger in his tribe) the term Sana (year) is used, which represents the “number” of the

revolutions of earth around sun. This fact is also being emphasized in Surah Sajdah, verse 5

where it highlights that the duration of thousand years as we count (whereof the measure is a

thousand years of that ye reckon) is not a trustable reference for measuring duration of time.

Whether it is the number of revolutions of moon around earth, or the number of resonances of an

atomic clock, only the “counting” matters here. That means what we measure as time duration

could be the expansion or contraction of one of the dimensions of our 4d brane. This has also

been pointed out before by others like Poincare: “we have no direct intuition of the equality of

two lapses of time” – for instance those ”between noon and one o’clock and between two and

three o’clock” (Midy, 1999).

The simultaneous contraction of length and expansion of time scales is also a requirement for

Einstein relativity. Expansion of time and contraction of length has two important consequences.

The first one is the existence of a zero point or freeze point for our brane where the time and

length scales come to their end as the result of one being continuously contracted and the other

expanded. At that point, our brane comes to its end and the lifetime of the 4 dimensions will be

over. Second, it could help to answer the reason behind Lorentz invariance. Based on the

relativity theory that has been experimentally confirmed, we know that when an object’s speed

gets increased or it is placed in a strong gravitational filed, its time scale get stretched whereas its

length scale gets contracted. This phenomenon is called Lorentz invariance whereby the speed of
26
light stays constant for any observer who measures the speed of light. While the constancy of the

speed of light is well established in the warp and woof of our spacetime, nobody knows what is

behind it. However, the existence of a freezing point for our brane could explain the Lorentz

invariance because increasing the speed of an object or putting it in a strong gravitational field

will be equivalent to getting close to the boundary (the freezing point) of the brane where time

slows down and length gets contracted. In other words, increasing speed or strength of a

gravitational field are ways for escaping from the brane whose reaction would be contraction of

length and expansion of time to prevent from the escape. If the attempt for escape continues by

making a huge energy in a minuscule scale of spacetime, it might result in tearing down the

texture of the brane and diffusing beyond it. Of course, this will result in a huge fireball back to

the place of tearing and a catastrophic incident because it has been alerted in Quran, for instance

in the verse 18 of Surah Hejr: “Except who stealth the hearing and them doth a clear flame

pursue”). This is a serious warning for the experiments going on in the ultra-high energy

accelerators that are trying hard to diffuse through the fabric of our world and get data from extra

dimensions.

1.7 Is Our World Flat or is it Curved?

From Khotbeh Tatanjiah of Imam Ali (PBUH):

‫اﻧﺎ ﮐﺎب اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ ﻟﻮﺟﮭﮭﺎ ﻓﺤﻨﯽ‬

I am the one (Imam Ali (PBUH)) who overturned Donya from which it got curved.

From Dorarolhekam of Imam Ali (PBUH):

‫اﻧﺎ ﮐﺎب اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ ﻟﻮﺟﮭﮭﺎ و ﻗﺎدرھﺎ ﺑﻘﺪرھﺎ و رادھﺎ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻋﻘﺒﮭﺎ‬

27
I am the one (Imam Ali (PBUH)) who overturned Donya, determined its scale, and returned it on its back.

One of the puzzling problems in cosmology is the curvature of our universe. Based on a popular

theory of the formation of the Universe - Inflation Theory - the mass density of the Universe

should be close to the so-called critical density, which is the borderline between an open universe

that always grows and a closed universe that ultimately collapses again. Though some

cosmological measurements suggest a mass density close to the critical density, whether our

world is flat, open, or closed is yet an open question.

On the other hand, recent data from observational cosmology have convinced the mainstream of

cosmologists that our universe has gone through at least two phases: an initial decelerating

expansion followed by an accelerating one. More specifically, observations from distant

supernovae (explosive dead stars that can serve as standard candles in cosmology) have shown

that up to some redshift (say 𝑧𝑇 ), with increasing redshift the brightness of supernovae are lower

than their expected values when all other known factors in cosmology affecting the damping of

their brightness are accounted for. On the basis of the standard cosmological model and in the

absence of alternative explanations, this effect shows that the expansion of space has recently

been accelerated. On the other hand, from some redshift (𝑧𝑇 ) upward, with increasing redshift

the brightness of supernovae has a little rise compared to what is expected (considering all

known factors in cosmology affecting the brightness of the distant objects). Thus, compared to

the accelerating argument, this observation convinced most cosmologists that the universe has

gone through a decelerating phase for redshifts greater than a threshold.

Imam Ali (PBUH) has answered the question of the curvature of our world in two short

sentences. The first one (I am the one who overturned Donya from which it got curved) is just a

28
short sentence from a long speech of Imam known as Tatanjiah, which its value for whoever that

can go deeply into its content is indescribable. It is a document mainly concerning introducing

Imam Ali (PBUH) from the beginning to the end. In one of its sentences Imam says: I am the one

who overturned Donya from which it got curved - clearly stating a curvature for our world

(Donya). However, the sentence is pointing out another fact, that is, the curvature is caused by

overturning the brane of Donya. The second sentence (and returned it on its back) sheds light on

the nature of this overturn: it points out that Donya finally gets back to where it started i.e. where

there was no 4d brane, no time, and no length as we are experiencing now. This is exactly the

freezing point that the brane is inevitably approaching. Accordingly, the “cosmic jerk” under

which the universe seems to be transitioned from deceleration to acceleration could be the result

of a transition from an extending brane (Donya) into a contracting one (see also Section 1.4 on

shadows). That is, starting from zero point (no time and length) till some point (the cosmic jerk)

the time scale got contracted (quicker pace of time – quicker processes) and length scale was

expanded (bigger objects). This is what scientists call the deceleration era for our world. After

the cosmic jerk, the process was reversed by which the time scale gets expanded (slowing down)

while the length scale get contracted (smaller objects). These phenomena will be further

explained in chapter 4 using other evidences from cosmology as well as geology.

1.8 Relativity and the Fate of Our World?*

Quran-Surah Fosselat:

َ ‫ﺟ َﻌ‬
‫ﻞ‬ َ ‫( َو‬۹) َ‫ﻤﯿﻦ‬ َ ِ‫ﻮن ﻟَ ُﻪ ۥۤ أَﻧﺪَا ۬ ًداۚ َذٲﻟ‬
‫ﻚر ﱡ‬
ِ َ‫َب ۡٱﻟ َﻌـٰ ﻠ‬ َ ُ‫ﻦ َوﺗَ ۡﺠ َﻌﻠ‬
ِ ‫ﻖ ۡٱﻷرۡ ضَ ﻓِﻰ ﻳ َۡﻮﻣ َۡﯿ‬ َ ‫ُﻗ ۡﻞ أَﯨ� ﱠﻨ ُﻜ ۡﻢ ﻟَﺘ َۡﻜ ُﻔ ُﺮ‬
َ ‫ون ﺑِﭑﻟﱠ ِﺬى‬
َ َ َ‫ﺧﻠ‬

ٓ ٰ ‫ٱﺳ َﺘﻮ‬ ‫( ﺛُ ﱠ‬۱۰) َ‫ﻠﺴﺎٓﯨ�ﻠِﯿﻦ‬

‫ﺳ َﻮآ ۬ ًء ﻟِ ّ ﱠ‬ َ ِ ‫ك ﻓِﯿﮩَﺎ و ََﻗ ﱠﺪ َر ﻓِﯿ َﮩﺎٓ أَ ۡﻗﻮَٲﺗَﮩَﺎ ﻓِﻰ أَرۡ ﺑَ َﻌ‬
َ ‫ﻰ ِﻣﻦ َﻓ ۡﻮﻗِﮭَﺎ َوﺑَـٰ َﺮ‬
‫َى‬ ۡ ‫ﻢ‬ ٍ ۬ ‫ﺔ أﻳﱠﺎ‬
َ ‫م‬ ٓ َ ‫ﺳ‬
ِ ‫ﻓِﯿﮩَﺎ َروَٲ‬

(۱۱) َ‫ھﺎ َﻗﺎﻟَ َﺘﺎٓ أَﺗَ ۡﯿﻨَﺎ طَﺎٓﯨ� ِﻌﯿﻦ‬

ً ۬ ۡ‫ض ۡٱﺋﺘِﯿَﺎ طَ ۡﻮ ًﻋﺎ أَ ۡو َﻛﺮ‬ َ
ِ ۡ‫ل ﻟَﮭَﺎ َوﻟِ ۡﻸر‬ ٌ۬ ‫ﺧ‬
َ ‫ﺎن َﻓ َﻘﺎ‬ َ ‫ﻰ ُد‬ ِ ‫ﻤﺎٓ ِء َو‬
َ ‫ھ‬ ‫ﱠ‬
َ ‫ٱﻟﺴ‬ ‫إِﻟَﻰ‬

29
Say: Disbelieve ye verily in Him Who created the earth in two periods, and ascribe ye unto Him rivals? He

(and none else) is the Lord of the Worlds. (9) And He placed therein stabilizers (big rocks) from above it,

and blessed it and measured therein its sustenance in four Days, alike for all questioners (observers) (10)

Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of

you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. (11)...

Quran-Surah Baghareh:

(۲۹) ‫تۚ َوھ َُﻮ ِﺑ ُﻜ ِّﻞ ﺷ َۡﻰءٍ َﻋ ِﻠﯿ ۬ ٌﻢ‬

ٍ ۬ ‫ﺳ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ‬
َ ‫ﺴ ﱠﻮ ٰﯩ ُﮭ ﱠﻦ‬ ‫ٱﺳﺘ ََﻮ ٰ ٓى إِﻟَﻰ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
َ َ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ﻓ‬ ِ ‫ھ َُﻮ ٱﻟﱠﺬِى َﺧﻠَﻖَ ﻟَ ُﻜﻢ ﱠﻣﺎ ﻓِﻰ ۡٱﻷ َ ۡر‬
ۡ ‫ض َﺟ ِﻤﯿ ۬ﻌًﺎ ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ‬

He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as

seven heavens. And He is knower of all things (29)

Quran-Surah Takvir:

ۡ َ‫ٱﻟﺴﻤَﺎٓ ُء ُﻛﺸِﻄ‬
(۱۱) ‫ﺖ‬ ‫ﱠ‬ ‫وَإِ َذا‬ ... (۲) ‫( َوإِذَا ٱﻟﻨﱡ ُﺠﻮ ُم ٱﻧ َﻜﺪَ َر ۡت‬۱) ‫ﺲ ُﻛ ّ ِﻮ َر ۡت‬ ‫إِذَا ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
ُ ۡ‫ﺸﻤ‬

When the sun is twisted and disappeared, (1) And when the stars be opaque, (2) … And when the

heaven is unveiled, (11)

The verses 9 and 10 of Surah Fosselat are pointing to some important facts concerning the

earth’s situation from when it was created and developed till the start of a new phase of

development by which our 4d brane (Donya) is formed. The reason for this phase change is at

the end of verse 10 where it emphasizes that those four periods in which the earth development

were completed, were the same in duration regardless of who was the observer (questioner). This

is because by relativity, we know that in our brane it is meaningless to ask: “at what time and

30
place did an event occur?” Instead, we must ask: “at what time and place for what observer?”

The same is true for the duration of events measured by different observers. Therefore, the verse

10 of Surah Fosselat portrays a phase in which earth was fully developed and habitable yet the

relativity of time did not hold. Not to mention that highlighting the absence of relativity in a

phase of earth development naturally implies the existence of relativity after the phase change

expressed in the next verses (verses 11 and 12 of Surah Fosselat). The existence of such a

habitable phase for earth is both stated in this verse (by the word “blessed” it) and similarly the

verse 29 of Surah Baghareh where it exactly talks about the same phase where everything needed

for life on earth is provided before the 4d brane of Donya is formed.

Considering the existence of a phase of life on earth before our current 4d brane and also what

Imam Ali (PBUH) says: “I am the one who overturned Donya from which it got curved and I

return it on its back”, we expect that our current 4d brane or Donya soon reaches at its freezing

point after which a variation of life emerges as before the 4d brane of Donya is formed. This

destiny for our 4d brane which is also the beginning for the emergence of the savior of humanity

– Mahdi (PBUH) who is the son of Imam Ali (PBUH) together with Jesus (PBUH) - is clearly

emphasized in the verse 5 of Surah Toubah:

(5)... ‫ﺤ ُﺮ ُم‬ ۡ َ ‫ﺦ ۡٱﻷ‬

ُ ‫ﺷ ُﮩ ُﺮ ۡٱﻟ‬ َ َ‫ٱﻧﺴﻠ‬
َ ‫َﻓ ِﺈ َذا‬

Then, when the borderline’s aspects (4 dimensions of our brane) would be peeled off… (5)

It is interesting to notice how the word “peeled off” has been used in this verse for the end of

Donya, which shows that our 4d brane acts like a cover or skin that hides the real universe

beyond it. This point is further raised up to our attention in the verse 11 of Surah Takvir where

“unveiling” of the mask of Donya from the heaven is reported.

31
So, after the 4 dimensions of Donya are peeled off, we would have life on earth (a more effective

kind of life), probably with 8 out of the 12 dimensions of the universe. The life with 8

dimensions would be a next level experiment of life as could be inferred from the verse 10 of

Surah Fosselat as well as works such as (Silagadze, 2000; Silagadze, 2009) that reveal interesting

properties for 8 dimensional world.

Two events that we are sure after the life of our 4d brane is over are the dissolution of stars

(including the current sun) and the sunrise (of another sun) from the west. The existence of other

suns and moons is emphasized in Q&N in several occasions like in the first Khotbeh (speech) of

Nahjolbalaghe and the verse 37 of Surah Fosselat:

‫ﻦ‬ َ ‫� ٱﻟ ﱠ ِﺬى‬
‫ﺧﻠَ َﻘ ُﮭ ﱠ‬ ْ ‫ﺠ ُﺪ‬
ِ ‫وا ِ ﱠ‬ ۡ ‫ﺲ و ََﻻ ﻟِ ۡﻠ َﻘﻤ َِﺮ و‬
ُ ‫َٱﺳ‬ ْ ‫ﺠ ُﺪ‬
‫وا ﻟِ ﱠ‬
ِ ‫ﻠﺸ ۡﻤ‬ َ ‫ﺲ و َۡٱﻟ َﻘ‬
ۡ َ‫ﻤ ُ ۚﺮ َﻻ ﺗ‬
ُ ‫ﺴ‬ ُ ‫ﻪ ٱﻟ ﱠ ۡﯿ‬
‫ﻞ وَٱﻟ ﱠﻨﮭَﺎ ُر و ﱠ‬
ُ ‫َٱﻟﺸ ۡﻤ‬ ِ ِ‫َو ِﻣ ۡﻦ ءَاﻳَـٰ ﺘ‬

َ ‫ڪﻨ ُﺘ ۡﻢ إِﻳﱠﺎ ُه ﺗَ ۡﻌ ُﺒ ُﺪ‬

(۳۷) ‫ون‬ ُ ‫إِن‬

And of His portents are the night and the day and the sun and the moon. Adore not the sun nor the

moon; but adore to Allah Who created them, if it is in truth Him Whom ye worship (37)

‫ﺧﻠَ َﻘ ُﮭ ﱠ‬
The point in this verse is that in Arabic, the word (‫ﻦ‬ َ ) means the creation of more than two

things. Consequently, this verse is informing us that the real suns and moons are hidden from us

by the cover of the 4d brane of Donya. Thus, the narratives from Ahlolbait (PBUT) that says that

(after disappearing of Donya and the current sun) the sun would rise from the west means the

real sun that will appear after Donya ends up in its freezing point.

The dissolution of stars will happen since relativity - the dynamics of the time and length scales

and the constancy of the speed of light – do not hold anymore, and consequently, the nuclear

fusion as the fuel of stars does not work anymore. This is also true for the fission in nuclear

32
bombs as the operation of nuclear bombs is also based on the relation E=mc2 that is based on the

existence of relativity.

The topic of the after Donya life in 8 dimensions is a wide research direction that could be an

interesting subject for future works, especially considering a lot of verses in Quran that are

devoted to this subject. Here, we just mentioned some glimpses and hints that could be followed

in future works.

1.9 Do Strings of String Theory Really Exist?

Quran-Surah Taregh:

(۱۱) ِ‫ﻤﺎٓ ِء َذاتِ ٱﻟ ﱠﺮ ۡﺟﻊ‬ ‫و ﱠ‬

َ ‫َٱﻟﺴ‬

By the heaven having lines (of painting and writing) (11)

Nahjolbalaghe-Sermon 1:

َ ‫ َو‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻓَﻠَﻚ دَاﺋِﺮ‬:ً‫ َوﻗَ َﻤﺮا ً ُﻣﻨِﯿﺮا‬،ً‫ َوأَﺟْ َﺮى ﻓِﯿﮭﺎ ِﺳ َﺮاﺟﺎ ً ُﻣ ْﺴﺘ َِﻄﯿﺮا‬،‫ﺐ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ْﻘﻒ‬
‫ َو َرﻗِﯿﻢ َﻣﺎﺋِﺮ‬،‫ﺳﺎﺋِﺮ‬ ِ ِ‫ﯿﺎء اﻟﺜ ﱠ َﻮاﻗ‬
ِ ‫ﺿ‬ ِ ‫ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ زَ ﯾﱠﻨَ َﮭﺎ ِﺑﺰﯾﻨَ ِﺔ اﻟﻜ ََﻮا ِﻛ‬
ِ ‫ َو‬،‫ﺐ‬

Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and hung in them the shining sun and

effulgent moon inside a revolving fluctuated wave, a moving ceiling, and vibrating drawn pages (with

written or painted lines).

String theory is a theory based on strings rather than particles as the basic building blocks of the

universe and its main goal is to solve the failure of physics in reconciling general relativity with

quantum gravity (Bedford, 2011). The theory is successful in doing this job but the lack of any

experimental verification for string theory or any clue for the existence of strings have casted

33
serious doubt on its validity. Moreover, this theory requires 10 dimensions for the universe that

is against our experience in 4 dimensions.

The above verse of Quran from Surah Taregh points out the existence of other universes with

strings: “By the heaven having drawn lines (of painting and writing)”. Since in string theory,

strings are in fact lines with different shapes, which determine the properties of particles

(electrons, quarks, …) in our world, Quran elegantly points to both strings and their role by

describing them as drawn lines (of painting and writing), which brings to mind that the particles

of our world and their properties are in fact written (by strings or curly lines) in other heavens.

This is further supported by Sermon 1 from Nahjolbalaghe which was referred to in Section 1.8:

that there are separate suns and moons moving in each heaven including in a pack of vibrating

pages of lines (of painting and writing). Imam in this sentence is pointing to the main

characteristic of strings i.e. their vibration since according to string theory it is the vibration of

strings that determine their show offs in terms of particle such as electron, proton, neutron,

quark, etc.

1.10 Why Only 5 Versions of String Theory?

Quran-Surah Molk:

۬
َ َ‫( ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ ۡٱر ِﺟﻊِ ۡٱﻟﺒ‬۳) ‫ﻮر‬
‫ﺼ َﺮ‬ ٍ۬ ‫ﻄ‬ َ َ‫ت ﻓَ ۡﭑر ِﺟﻊِ ۡٱﻟﺒ‬
ُ ُ‫ﺼ َﺮ ھ َۡﻞ ﺗ ََﺮ ٰى ِﻣﻦ ﻓ‬ ۖ ٍ ۬ ‫ٱﻟﺮ ۡﺣ َﻤ ٰـ ِﻦ ِﻣﻦ ﺗَﻔَ ٰـ ُﻮ‬
‫ﻖ ﱠ‬ ِ ‫ت ِطﺒَﺎﻗًﺎۖ ﱠﻣﺎ ﺗ ََﺮ ٰى ﻓِﻰ ﺧ َۡﻠ‬
ٍ ۬ ‫ﺳ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ‬ َ َ‫ٱﻟﱠﺬِى َﺧﻠَﻖ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ‬

َ ‫ﯿﻦۖ َوأ َ ۡﻋﺘ َ ۡﺪﻧَﺎ ﻟَ ُﮭ ۡﻢ‬

َ َ ‫ﻋﺬ‬
‫اب‬ ‫ﺼ ٰـﺒِﯿ َﺢ َو َﺟﻌَ ۡﻠﻨَ ٰـ َﮭﺎ ُر ُﺟﻮ ۬ ًﻣﺎ ِﻟّﻠ ﱠ‬
ِ ‫ﺸﯿَ ٰـ ِﻄ‬ َ ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ َء ٱﻟﺪ ۡﱡﻧﯿَﺎ ﺑِ َﻤ‬ ٌ ۬ ‫ﺼ ُﺮ ﺧَﺎ ِﺳ ۬ﺌ ًﺎ َوھ َُﻮ َﺣﺴ‬
‫( َوﻟَﻘَ ۡﺪ زَ ﯾﱠﻨﱠﺎ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬٤) ‫ِﯿﺮ‬ َ َ‫ﻛ ﱠَﺮﺗ َۡﯿ ِﻦ ﯾَﻨﻘَ ِﻠ ۡﺐ إِﻟَ ۡﯿﻚَ ۡٱﻟﺒ‬

(٥) ‫ﯿﺮ‬
ِ ‫ﺴ ِﻌ‬
‫ٱﻟ ﱠ‬

Who hath created seven heavens dual to each other. Thou canst see any difference in the creation of the

Beneficent; then look again: Canst thou see any rifts? (3) Then look again and yet again, thy sight will

return unto thee weakened and made dim. (4) And verily We have decorated the heaven of Donya with

34
lamps, and We have made them missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of

flame (5)

Quran-Surah Noah:

(۱٦) ‫ﺲ ِﺳ َﺮا ۬ ًﺟﺎ‬ ۡ ۬

ً ۬ ُ‫ﯿﮩ ﱠﻦ ﻧ‬
‫ﻮرا َو َﺟﻌَ َﻞ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
َ ‫ﺸ ۡﻤ‬ ٍ ۬ ‫ﺳ َﻤ ٰـ َﻮٲ‬
ِ ِ‫( َو َﺟﻌَ َﻞ ٱﻟﻘَ َﻤ َﺮ ﻓ‬۱٥) ‫ت ِطﺒَﺎﻗًﺎ‬ َ ‫ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ‬ َ ‫أَﻟَ ۡﻢ ﺗ ََﺮ ۡواْ ﻛ َۡﯿ‬
‫ﻒ َﺧﻠَﻖَ ﱠ‬
َ ُ�‫ٱ‬

See ye not how Allah hath created seven heavens dual to each other? (15) And hath made the moon a

light therein, and made the sun a lamp (therein)? (16)

Nahjolbalaghe-Sermon 1:

َ َ‫ َو ِإﺛ‬،‫ﺎر‬
ِ‫ﺎر ِة َﻣ ْﻮج‬ ِ ‫اﻟﺰ ﱠﺧ‬
‫ﺎء ﱠ‬ِ ‫ﻖ اﻟ َﻤ‬ ْ َ‫ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣ َﺮھﺎ ِﺑﺘ‬،‫ َوأ َ ْﺑ َﻌﺪَ َﻣ ْﻨﺸَﺎھَﺎ‬،‫ﻒ َﻣﺠْ َﺮاھﺎ‬
ِ ‫ﺼ ِﻔﯿ‬ َ ‫ َوأ َ ْﻋ‬،‫ام ُﻣ َﺮﺑﱠ َﮭﺎ‬
َ ‫ﺼ‬ َ َ‫ َوأَد‬،‫ﺳ ْﺒ َﺤﺎﻧَﮫُ ِرﯾﺤﺎ ً ا ْﻋﺘَﻘَ َﻢ َﻣ َﮭ ﱠﺒ َﮭﺎ‬
ُ َ ‫ﺸﺄ‬
َ ‫ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ أ َ ْﻧ‬

ُ ‫ َﺣﺘﱠﻰ َﻋﺐﱠ‬،ِ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ َﻣﺎﺋِ ِﺮه‬

،ُ‫ﻋ َﺒﺎﺑُﮫ‬ َ ُ‫ﺎﺟ َﯿﮫ‬
ِ ‫ﺳ‬ ِ ‫ ﺗ َُﺮدﱡ أ َ ﱠوﻟَﮫُ َﻋﻠَﻰ‬،‫ﺎء‬
َ ‫ َو‬،ِ‫آﺧ ِﺮه‬ ِ ‫ﻀ‬َ َ‫ﺼﻔَ َﮭﺎ ِﺑﺎﻟﻔ‬ ْ َ‫ﺼﻔ‬
ْ ‫ﺖ ﺑ ِﮫ َﻋ‬ ِ َ‫ﺴﻘ‬
َ ‫ َو َﻋ‬،‫ﺎء‬ َ ‫ﻀﺘْﮫُ َﻣ ْﺨ‬
ّ ِ ‫ﺾ اﻟ‬ َ ‫ ﻓَ َﻤ َﺨ‬،‫ﺎر‬
ِ ‫اﻟ ِﺒ َﺤ‬

َ ‫ َوﻋ ُْﻠﯿَﺎھ ﱠُﻦ‬،ً‫ﺳ ْﻔﻼَھ ﱠُﻦ َﻣ ْﻮﺟﺎ ً َﻣ ْﻜﻔُﻮﻓﺎ‬

ً ‫ﺳ ْﻘﻔﺎ‬ ُ ‫ َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ‬،‫ﻤﻮات‬ َ ُ‫ﺴ ﱠﻮى ِﻣ ْﻨﮫ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ْﺒ َﻊ َﺳ‬ َ َ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ َو َﺟ ّ ٍﻮ ُﻣ ْﻨﻔَ ِﮭﻖ‬،‫ ﻓَ َﺮﻓَ َﻌﮫُ ﻓِﻲ ھ ََﻮاء ُﻣ ْﻨ َﻔﺘِﻖ‬،ُ‫ﺎﻟﺰﺑَ ِﺪ ُرﻛَﺎ ُﻣﮫ‬
‫َو َر َﻣﻰ ِﺑ ﱠ‬

َ ‫ َوﻻ ِد‬،‫ ِﺑ َﻐﯿْﺮ َﻋ َﻤﺪ ﯾَﺪْ َﻋ ُﻤ َﮭﺎ‬،ً‫ َو َﺳ ْﻤﻜﺎ ً َﻣ ْﺮﻓُﻮﻋﺎ‬،ً‫َﻣﺤْ ﻔُﻮظﺎ‬

.‫ﺳﺎر ﯾَ ْﻨ ِﻈ ُﻤﮭﺎ‬

Then Almighty created a wind and made its place unfertilized (a tornado), perpetuated its position,

intensified its motion and spread it far and wide. Then He ordered the wind to raise up deep waters and

to intensify the waves of the oceans. So the wind churned it like the churning of curd and pushed it

fiercely into the firmament throwing its front position on the rear and stationary on the flowing till its

level was raised and the surface was full of foam.

Then Almighty raised the foam on to the open wind and vast firmament and made there-from the seven

heavens and made the lowest one as a surrounded curved wave and the highest one as a protected

ceiling and a highly raised boundary without any pole to support them or nail to hold them together.

35
Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and floated in them the shining sun and

effulgent moon in a revolving fluctuating curved wave and a moving ceiling and a vibrating written pages.

Nahjolbalaghe - Sermon 91:

ٌ ِ‫َﺎن ُﻣﺒ‬
،‫ﯿﻦ‬ ٌ ‫ِﻲ دُﺧ‬ ِ ‫ﺷ َﺞ َﺑ ْﯿﻨَ َﮭﺎ َوﺑَﯿْﻦَ أ َ ْز َو‬
َ ‫… َوﻧَﺎدَاھَﺎ ﺑَ ْﻌﺪَ إِذْ ھ‬. ،‫اﺟ َﮭﺎ‬ ِ ‫ع ا ْﻧ ِﻔ َﺮ‬
‫ َو َو ﱠ‬،‫اﺟ َﮭﺎ‬ ُ ‫ َوﻻَ َﺣ َﻢ‬،‫ت ﻓُ َﺮ ِﺟ َﮭﺎ‬
َ ‫ﺻﺪ ُو‬ َ َ‫َوﻧ‬
ِ ‫ﻈ َﻢ ﺑِﻼَ ﺗَ ْﻌ ِﻠﯿﻖ َرھ ََﻮا‬

ْ ‫ﻓَ ْﺎﻟﺘ َ َﺤ َﻤ‬

ِ ‫ﺖ ﻋ َُﺮى أ َ ْﺷ َﺮ‬
…،‫اﺟ َﮭﺎ‬

He has arranged the depressions and elevations of their openings. He has joined the breadths of their

breaches, and has glued and meshed them with their duals. … He called them after they were a kind of

smoke in order to solder the handles of their channels.

One of the mysteries around string theory (Green Michael B., 2012) is that there are only five

consistent string theories in 10 dimensions, which are Type I SO(32), heterotic SO(32), heterotic

E8×E8, Type IIA and Type IIB. In this section, we try to shed light on this mystery using Q&N.

As it is already established in 1.3, our world (Donya) is a 4d brane in which we are trapped.

Furthermore, there exist seven heavens that most of times are mentioned together in Q&N while

the heaven of Donya is mentioned separately. In this regard, some conclusions could be made.

First, referring to the Sermon 91 of Naholbalaghe, the seven heavens have some sort of duality

with each other, which implies that they must be compatible in many of their properties while

different in some other physical laws. Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe tells us that the relationship

between seven heavens is in a top-down fashion i.e. an upper heaven is the one that determines

the physical properties of its lower companion so that the upmost heaven i.e. the protected

ceiling encodes the physical rules of all the lower heavens. In this fashion, the lowest heaven (the

36
low and high here means that a lower heaven is the one that its physical laws are determined

from a higher heaven) would be Falak (a fluctuating curved wave).

In fact, the verses 3 and 4 of Surah Molk is inviting us to think who is behind the elegant

creation of seven heavens such that we are not able to see any difference due to having 7

different heavens with different physical laws? This implies that while there are differences

between the physics of seven heavens, yet we cannot see (with a naked eye) those differences.

However, the verse does not exclude the possibility of observing differences using measuring

instruments. These differences for example could be realized in dark energy, dark matter,

cosmological objects that are only observable through specialized apparatus such as quasars,

gamma ray bursts and so on. It might also involve tiny scale observations such as the dual

property of light, tunneling (being simultaneously in several paths) for quantum particles, the

action at distance for entangled particles, and so on.

Now, let’s look for proper candidates that could represent the seven heavens frequently

mentioned in Q&N. Starting from the lowest heaven (Falak), a matching candidate from recent

development in theoretical and experimental physics for Falak (which means a fluctuating and

curved wave) is “superfluidity”. Thus, the lowest heaven would be a superfluid of some particles

(the most probable candidate for these particles are neutrinos, which will be addressed in Chapter

4).

With lowest heaven being determined as having superfluid physics, it remains 6 more. Referring

to the previous section where the existence of heavens with strings was shown using Q&N,

Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe shows that apart from the lowest heaven (Falak) and the most upper

one (the moving ceiling), suns and moons also exist in the 5 remaining heavens that together

37
constitute a pack of vibrating pages. Furthermore, as also explained in the previous section, a

written page naturally should comprise of different types of lines (curved, spiral, open, and

closed) all of which could be categorized as some type of strings whose shapes and vibrations

determine particles and their behaviors. Thus, not only Sermon 1 of Nahjolbalaghe approves the

existence of strings but considering the existence of 7 heavens and by taking out the lowest and

the highest ones, the pack of 5 written pages must have physical laws of 5 types of string

theories. This conclusion is further approved by the recent results from string theory that show

the duality between different string theories, which is alluded both in the verse 15 of Surah Noah

as well as in Sermon 91 of Nahjolbalaghe - by describing seven heavens as being dual to each

other. This can explain why the number of possible consistent string theories is 5.

It remains the highest heaven, which according to the potential of the M theory (Li, 1998) or the

F theory (Vafa, 1996) and their accommodation of the duality of string theories, they would be

proper candidates for being a theory of the highest heaven.

1.11 Gravitational Waves and GRBs

Quran-Surah Zariat:

ُ ‫ﻤﺎٓ ِء َذاتِ ۡٱﻟ‬

ِ ‫ﺤ ُﺒ‬
(۷) ‫ﻚ‬ ‫و ﱠ‬
َ ‫َٱﻟﺴ‬

By the heaven having waves (7)

From Khotbeh Tatanjiah of Imam Ali (PBUH):

‫راﯾﺖ رﺣﻤﺖ ﷲ و اﻻﻓﺮدوس رای اﻟﻌﯿﻦ و ھﻮ ﻓﯽ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ ﯾﺠﺮی ﻓﯽ اﻟﻔﻠﮏ ﻓﯽ زﺧﺎﺧﯿﺮه اﻟﻨﺠﻮم و اﻟﺤﺒﮏ‬

38
I saw the mercy of Allah and Afradoos visually, and it (Afradoos) is in the seventh ocean, flows into Falak

in the form of the overflows of stars (or bursts of light) and waves.

According to the prediction of general relativity, gravitational waves are the ripples in the fabric

of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light and are due to the most energetic and violent

processes in cosmos. However, their experimental existence has not been verified until 2017. On

the other hand, Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) are extremely energetic explosions that have been

observed for quite a while in distant galaxies and they are the brightest electromagnetic events

known to occur in the universe. They are short-lived bursts that last for a few seconds with some

releasing more energy in less than 10 seconds than what the sun will emit in its entire

life. However, there was no agreement on the exact cause of GRBs until 2017 when the

association of the detection of the GRB170817A event with the gravitational waves detected at

the GW170817 event was jointly confirmed by LIGO Scientific Collaboration, Virgo

Collaboration, and Fermi Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor teams (Abbott B.P., 2017) . It confirms, for

the first time that binary star mergers are behind both events i.e. the gravitational waves and

GRBs.

In the verse 7 of Surah Zariat, the existence of gravitational waves in one of the heavens of the

universe is reported. This is because the verse says that the waves are interwoven in the fabric of

the heaven which is exactly the prediction of general relativity i.e. gravitational waves exist and

propagates in the fabric of spacetime. On the other hand, Imam Ali (PBUH) in the Tatanjiah

speech clarifies and confirms the association of the overflows of stars (GRBs are kind of stars

with short duration glows) and (gravitational) waves as the result of some phenomenon in

another universe (the seventh ocean) that is called Afradoos (I searched in Arabic words but

couldn’t find a meaning for this word).

39
Chapter 2: A Tent Shape Homeland for

Quasars

40
2 Introduction
History of science has witnessed several major deadlocks followed by breakthroughs. The birth

of two main pillars of modern physics, namely, quantum mechanics and general relativity are

two examples of this trend in science, the former represents a breakthrough in the physics of tiny

scales while the latter is a revolution in the large scales. In fact, at the time that these theories

were emerged, there were serious deadlocks in understanding some phenomena in experimental

physics, inevitably forcing a radical change in the general trend of science at that time.

One of the major deadlocks encountered in current cosmology – that by the way might also be

the starting point for a breakthrough – is the peculiar behaviors of quasars. Regarding the physics

behind the creation of quasars, it seems that the atmosphere is not so windy as their observational

posture because it is generally accepted that quasars are the offsprings of black holes. However,

despite being studied quite extensively and some cosmologists have even risked their carrier for

these startling guests of the universe (Arp, 1987), (Burbidge, 2001), still most (if not all) of the

features of quasars are among the pending problems in cosmology waiting to be solved (López-

Corredoira, 2011). For one point, they are super-luminous compared to other celestial objects if

they are put on the cosmological distances implied by their redshifts. On the other hand, their

luminosity variations over time imply either the violation of special relativity or unusual compact

sizes. Other peculiarities include the periodicity in their redshift, the anisotropic pattern of the

absorption lines from Lyman-alpha systems, and the lack of time dilation due to the expansion of

the universe, just to mention a few.

41
With this bizarre situation in digesting quasar’s behaviors, two possibilities exist. Either nature is

showing us these startling objects in an era where our theories have not been mature enough to

digest them or the theoretical tools are ripe but nonetheless, they are being ignored because of a

growing gap between different branches of physics. This is because the current research trend in

the observational cosmology and theoretical physics has different branches, each one covering

the study of a wide range of objects and subjects, making separate islands of research with the

residents of each not having the required time and freedom to bridge with the achievements in

other branches. This trend in science is one reason for the twilight of scientific age as it has been

pointed out in (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013).

Therefore, assuming that the theoretical achievements are already developed, one might seek the

answer to the pending problems of quasars in the wealth of the current theories in physics. One

of the theoretical frameworks (that has been put forward as a solution for reconciling general

relativity and quantum mechanics as the flagship of the deadlocks in physics) is the multi-

universe and extra dimensions’ paradigm. This paradigm has been emerged because of the

insufficiency of the 4-dimensional single universe view in answering some fundamental

questions in theoretical physics. For instance, strings and brane world theories that have the

potential to solve the mentioned deadlocks, inevitably demand a multi-universe/extra

dimensional playground for strings (Linde, 2016; Linde, 2005), (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2008; Duff,

1996), (Blencowe, 1988), (Becker, 2007), (Dzhunushaliev, 2010). Specifically, brane world or

domain wall scenarios assume that our universe is a 4d brane (domain wall) inside a bulk with

extra dimensions where particles are bound to the 4d brane, except gravitons that are free to

propagates in the brane as well as in the bulk (Rubakov, 1983), (Blencowe, 1988), (Randall,

1999), (Batrachenko, 2006). So far, the quest for rupturing the wall of the presumed domain wall
42
to access higher dimensions or other universes has targeted experiments in particle accelerators,

because it is conjectured that if extra dimensions exist, particles with gigantic energies could pop

out from this domain wall into extra dimensions. Unfortunately, these quests have so far been

fruitless with more budgets put into accelerators to achieve even higher energetic smashes.

However, there might be no need for expensive apparatus when one notes that if extra

universes/dimensions exist, the nature might equivalently divulge them through astronomical

data. Put in other words, the nature might have freely provided its multi-universe/extra

dimensional signs to us but we are simply ignoring them because our wrong assumptions opaque

our sight. Not to mention that accepting the existence of extra universes/dimensions has a broad

consequence in terms of its influences on science and even human life.

This chapter is a quest to reveal possible signs of extra universes provided through cosmological

data. It could also be classified as an attempt to ameliorate the mentioned rupture between

theoretical physics and observational cosmology in the case of quasars by reconciling quasar’s

data with some recent theoretical achievements in the brane world and shell theories.

The hint for constructing our model is based on the behaviors of quasars. Quasar’s peculiarities

whether be their high redshifts, ultra-luminosity, superluminal variations, etc. have been one

of the main sources for curiosity and debates in cosmology. Despite those seemingly

promiscuous behaviors, it is quite possible that when thoroughly analyzed they collectively

point to a common underlying mechanism. With this view, in this chapter we argue that those

exotic show offs of quasars can be grasped if they are assumed to be residences of a boundary

with a tent shape topology over a bulk with extra dimensions. We show that how the solution

for the mysteries around quasars including: the luminosity versus redshift distribution, the

43
anisotropy of the ionization pattern of the gas clouds, the association of high redshift quasars

with low redshift galaxies, the lack of time dilation effect in their light curves, the anti-

correlation between their luminosity vs. the amplitude of variation in their light curves, the

proximity effect, their pattern of abundance in low and high redshifts, the periodicity problem

of their redshifts, etc. could be wrapped in a single geometrical recipe provided in Quran.

Obviously, apart from portraying a shell around the universe as the homeland of quasars, our

proposal would also have its influence on other cosmological trends. Thus, it must be further

compared to the predictions of the standard cosmological model in other observational tests,

which would be followed in the next chapter.

In this regard, quasars provide a free and rich data set for the confirmation of the existence of a

shell as well as extra dimensions. The shell is the boundary around a bulk (with dimensionality

greater than 4) and could be a time-like shell whose actual nature is not our concern now. For a

thorough review of shell’s physics the reader is referred to (Israel, 1967), (Sato, 1986),

(Barrabes, 1990), (Galloway, 2001), (Guendelman, 2009). Here, we are only focused on the

geometrical structure of the boundary by which we show that if quasars are assumed to live on

this structure, their exotic observational properties could be fairly grasped. In our proposal, the

boundary has a tent shape topology, and though it does not change the results of our work, it

could be a time-like shell.

We begin with the verse 17 of Surah Mumenoon which represents the existence of seven

heavens with tent shape topologies over us:

Quran-Surah Mumenoon:

ِ ‫ط َﺮآ �ﯩﻖَ َو َﻣﺎ ُﻛﻨﱠﺎ َﻋ ِﻦ ۡٱﻟﺨ َۡﻠ‬

(۱۷) َ‫ﻖ َﻏ ٰـ ِﻔﻠِﯿﻦ‬ َ ‫َوﻟَﻘَ ۡﺪ َﺧﻠَ ۡﻘﻨَﺎ ﻓَ ۡﻮﻗَ ُﻜ ۡﻢ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ۡﺒ َﻊ‬

44
And We have created above you seven tents, and We are never unmindful of creation (17)

Since we are trapped inside the 4d brane of Donya, this verse means that those seven tent shells

are beyond the four dimensions of Donya. Recently, the results of a research has been published,

which argues that the cosmological constant problem can be solved in a brane world model with

infinite-volume extra dimensions (Dvali G., 2002). In this scenario, gravity on the brane

becomes higher-dimensional at super-Hubble distances, which could be a confirmation of the

existence of a heaven beyond our 4d brane. On the other hand, when measured with the laws of

physics inside our 4d brane, the peculiar properties of quasars might be an indication that they

live on the heaven beyond our 4d brane. This assumption is further supported by the verse 61 of

Surah Forghan, the verse 1 of Surah Borooj, and the verse 16 of Surah Hejr:

‫َوﻟَﻘَ ۡﺪ َﺟﻌَ ۡﻠﻨَﺎ ﻓِﻰ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬

(۱٦) َ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ﺑ ُُﺮو ۬ ًﺟﺎ َوزَ ﯾﱠﻨﱠ ٰـ َﮭﺎ ِﻟﻠﻨﱠ ٰـ ِﻈ ِﺮﯾﻦ‬

And verily we have placed in the heaven adorning objects and decorated it for observers (16)

Quran-Surah Borooj:

(۱)‫ت ۡٱﻟﺒ ُُﺮوج‬

ِ ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ذَا‬
‫َوٱﻟ ﱠ‬

By the heaven, having adorning objects.

Quran-Surah Forghan:

ً ۬ ِ‫ﺴ َﻤﺎ ٓ ِء ﺑ ُُﺮو ۬ ًﺟﺎ َو َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ ﻓِﯿ َﮩﺎ ِﺳ َﺮٲ ۬ ًﺟﺎ َوﻗَ َﻤ ۬ ًﺮا ﱡﻣﻨ‬
(٦۱) ‫ﯿﺮا‬ ‫ﺎركَ ٱﻟﱠﺬِى َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ ﻓِﻰ ٱﻟ ﱠ‬
َ َ‫ﺗَﺒ‬

Blessed be He Who has placed in the heaven adorning objects, and hath placed therein a lamp and a

lightening moon (61)

In contrary to other verses in which stars are mentioned as the decoration and the source of

curiosity for the heaven of Donya, these verses has two distinct points. First, they say that the

45
decorations are “in” the heaven (which is not the heaven of Donya) in contrast to being a

decoration “for” the heaven. Second, they say that it is the source of curiosity and interest only

for “observers” – those who are looking into cosmos (by tools) with some purpose – in contrast

to being decoration for “all” (as it is the case for the stars of the heaven of Donya).

Accordingly, with the assumption that quasars are in a heaven at ultra-high distances from us

beyond our 4d brane, and using a tent topology for that heaven according to the verses of Quran,

in this chapter we start analyzing and interpreting quasar’s data. The work in this chapter and

chapters 3 and 4, just show how our understanding from Q&N can help in interpreting

cosmological and geological data according to the view point of the author. Thus, the contents of

these chapters are not the final word nor they should necessarily reflect the true meaning of the

related verses of Q&N.

We continue the chapter with exposing the reader to some exotic observations from quasars and

then, present our proposal for the supposedly tent shape topology of the boundary on which

quasars live.

2.1 Quasars
Quasars have been the subject of controversy in cosmology. Their extraordinary luminosity in

high redshifts, periodicity of their redshifts, their distances, their super-luminal motions, no sign

of time dilation in their light curves, and the association of high redshift quasars with low

redshift galaxies are topics that have been addressed quite enough in the literature (Terrell,

1975), (Burbidge, 1983; Burbidge, 2001), (Bell, 2002; Bell, 2002; Bell, 2002; Bell, 2007),

(Hawkins, 2010; Hawkins, 2000; Hawkins, 2002), (Bajan, 2007), (Arp, 1987), (López-

Corredoira, 2006; López-Corredoira, 2010; López-Corredoira, 2011). From this list, some of

46
them such as their high and ultra-high brightness or the no time dilation effect are established

and agreed upon by cosmologists while others such as the periodicity in the redshift distribution

is still controversial (Hawkins, 2002), (Tang, 2005), (Napier, 2003).

We base our proposed solution on the measurements obtained from the luminosity versus

redshift of quasars. This feature is exhaustively studied and verified in recent years. Then, as a

bonus, we show that our solution is able to accommodate other observations of quasars.

2.1.1 A Brief Account of the Luminosity versus Redshifts of Quasars

One of the observed features of quasars is that their luminosity and number indicate a strong

evolution with redshift in the standard cosmological framework because the abundance and the

luminosity of quasars in general increase in higher redshifts. That is, while all quasars with z<0.4

have magnitudes less than MB= -26, there are many quasars tens of times brighter than -26 in

higher redshifts (López-Corredoira, 2011). More precisely, ultra-high bright quasars are more

common for 2<z<3 while below redshift of 2 the abundance of bright quasars has a declining

trend. However, the rate of this decline starts slowing down for z<0.3 so that for z<0.1, the

abundance of bright quasars starts increasing again (Richards, 2006), (López-Corredoira, 2011),

(Hopkins, 2007), (Bell, 2007). Furthermore, around z=2 (~1.96) the number density of quasars is

maximum (Weinberg, 1989). Finally, for z>3, there is a decrease in both the number density as

well as the luminosity of quasars in such a way that for z>6 bright quasars abruptly disappear.

2.2 A Tent Over Earth

In this section, based on a 4d domain wall (brane) model (see Rubakov, 1983 and Chapter 1) for

our world, a tent shape topology is assumed for the boundary of our world, which would be

47
matched against quasar’s luminosity data in Section 2.1. Then, we show how this proposal can

accommodate other observed features.

The basic assumption is that our universe is a 4d brane embedded in a bulk with higher

dimensions surrounded by a boundary. As it is reasoned in Chapter 1, we are able to see only 4d

projections of the events that are taking place in the bulk or on the boundary. In other words, we

are merely living with a partial 4d picture of the reality of the events taking place in the bulk or

the boundary. The topological structure we derive is mainly based on the results presented in

Section 2.1 and it shows a tent shape from the view point of an observer on earth inside the bulk.

Thus, if quasars live on the proposed shell, their distribution is partially reflected in our world

within our 4d confinement.

2.3 The Homeland of Quasars

Figure 2.1 shows the topology derived based on the verse 17 of Surah Mumenoon. We have

assumed that this tent like boundary has already started a receding motion in the direction of the

normal to its surface and thus, is extending its frontier. This receding could be due to a

cosmological constant or dark energy of the bulk or any other factor which is not our concern

now. Furthermore, we assume that the boundary has a coasting motion. We do not address how

the boundary is formed and its status prior to its motion, even though those are not trivial

problems and are important in their own places (for instance, by influencing the signals we are

receiving from quasars).

Figure 2.2 is a picture of the boundary in Figure 2.1 from the perspective of an observer on earth.

This is the motion of the shell from our perspective if any information like quasar’s luminosity is

supposed to be transferred to us through rays of light.

48
Figure 2.1. The tent shape boundary is receding away from earth.

The boundary is being marked with critical redshifts from quasar’s observations. The values of

the redshifts indicated in this figure reflect just some representative values reported in some

references (López-Corredoira, 2011) and could be more or less without neither harming the

structure of the topology nor its supporting arguments. Note that, since we are confined in a 4d

domain wall, only a partial 4d view of the tent-like boundary is available to us thanks to the light

received from quasars. If there were no quasars on the boundary, there would be no way to infer

the topology of the boundary. In this sense, quasars are portraying a horizon for the universe.

Before anything else, we shall clarify how a ray of light enters from the shell into the bulk. In

other words, how do different observers in the bulk perceive a shining quasar on the boundary?

This question could be answered if one notes that the boundary for a d-dimensional bulk has the

dimensionality of d-1 (Batrachenko, 2006), (Blencowe, 1988), (Duff, 2008). Thus, if quasars on

49
the boundary have d-1 dimensions, their shape and their magnitude perceived from the view

point of an observer in the bulk depends on their position with respect to the quasar. It is

analogous to the way a 2d luminous circular bulb on the TV screen is perceived by a 3d

observer. If the observer’s line of sight is right in the direction of the normal to the surface of the

circle, it sees a complete circle and receives the maximum luminosity from the 2d shining object.

Otherwise, depending on the angle between their line of sight vector with the normal to the

object’s surface (LOS angle), they see an incomplete image and the object looks less luminous,

the more the LOS angle would be, the less is the luminosity (see Figure 2.2). This phenomenon

could be represented by equation (2.1) where the perfect projection of a quasar (at the zero LOS

angle) is denoted by A and its projection at the LOS angle of α is denoted by P.

𝑃 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) (2.1)

The LOS angle has another equally important effect on the perceived recession velocity of the

shell. If we denote by v the velocity vector of a quasar, only its line of sight component (vl) will

be perceived by an observer:

𝑣𝑙 = 𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) (2.2)

On the other hand, the signals that an observer on earth receives from objects on the shell have

two redshift components: A Doppler component zd due to the receding velocity (𝑣𝑙 ) of the

boundary and a cosmological component zc due to the expansion of the space between the

observer and the shell. Therefore, since the LOS angle determines the projected component of

the velocity vector at each point of the shell on the line of sight direction, it designates the

strength of the Doppler component of the redshift, the lesser the angle, the more is the Doppler

component.

50
Now, observe that in region I (Figure 2.2), the shell has an almost flat (or a bit concave) shape.

For two points A and B on this region it could be seen that from A to B, while there is a notable

increase in the cosmological distance, the LOS angle also increases. This increase in the LOS

angle has two effects. In one hand, it diminishes the brightness received from quasar B compared

to A (see equation (2.1)). On the other hand, it diminishes the Doppler component of the redshift

of B compared to A. Thus, the cosmological component (zcB) of the redshift of object B has a

notable contribution in its total perceived redshift compared to the perceived redshift of object A.

Conclusively, from A to B a major part of the increase in the redshift is due to quasars like B

being really distant from earth compared to A, making a noticeable decline in their brightness in

this region (latter we see why this situation. i.e. uniform decline in brightness does not hold for

all the quasars in this region).

In region II, we have a different situation whereby the boundary starts to get a downward and

almost flat (a bit convex) shape. In this region, the difference between the cosmological

components of the redshifts of E and F i.e. zcE and zcF is not significant and a major part of the

increase in the redshift from E to F comes from the increase in the Doppler components of the

redshifts because of the decrease in the LOS angle (equation (2.2)). Furthermore, in this region

with decreasing LOS angles, brightness of quasars increases (see equation (2.1)). Consequently,

high redshift objects in this region are not as distant as their redshifts show and the decline of the

luminosity versus redshift of objects in this region is not as it could be inferred based on the bare

cosmological distances.

For region III with an almost flat (or a little convex) and upward shape with respect to the

observer, the situation changes again whereby for two objects G and H on this region since the

LOS angle of H is more than G, its brightness as well as the Doppler component of its redshift
51
would be less compared to G. As a result, the cosmological component of the redshift for H (zcH)

has a significant increase compared to object G. Consequently, the major part of the increase in

the perceived total redshift in this region comes from a significant increase in the cosmological

distances. This phenomenon will be intensified as we go to the farther points on this region,

which makes a rapid decline in the luminosity of the very high redshift objects in this region.

Figure 2.2. The boundary marked with redshift’s thresholds.

2.4 Anisotropic Pattern of the Gas Clouds Ionization

The proposed boundary solves the puzzle of the anisotropic pattern of ionization of the gas

clouds around quasars because equation (2.1) has already been confirmed by the pattern of the

ionization of the gas clouds around quasars. The result for quasars in region II of Figure 2.2 -

which by the way has been regarded among the pending problems for quasars (López-

52
Corredoira, 2011) - shows that the pattern is anisotropic in the sense that the line of sight gas

clouds are ionized by several order of magnitudes more than those in lateral directions (Hennawi,

2007). Thus, the anisotropic pattern of gas cloud ionization is simply the result of equation (2.1)

i.e. the projection of a d-1 dimensional quasar into a d dimensional bulk when its partial

reflection is measured by an observer in our 4d brane.

2.5 Association of Quasars and Galaxies

The association of high redshift quasars to low redshift galaxies may be regarded as the oldest

puzzle for quasars that has been quite extensively discussed in the past (Chu Y., 1984), (Zhu,

1995), (Benítez, 2001), (Bell, 2002). Generally speaking, this problem has divided physicists into

two distinct camps. The mainstream cosmologists conjecture that those associations are spurious

conclusions of random projections of background/foreground objects and shouldn’t be taken

seriously. Others assign an intrinsic component to the redshifts of quasars and thus, put them in

closer cosmological distances to solve those associations. They argue that the number of

correlations is statistically too high to be classified as just random occurrences. They further

raised up other evidences for the reality of those associations such as the fact that no absorption

lines are found in quasars associated with foreground galaxies (López-Corredoira, 2011).

The key point in resolving the association problem in the context of the proposal depicted in

Figure 2.2 is the effect of the LOS angle on the recession velocity of a quasar depicted in

equation (2.2). Because this angle determines the projected component of the velocity vector at

each point of the shell on the line of sight direction, it designates the strength of the Doppler

component of the redshift, the lesser the angle, the more is the Doppler component. Thus, it is

quite possible that a quasar with a high value for the Doppler component of its total redshift has a

53
position on the boundary that is in the background of a cosmologically low redshift galaxy.

Figure 2.2 predicts that this phenomenon should mostly (the reason we say mostly (not all)

would be clear in Section 2.11 and Figure 2.3 where a close up picture of the curliness of the

boundary is presented) happen for quasars in very low (z<0.1) or high redshifts (mostly for z>1)

but not for redshifts in the middle of region I (around z~0.4) where the majority of associations

happens for pairs with close redshifts.

2.6 The Lack of Time Dilation

The dilation of distant time intervals is an effect required by the expansion of space. If redshift is

the result of an expanding space as it is currently established, then the time interval of a distant

event at redshift z dilates proportionally with the (1+z) factor. However, while this phenomenon

has been observed in supernovae events, it has not been confirmed in the case of quasars

(Hawkins, 2010).

One of the solutions given for the lack of time dilation effect in quasar light curves is the

proposal for the existence of an intrinsic component in the redshifts i.e. quasars are not at the

cosmological distances implied by their redshifts. Previously though, this solution has been ruled

out mainly because of the large body of cases of the pairs of associations (with galaxies) with

close redshifts (note that, this is expressed as an expected observation at the end of the previous

section). As a result, despite initially being pursued with enthusiasm (Arp, 1987), the proposal of

intrinsic redshift for quasars has gradually waned.

Now consider Figure 2.2 and note that depending on where on the boundary a quasar resides, its

association with its closest galaxy has different observational consequences. Quasars in the

middle of region I would have associated galaxies with close redshifts while in region II or the

54
lower section of region I the associations seem anomalous because of a non-negligible Doppler

(usually called intrinsic) component in the redshift. This explains why the value of the intrinsic

redshift for quasars is variable and so, it resolves the lack of time dilation effect for quasars by

assigning a variable intrinsic (Doppler) component to the redshifts.

2.7 Anti-Correlation between Luminosity and Amplitude of

Variation in Light Curves
As it is verified in several works, an anti-correlation has been found between luminosity and

amplitude of variation of quasars’ light curves in the sense that for a sample of quasars, light

curves of more luminous quasars are seen to vary over a smaller range of brightness than less

luminous ones (Hook, 1994), (Cristiani, 1996), (Hawkins, 2000). Furthermore, as it is reported in

(Hawkins, 2010) “it appears that there is a very marked decrease in the amount of short time-

scale variation as quasar becomes more luminous. The analysis of this intriguing result is beyond

the scope of the present paper …”. This intriguing conclusion is derived from Figure 2.2 in the

same work (Hawkins, 2010), which shows a clear damp in the Fourier power density function in

higher frequencies for more luminous quasars. Below, it will be shown that both of these

seemingly strange behaviors have clear justifications using Figure 2.2.

The anti-correlation between luminosity and amplitude of variation of quasars’ light curves could

be justified as follows. Assume that, due to the tension of the shell, the LOS angle varies with

time. How then, do those variations influence the projection of a quasar on the bulk? In other

words, what would be the rate of change in the projection of a quasar against changes in the LOS

angle? We can answer this question using equation (2.1) by computing

𝑑𝑃
= −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) (2.3)
𝑑𝛼
55
Equation (2.3) has two implications. First, the change in the projection P (note that

observationally, P would be luminosity) is opposite to the change in the LOS angle, which is a

mathematical representation of the fact presented in Section 2.3 i.e. the more is the LOS angle,

the less is the luminosity of a quasar. Second, as the LOS angle (α) increases, the amount of the

change in P with respect to the change in the LOS angle would increase. This means that in

larger LOS angles corresponding to less luminous quasars, amplitude of variation in quasar’s

light curves increases. This explains the anti-correlation between amplitude of variation and

luminosity.

We can apply the same analysis to the observed marked damp in the short time-scale variations

(high frequencies in the Fourier power spectrum) as quasars become more luminous. However,

in this case we need to take the derivative of P with respect to time:

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼
= = −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) (2.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

A first look into this result shows that in general, for any given time scale, the amount of the

variation of luminosity (equivalently the amplitude of the Fourier power spectrum in any

frequency) for more luminous quasars is less compared to less luminous ones (because of the

𝑑𝛼
factor 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)). Second, because of the contribution from the factor 𝑑𝑡
, regardless of the tension-

𝑑𝛼
versus-time function for the boundary, 𝑑𝑡
always has smaller values in shorter time-scales (Note

that, damping of higher frequencies is a general trend in any physical oscillatory system). Thus,

𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑃
in shorter time-scales, 𝑑𝑡
overlays an additional damping factor into 𝑑𝑡
, making a marked

decrease in the variation of shorter time-scales as quasar become more luminous. Both of the

56
above conclusions from equation (2.4) are observationally confirmed in (Hawkins 2010) (see

Figure 2 and its interpretation in this reference).

2.8 The Proximity Effect

The same mechanism responsible for the association of high redshift quasars with low redshift

galaxies could equally justify the proximity effect seen in Lyman-alpha absorption systems. The

proximity effect is this: while for a collection of quasars there is a general trend in the increase of

the number of absorption lines with increasing redshift, for an individual quasar this is not the

case and there is a lack in the absorption systems for redshifts close to the redshift of the quasar

(Kim, 1997), (Fernández-Soto, 1995). If quasars live in the same universe as gas clouds and that

universe is homogenous and isotropic, then we should find some gas clouds with redshifts close

to the redshift of their background quasar and so, there should be no place for the proximity

effect. However, the general consensus now is to blame the UV radiation of the background

quasar for eradicating the natural gas clouds close to a quasar. But since the UV radiation of the

background quasar alone is not enough for this eradication, excess background UV radiation is

invoked from sources other than quasars (Fernández-Soto, 1995).

Referring to Figure 2.2, the solution for the proximity effect is again in the Doppler part of the

redshift, which if it is significant, puts the overall redshift of a quasar notably above the redshift

of the gas clouds in Lyman-alpha systems. The excess of the redshift of a quasar depends on its

position on the boundary, which would be more noticeable in region II where the LOS angle is

minimum, making the Doppler component of the redshift dominant compared to the

cosmological component.

57
2.9 The Luminosity vs. Redshift Distribution
Now, consider the redshifts shown in Figure 2.2. For z<0.1, the LOS angle get decreased, which

has two effects. First, the Doppler component of the redshift starts to increase, making quasars

closer than it is implied by their redshift. Second, a more complete luminosity pattern of a quasar

would be received by the observer, which makes a brighter view of the quasar. Thus, quasars

with redshifts less than 0.1 on the boundary would be bright. Between the redshifts of 0.1 to 0.3,

because of the increase in the LOS angle, the growth of the cosmological component of the

redshift is noticeable compared to the Doppler component. Moreover, an incomplete luminous

pattern of the quasar would be received by the observer with increasing redshift from 0.1 to 0.3,

making them look less luminous. This trend starts to change almost in z~0.4 where the LOS

angle starts decreasing with increasing redshift, which makes a brighter view of quasars. When

the LOS angle arrives at its minimum at the redshift around 2.5, the projection of a quasar would

be in its most complete status. As a result, quasars in this region of the shell look ultra-bright.

Note that, the contribution of the cosmological component of the redshift is minimum for 2<z<3.

In other words, while redshift is sweeping over this range, the cosmological distances of quasars

have small changes. Thus, the change in the redshifts of quasars in this range is by no way a

representative of their cosmological distance changes.

In the downhill after z~3, the LOS angle starts increasing again with an abrupt increase after the

boundary turns into region III. Therefore, because of the position of the points on this region

with respect to earth, which makes an abrupt increase in the LOS angle up to a right angle (for

z>~6), a rapid decline in the luminosity of quasars (even their disappearance) is expected.

58
2.10 The Abundance
The abundance of quasars means the pattern of their distribution illustrated in Section 2.1. For

example, it was demonstrated that for z<0.1, the abundance of bright quasars increases, or for

z<2 the abundance of bright quasars has a decreasing rate up to the redshift z~0.3. This has the

implication that for example, while the majority of quasars are bright for z<0.1, one always can

find some quasars in that range of redshifts that are faint. In fact, this issue might be raised as an

objection to the plain tent shape topology and the analysis given in Section 2.3. We postponed

this issue to this section since it is closely related to the problem of the periodicity of the

redshifts. In fact, in this section we argue that assuming that the tent shape boundary is the

homeland of quasars, the abundance pattern of quasars resolves the problem of periodicity found

in their redshift.

Consider Figure 2.3, which shows a zoomed in picture of some portions of regions I and II from

Figure 2.2 and reveals the ‘curly’ surface of the boundary. This curliness could be resulted from

a large scale global tension in the shell (high wave lengths standing oscillations) compared to the

local tension (low wave lengths oscillations) responsible for the anti-correlation between

luminosity and amplitude variation of quasar’s light curves as discussed in Section 2.4. As it is

pictorially shown, it is assumed that the area of zones I and III are larger compared to the areas

of zones II and IV. In region I, quasars in zones I and III are visible with large LOS angles, in

zone IV with small angles, and in zone II are not visible. Therefore, the majority of visible

quasars, which will be in zones I and III would be faint while the visible minority are in zone IV

and are bright. This explains why the abundance of bright quasars is less in lower redshifts

compared to higher redshifts. Of course, for z<0.1 in region I, this trend reverses.

59
On the other hand, in region II because of very small LOS angles in zones I and III in one hand,

and large LOS angles in zones II and IV alongside their larger cosmological distances compared

to region I, the majority of visible quasars will be in zones I and III, which would be ultra-bright.

The minority of visible quasars in this region lay down in zones II and IV, which would be faint.

This explains why the abundance of bright and ultra-bright quasars in region II is high.

Furthermore, since in contrast to region I, quasars in zones II and IV - though being faint

compared to zones I and III - are still visible, the measured number density of quasars in region

II would be higher than region I. While this excess in the number density of quasars in region II

has been confirmed (Richards, 2006), previously ad hoc evolution in the abundances is invoked

to account for this discrepancy.

In a nutshell, quasars in zones I and III in each redshift range show the expected behavior of the

corresponding part of the boundary analyzed in Section 2.4 (Figure 2.2) and constitute the

majority of quasars while those in zones II and IV constitute the minority and behave opposite to

the expected behavior of that region in Figure 2.2.

2.11 The Periodicity

The periodicity in the redshift distribution of quasars has been debated for a long time (Hawkins,

2002), (Tang, 2005), (Napier, 2003). However, as it is emphasized in the previous section, if

quasars are supposed to live on the boundary depicted in Figure 2.2, then the confirmed

abundance of quasars explains why in some works (Napier, 2003) a periodicity is found in their

redshifts distribution. The periodicity of quasars has been investigated quite enough in the past

and some specific patterns for the redshift periodicity are also derived. For instance, (Karlsson,

1977) has derived the formula 𝛥 log(1 + 𝑧) = 0.089𝑛, 𝑛 = 1, 2. … while others proposed

60
different relations (Bell, 2002). For our purpose though, only the periodic trend in the redshifts is

important and the exact formula is not a place of concern.

According to Figure 2.3, the observed periodicity in quasar’s redshift would be just a reflection

of the effect of the curly surface of the boundary. That is, if we ignore the small distance

differential between quasars in consecutive zones I and III compared to their large cosmological

distances, then the main difference between the redshift of a quasar in a particular position in

zone I with another one in the same position in zone III comes from the difference between the

Doppler components of their respective recession speeds. On the other hand, this difference in

the recession speeds is almost the same for all pairs in the corresponding points in zones I and

III. Add to this, the gap introduced into the redshift ranges because of the lack of a noticeable

number of quasars in zones II and IV, which provides a kind of clustering of the redshifts around

some major peaks (Karlsson, 1977). As a result, a pattern of repeated redshift differentials might

show up especially if the effect of the cosmological component of the redshift is somehow

accounted for and suppressed. In fact, after (Hawkins, 2002) reported that they did not find

periodicity in quasar’s redshifts, (Napier, 2003) refuted the conclusion made in (Hawkins, 2002)

arguing that those results were based on measuring the redshifts with respect to earth (z=0) while

when the redshifts are measured with respect to their closest galaxies (parent or host galaxies

according to (Napier, 2003) periodicity shows up. Considering the fact that the redshift of a close

galaxy to a quasar almost represents the cosmological component of the redshift for that quasar,

the work in (Napier, 2003) could be regarded as a confirmation of the curly surface of the tent

shape boundary presented in our work.

61
Figure 2.3. A close up picture of the curly surface of the boundary.

2.12 Discussion
The current research in physics has been inevitably divided into separate islands with no or little

communications. While this inevitable trend comes with its undeniable advantages, it has the

hazard of perplexing researchers in their ever narrowing islands of research without being able to

communicate efficiently with other branches. With this situation, a valid question is how this

voluminous stack of the research is pertinent to the reality of the universe. An example is the

amalgam of research that point to multi-universe/extra dimensions’ scenarios for the evolution of

the universe. Experimentally though, the footprints of extra dimensions are currently sought in

high energy particle accelerators with a no closing horizon of success. Thus, one might look for

the footprints of extra universes/dimensions in astrophysical scales. The work in this chapter was

an effort in this direction by applying some recent achievements in the brane worlds, shells, and
62
the physics of extra dimensions to the observational cosmology. Our proposal comes as a

geometrical structure for resolving some puzzles in quasar’s data. Previously, quite often the

ideas from geometry have elegantly solved puzzles of physics, the flagship of which is general

relativity where its simplicity and aesthetic aspects have leveraged our understanding of the

gravity. In the same line, it shouldn’t be surprising that once again geometry with its simplicity

and aesthetic aspects steps in with a solution for quasar’s problems.

Our proposal addresses the pending problems around quasars including the luminosity versus

redshift, the anisotropic pattern of the ionization of the surrounding gas clouds, the association of

high redshift quasars with low redshift galaxies, the so called proximity effect, the abundance

versus redshift, and the periodicity of the redshifts of quasars within a coherent geometrical

recipe. Because our main intention in this chapter was merely to introduce the tent shape

topology as a boundary of a bulk and its potential in resolving some quasar’s problems, other

equally important problems were untouched. One such a problem is the status of the boundary

prior to its receding motion and how it influences the physics inside the bulk. Interestingly, the

answer to this question could also clarify the remaining questions around quasars, for instance,

comparing the luminosity of quasars in region III (Figure 2.2) compared to the more nearby ones

in region I.

63
Chapter 3: Cosmological and Geological

Tests

64
3 Introduction
During the second half of the 20th century, there have been sporadic results from research on

physics and cosmology that point toward a multidimensional/multi-universe scenario for the

birth and development of our universe, and to a lesser extent to a variable time/length scale

scenario. Interestingly, these works are counter-intuitive in the sense that they are not readily

comprehendible by our common sense. Examples are the work of Kaluza-Klein (Duff, 1994) in

the formulation of the 5 dimensional gravity, inflation cosmology (Linde, 2016; Linde, 2005;

Linde, 1994) which inevitably has a multi bubble/multiuniverse outcome, the string theory and

its landscape (Duff, 2015; Duff, 2004; Duff, 2008), (Blencowe, 1988), shadow and mirror worlds

(Kolb, 1985), (Silagadze, 2000), and other sporadic quantum gravitational theories such as (Petit,

2003), (Petit 1995), which starting with more than 4 dimensions and independent from string

theory arrives at an 11 dimensional scale invariance theory for the expanding spacetime and an

antipodal universe alongside our own universe (Petit, 1995).

So far, the existence of extra dimensions/universes (or variable time and length scales) is

paradoxical since while a few developments in theoretical physics point to such a possibility,

experiments have failed in detecting its footprints. This is a bizarre situation where without

enough care, it could result in years of waste of time, budget, and perplex in the long quest for

answering the most fundamental questions in physics. However, this trend could be changed if

we admit that while scientific achievements need development in theory and experiment, at the

end it should be the observations that determine the validity of our theories (López-Corredoira,

2017). Of course, in this regard we should be cautious to distinguish between firmly established

observations and intuitive conclusions since many breakthroughs in science have happened

65
whenever some counter intuitive ideas have emerged. Examples are the idea of a sun centric

solar system, quantum physics, relativity, and string theory, just to mention a few.

Regarding extra dimensions/universes (and variability of the time/length scales), so far no

experiment has been successful in showing its existence. However, as the history of science

shows, sometimes it would be misleading to adhere to our intuitions, especially considering more

recent developments in theoretical physics that point to many counterintuitive phenomena. In

this regard, an important observational data resource is through looking into the past of the

universe - that is the subject of the current precession cosmology. However, since this venture

needs looking deep in space and back in time, unless our fundamental assumptions regarding

time and length are not correctly defined, attempts for drawing a true picture for the evolution of

the universe will not be fruitful. Thus, before anything else, we must have a clear position

regarding the pace of time.

Currently it is claimed that our observations draw a picture of the past of the universe up to the

last scattering. Theory goes even further and draws a sequence of events up to the plank time.

However, those pictures are shaky because while the concept of time is derived from our current

physically measurable entities such as the atomic processes or the circular motions of objects, as

we get back in the history of our universe one reaches points in time where those same processes

and motions disappear. Then, an obvious question is how we could define the pace of time when

the facility for its measurement no longer exist (Rugh, 2008).

On the other hand, relativity teaches us that time is not an absolute concept independent from

three dimensions of space. Therefore, like its position, “the pace of aging” for a particle could

only be defined relative to some reference frame. Consequently, considering the absence of an

66
absolute physical time around us, a mere possibility for the existence of an absolute time in mind

does not warrant its physical existence, much the same as the mere existence of a Galilean space-

time - separate time and space dimensions - in mind does not mean its physical feasibility!

On the other hand, a subtle investigation of the standard model with the big bang as its origin of

time reveals that it has contradictory elements in its timing. For instance as it is pointed out in

(Rugh, 2008), at least from the weak force landmark backwards, it is not clear whether the aging

of processes would have been according to the same physics as in today. Even worse, there exist

no convincing evidence whatsoever as whether or not a fixed physical time scale exists in our

universe. This fact has been phrased before by Poincare who says “we have no direct intuition of

the equality of two lapses of time” – for instance those “between noon and one’s o’clock and

between two and three o’clock” (Poincare, 1973). Thus, it is quite possible that the nature fools

us by hiding the continuous stretching of time scale as it fools us in hiding the subtlety of time

dilation and Lorentz invariance.

Motivated by the question of the variability of the time/length scales and the existence of extra

dimensions/universes, and because relativity is silent on both of these counter-intuitive

possibilities, in this chapter we continue what was reasoned for in Chapter 1 in the favor of a

continuously stretching time scale and contracting length scale after the cosmic jerk. The claim is

that after the cosmic jerk, the duration of processes is continuously stretching with respect to a

chronological time base. This proposal is verified through firmly established observational data

already available from particle physics, cosmology, and geology. This means for example that if

someone has been in a place for 10 years except for the second and the fifth years, then the

statement that “she has been there for 8 years” is false if this statement is about the duration of an

67
8 years interval not a mere labeling for the number of years. This is because the durations of the

second and the fifth years are not the same as the remaining 8 years. An immediate consequence

of this proposal is that time would be a one-way road with an absolute “forward direction” where

we can only talk about the duration of events onward. This is in concert with the recent

achievements in particle physics regarding t-violation where the physics of fundamental particles

distinguish between the past and the future (Lees, 2012), (Roberts, 2013), (Quinn, 2009).

In order for the time scale expansion to be hidden in our everyday life as well as lab experiments,

the length scale must be contracted so that all physical constants remain unchanged. We give

various evidences from cosmology as well as geology in support of length scale contraction. It

should be noted that length scale contraction has nothing to do with the expansion of the universe

since the former is about the objects embedded in the universe while the latter is about the

volume of the universe.

A good point of the proposed model is its integrity and consistency in resolving well-known

observational conflict in cosmology and geology. To be more specific, consider the standard

model. It assigns an expansion mechanism to the space which naturally results in time dilation

for distant events. However, while time dilation is observed for some events such as supernovae,

it fails in the case of quasars. As for other tests such as the angular sizes of large structures

versus redshift, the standard model needs unexplained evolution in the size. This inconsistency is

also the case for the static model since while it could pass one test (for example the angular size

test) it fails in other cases (for example time dilation) or even worse it does not have a

convincing answer for the redshift of distant objects. In contrast, in the proposed model, for

68
instance, the mechanism that explains the angular size test also explains the Alcock-Paczynski

test.

This chapter will be presented as follows. In the first section, theoretical achievements are

presented that point to the existence of a variable time scale. We also present those works that

resulted in a multi-universe paradigm. In the second section, we present some observational tests

from recent cosmological data that seriously challenge the standard model. Then, in Section 3.2

we present a model for the evolution of the universe that fairly answers the puzzling problems

presented in the second section and is a manifestation of the recent achievements in the

theoretical physics presented in Section 3.1. In Section 3.3, the model presented in section 3.2

will be tested against the challenges in Section 3.2. Finally, we close the chapter with a

discussion and conclusion section.

3.1 Evidence from Theoretical Physics

In this section, we present the results from different research programs in theoretical physics as a

confirmation for the existence of extra dimensions/universes or time/length scale changes. We

constraint this section to those works that are published and ignore unpublished works.

3.1.1 Superfluidity/Condensed Matter Theory and Effective Gravity

In the traditional view of the evolution of the universe in the Grand Unification paradigm, the

low energy symmetry of our universe is the result of a larger symmetry at higher energies in the

past, which was broken as energy is reduced. According to this view, the higher the energy, the

higher is the symmetry. This is called the GUT paradigm (Volovik, 2003). However, it is quite

possible that starting from higher energies, the universe has gradually acquired its current

symmetries such as the gauge and Lorentz invariances. Furthermore, the relativistic quantum
69
field theory is an effective theory (Frogatt, 1991), (Chadha, 1983), (Weinberg, 1997),

(Jegerlehner, 1998). This view is the anti-GUT paradigm (Volovik, 2000).

Both GUT and the anti-GUT paradigms have analogies in the condensed matter systems

(Volovik, 2000). For example, 3He-A provides a good resemblance to the GUT and anti-GUT

paradigms. The 3He gas at high temperatures and the 3He liquid at lower temperatures have all

the symmetries, but when the temperature decreases it spontaneously loses almost all of its

symmetries. This is analogous to the breaking of symmetries in low energies in the GUT.

However, when the temperature is further decreased and in the limit 𝑇 ⟶ 0, the superfluid 3He-

A gains its symmetries back, resembling an anti-GUT behavior.

Similarly, since the current quantum field theory is incomplete at trans-Plankian scales (Rovelli,

2001), the physics of condensed matter provides a laboratory experience of the multiuniverse and

effective theories. Thus, Lorentz invariance, local gauge invariance, and even the 4 dimensions

of the spacetime might all be the collective modes of deeper microscopic constituents in our

world.

An important observation in the superfluidity experience with 3He is the very concept of

particles and quasiparticles. Particles are the microscopic elements of the system at the

transPlankian level, which are the atoms of 3He (or 4He). These are the interacting atoms for the

quantum vacuum (or the ground state). On the other hand, the quasiparticles are the particle-like

excitations above the ground state. These are the fermionic as well as the bosonic excitations in

the superfluid (3He) responsible for the low-energy properties of the superfluid. Analogously,

the quasiparticles correspond to the matter in the vacuum. As there are particles and

70
quasiparticles, there are two observers, “external” and “inner” that belong to two different worlds

(Volovik, 2003). An “external” observer is made of particles and lives in the microscopic world.

It represents a scientist who lives in trans-Plankian Galilean world. This world is Galilean since

all the relevant velocities related to the quantum liquids are non-relativistic and thus the quantum

liquid itself obeys Galilean physics. The atoms of the liquid and the external observer live in

absolute Galilean space.

An “inner” observer on the other hand, is made of low-energy quasiparticles and lives in the

effective relativistic world. For this observer the liquid in its ground state is an empty space. This

observer also views the smooth inhomogeneity of the underlying liquid as the effective

spacetime in which free quasiparticles move along geodesics. This spacetime determined by the

acoustic metric, does not reflect the real absolute space and absolute time of the worlds of atoms.

Here, the inner observer uses rods and clocks for measurements that are made of the relativistic

low-energy quasiparticles. This observer can synchronize such clocks using the sound signals

and define distances by an acoustic radar procedure (Liberati, 2002). The clocks and rods are

“flexible” being determined by the local acoustic metric as distinct from “rigid” clocks and rods

used by an external observer. Thus, for two events at the moments t1 and t2 at rest in the

laboratory frame and at the same location, the external observer measures the difference of ∆t=

vs 2
t2- t1while the inner observer measures the proper time ∆τ=∆t�−𝑔00 ∝ ∆t�1 − c2
. Thus, the

closer the velocities to the speed of sound/light, the slower are the clocks. Furthermore, the speed

of light would not be a fundamental constant because the measurement of the maximum

attainable speed for quasiparticles is a sole result of the “conspiracy” of the Lorentz world of the

inner observer, which provides flexibility of clocks and rods to “hide” the variability of the speed

71
of light. On the contrary, for the external observer the speed of light is coordinate-dependent and

“anisotropic” i.e. it depends on the direction of propagation with respect to the flow of the

superfluid vacuum. These observations provide opportunity to experiment with a universe inside

another one where the “reality” of phenomena such as the speed of light is being hidden for the

inner universe.

3.1.2 Scale Invariance Cosmology

This is a theory for gravity based on the assumption of more than 4 dimensions for the spacetime

(Petit, 2003), (Petit, 1995), (Midy, 1999). Starting from this assumption and letting the speed of

light varies with time, it reaches to a set of relations between the scale factor of space, time, and

the speed of light. Accordingly, the speed of light will decrease along with the scale factor in a

power law fashion and the cosmic time (t) is no longer a physically measurable quantity. In fact,

in this proposal the cosmic time is a purely geometrical element which is only measurable from

“outside” of our 4-dimensional world. Thus, what we measure as the physical time (ϑ) by our

clocks has a non-linear relation of

1 𝑡
ϑ(t 0 , 𝑡) = 𝑘 𝑙𝑛 𝑡 (3.1)
0

with the cosmic time t. Here, 𝑡0 is a reference time from which time t progresses onward and 𝑘 is

a constant. This also gives an additive property to ϑ despite its non-uniformness. In contrast, the

cosmic time t is not additive but uniform.

Two of the main results obtained under scale invariance theory are that the redshift for distant

objects is still valid and also that all periodic time intervals expand proportional to cosmic time

with respect a permanent reference scale (outside of our world). It also provides an explanation

72
for why some stars seems older than the universe itself even though the argument is not fully in

support of the case since it relies on i) separating the non-measurable cosmic time from the

measurable physical time; ii) assigning two ages to a star, one by the cosmic time t and the other

by the physical time ϑ where the latter is much bigger than the former. However, the caveat of

this argument is that the same physical clocks that measure the age of a star measure also the age

of the universe and thus, the paradox is why our measuring clocks for the age of the universe

show less ages for the universe compared to some of its residences.

Scale invariance Cosmology discussed in this section is an example of power law cosmological

models where the scale factor varies with the cosmic time as 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑡𝛽 . These models come with

some advantages for 𝛽 ≥ 1. For example, they do not encounter the horizon and flatness

problems. Despite having some successes, the power law cosmology has deficiencies in some

cosmological tests specially in justifying the existence of two distinct phases of acceleration and

deceleration for the universe (Kumar, 2013).

The power law cosmology discussed in this section could be shown to lead to a horizon radius

Rh(t) = ct since the origin of time (big bang) for our universe. This will be discussed

independently in the next section since this result has recently been published as a serious

competitor for the standard cosmological model.

3.1.3 The Rh(t) = ct Universe

The Rh(t) = ct model for the universe evolution is derived from a peculiarity of the standard

model pointed out first in (Melia, 2003) and subsequently pursued in (Melia, 2007; Melia, 2009;

Melia, 2011), and (Wei, 2015). The peculiarity is the equality of the gravitational horizon Rh(t0)

with the distance ct0 (t0 being the age of the universe) light has traveled since the big bang. In
73
this model, this equality is upheld for all cosmic time t in the past, which of course is a deviation

from the mainstream cosmological models. The model has been tested against the standard

cosmology model for various cosmological data (Melia, 2015; Melia, 2016), (Wei, 2014),

(Melia, 2016) and ignited a series of debates between its proponents and opponents (Melia, 2015;

Melia, 2014), (Bilicki, 2012).

One consequence of this model is a linear increase for the expansion rate with the cosmic time

i.e. 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑡, which is a specific case of the power law cosmology discussed in Section 3.1.2. We

will argue in Section 3.4 that Rh(t) = ct does not show the horizon since the big bang. Rather, it

shows how the boundary of our universe is receding from the earth and thus, its success is due to

its partial impartment of the reality of the universe described by a more complete model given in

Section 3.4.

3.1.4 The Hoˇrava Gravity

The Hoˇrava gravity theory (Hoˇrava, 2009), (Kiritsis, 2009) is a way out of the divergence in

the quantum formalism of gravity - the non-renormalizability of quantum gravity. This intriguing

problem is a flagship for the incapability of our current physics in generalizing one of its

established pillars to the ultra-microscopic scales as well as the center of black holes. Despite

this, the Hoˇrava gravity requires the ripping out of the fabric of spacetime in the ultraviolet

regime. This means that at that regime time takes its independent way from space in a non-

Lorentzian (Galilean) space and time (Nikolic, 2010).

If this proposal is true, then the Galilean space and time in Hoˇrava theory must be beyond the

point that the physical properties of current Lorantzian spacetime hold. On the other hand, the

current observational data confirm the Lorantzian universe up to and including the deceleration

74
phase i.e. both the deceleration and acceleration eras are Lorantzian. So, whatever this Galilean

universe is, it must have been beyond the deceleration phase of the universe. Therefore, one

implication of this theory is that it demands the emergence of our current Lorentzian world after

a Galilean world. This is another representation of what is stated in 2.8.

3.2 Observational Pending Problems

ɅCDM model is currently the prominent cosmology model based on the big bang hypothesis for

understanding and interpreting cosmological data. Ʌ refers to the cosmological constant or dark

energy component invoked to act against gravity and push the universe to expand, while CDM

refers to the cold dark matter component invoked for compensating the deficit of matter in order

to account for those phenomena in cosmology that require much more matter than current

Byronic matter content of the universe. The model comes with almost 6 adjustable parameters

and while has both the sunny and rainy days in tests against observational data it almost prevails

in competition with other models. This is because historically, most scientists believed that it is

the right model and thus, from time to time they have pushed its pitfalls under the rug, hoping

that in an upcoming future its shortcomings be healed. Of course, alternative theories do not

provide compelling descriptions for some of the undoubted observational data either. For

example, in the static universe model the expansion is refuted and the redshift of distant objects

is ascribed to other mechanisms such as the tired light. However, while the static model (and its

variants) shows success in fitting some cosmological data, it cannot past other tests such as time

dilation in distant events. In fact, currently there exists no slam dunk winner in the game and all

the proposed models including the ɅCDM have their own unresolved challenges (López-

Corredoira, 2011; López-Corredoira, 2010; López-Corredoira, 2017). Table 3.1 shows a

summary of the main observational tests faced with the current approaches in cosmology. These
75
tests are comprehensively explained in (López-Corredoira, 2017), (Ferguson, 2003), (Ashmore,

2009), (Hu, 2004), (Zhao, 2017) (we review these tests in Section 3.5).

Table 3.1. Cosmological tests and the current status of the ɅCDM model.

Test Results (Success (S), Failure (F), or Debatable (D))

supernovae Acceleration/Deceleration phases for the universe expansion: S
Time dilation: S
CMBR 𝑇𝐶𝑀𝐵𝑅 : S
Axis of evil: F
Lyman-𝛼 forrest The universe once expanded but then stopped expansion: F
Doppler parameter increase with redshift: F
Quasars no time dilation: F
Anomalous redshifts: F
Asymmetry between line of sight and non-line of sight gas cloud polarization: F
Very short timing of events: D (Invoking enormous mass in a small region)
Speed larger than the speed of light: D
Angular Size (AS) Variation of AS with redshift: S if strong size evolution of galaxies assumed
Surface Variation of SB with redshift: S if strong size evolution of galaxies assumed
Brightness (SB)
Given clusters of galaxies in different redshifts, an evaluation of the ratio of their
Alcock-Paczynski observed angular size to their radial size: F

In dealing with the failures/debatable cases in Table 3.1, either one can continue with the dogma

of the big bang and laxities in dealing with those problems, or insists on reconciling the

theoretical models with the reality of cosmos. It seems that the scientific community has spent

more than it deserved for the standard model to fix its pitfalls, and now, time has come for a

serious change. Accordingly, in the next section we give a solution that has consistent answers

for the tests in Table 3.1. The proposal, which is derived from the guidance of the Q&N comes

with some implications - for instance, the earth would be the oldest resident of our world. While

these results seem odd when compared with the standard model, it is more compatible with

observations and yet free from inconsistencies encountered in other cosmological (and

geological) models.
76
3.3 Could Earth be Older than Stars?
The implicit assumption behind a young solar system compared to the universe and most of stars

is the existence of a uniform cosmological time flow. Various measuring mechanisms for the age

of celestial objects including radioactive aging, the traveling time of light from distant objects,

and the Hubble time based on the very assumption of a fixed rate for the passage of time show a

younger age for solar system compared to the universe itself and many of stars. But, what if this

intuitive picture of time is not a reflection of the reality of nature pretty much the same as an

intuitive absolute time for the motion of objects does not represent the inherent relativity in the

nature. In fact, considering recent theories (a few of them were presented in previous sections)

the possibility of a fixed time rate for the universe evolution is severely questionable since

according to the standard model itself beyond a point in time there are no physical processes in

the past that could serve as clocks. Thus, a variable time passage that is inherent in the fabric of

spacetime is not very odd in our ever changing world. The constants of physics such as the speed

of light, gravitational constant, Plank constant etc. are not physical in the sense of being an entity

defined in the 4 dimensions of spacetime. Rather, they are deductible from the behavior of

objects in the physical world. For example, gravitational constant is a factor that is deduced from

the behavior of the gravitation between two masses and the Plank constant is deduced from the

behavior of photons. Thus, as it is explained in Chapter 1, Section 1.6, the inherent dynamics

observed in physical objects and the flexible time and rod scales are a consequence of not having

a reference time and length scale inside our world. Of course, the changes in the scales are in

such a way that they wouldn’t be detectable by our everyday experiments pretty much the same

as experiencing the consequences of relativity is out of our every day notice. Fortunately, in this

regard our hands are not completely empty because apart from recent development in theoretical

77
physics that point to such a possibility, the footprints of time and length scale change exist in

geological data as well as in the far distant celestial events. More specifically, this theory results

in faster rates of change as well as bigger sizes for objects as we go back in time up to the cosmic

jerk. This is so performed that physical constants such as the speed of light and gravitational

constant always appear the same.

As one might expect though, with ever changing scales some taboos get wrecked. More

specifically, seconds, minutes, and hours do not have definite durations and an absolute concept

of aging is meaningless. Only relative aging could be inferred. For instance, we cannot compare

the ages of sun to other stars unless first we start from a definite origin for time, which of course

is not available now. Moreover, going a backward in time gives wrong answers as time is a one-

way road with the time arrow pointing forward. An event in the past for which now we are

receiving its light will be evaluated by our current time scale and thus, we are only able to judge

whether an event is faster or slower (and bigger or smaller) than another one.

Therefore, continuing from Chapter 1, Section 1.8, let’s assume that prior to the formation of our

4d brane and stars, earth is created and even life was developed. When a scientist tries to

estimate the age of earth and distant stars by radioactive dating, she selects a radioactive element

(for example UR) and using its decaying rate and its current and estimated initial values on earth

and stars she measures the amount of time elapsed for each of them. If we assume a fixed decay

rate, the age of a star might be bigger than earth. But, what if earth has gone through a period

where there were no any star and while it exhausted most of its initial radioactive fuel steps into

an era (formation of the 4d brane and stars) where it competes with the remnant of its radioactive

repository with stars that are formed after it.

78
On the other hand, the puzzling problem of big sized creatures like dinosaurs could easily be

understood if we have a continuous decrease of length scale. In fact, the size of those animals

must have been much bigger than their current fossils so that after scaling down with time, they

still are much bigger than our current standards. A pioneer earth model has also the only

plausible answer for the strange but firmly confirmed alignment of the dipole, quadrapole, and

octapole vectors of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMBR) with the motion of

earth or the ecliptic plane – an anomaly in cosmological observations that is named “the axis of

evil” (Land Kate, 2005). According to the recent observations from CMBR, it appears that the

plane of the Solar System and hence the location of Earth has a distinct position than might be

expected by chance, which evidences a departure from the Copernican principle.

The shadows of the Copernican principle - a homogenous and isotropic universe - the big bang

and an ever existed Lorentzian spacetime prevented scientists to seriously consider that earth

might be older than stars. In fact, while with the advanced technology available today and in the

vast cosmos we have never seen a single clue of life on another planet, insisting on an isotropic

universe is nothing but a dogma in science.

Motivated by the idea that earth is older than stars, in this chapter we devise a solution that

explains the puzzling problems mentioned in Table 3.1 as well as some geological data. Our

cosmological model is evaluated alongside geological data because we think there is no chance

to reach at a correct picture for the universe unless the reality of the uniqueness of the earth in

the vast cosmos is recognized.

79
3.4 The Model
The model we propose starts from a Galilean (non-Lorentzian) universe with a fixed rate for the

passage of time (See Chapter 1, Section 1.8). Then, under some unknown phenomena a 4d

Lorentzian spacetime emerges. The emergent spacetime comes with the time scale contraction

(quicker processes) and length scale expansion (bigger objects). Thus, stars, galaxies, and large

clusters born with the newer objects being bigger in size compared to the older ones since the

length scale is getting expanded (with respect to a chronological time outside the Lorentzian

world). Also, newer processes get quicker compared to their older counterpart. What is known as

the deceleration era in the development of the universe is a reflection of this phase. This phase

holds until the cosmic jerk at the redshift zT where (see Section 1.6) this trend gets reversed - as

Imam Ali (PBUH) says it is the point of the overturning of Donya. Then, the so called

acceleration phase that is a reflection of the expansion of time scale and contraction of length

scale starts.

As reasoned in Chapter 3, quasars live on a boundary over our world that is moving away with

respect to earth. This is the reason behind the expansion of space and the Hubble flow with its

distance dependence relation 𝑣 = 𝐻𝑑. The moving of the boundary and the change in the time

and length scales are in such a way that any point on the boundary always could be reached from

earth in a fixed time 𝑡𝑏 when measured by a physical clock such as the rotation of earth around

the sun. This time (𝑡𝑏 ) is 1000 years according to the verse 5 of Surah Sajdeh:

َ ‫ﻤﺎ ﺗَ ُﻌ ﱡﺪ‬
(٥) ‫ون‬ ‫ﺔ ِ ّﻣ ﱠ‬
ٍ ۬ ‫ﺳ َﻨ‬ َ ‫ﺎن ِﻣ ۡﻘﺪَا ُر ُه ۥۤ أَ ۡﻟ‬
َ ‫ﻒ‬ َ ‫م َﻛ‬ ِ ‫ج إِﻟَ ۡﯿ‬
ٍ ۬ ‫ﻪ ﻓِﻰ ﻳ َۡﻮ‬ ‫ض ُﺛ ﱠ‬
ُ ‫ﻢ ﻳ َۡﻌ ُﺮ‬ َ
ِ ۡ‫ﻤﺎٓ ِء إِﻟَﻰ ۡٱﻷر‬ ‫ﱠ‬
َ ‫ٱﻟﺴ‬ َ‫ُﻳ َﺪﺑِ ّ ُﺮ ۡٱﻷَ ۡﻣ َﺮ ِﻣﻦ‬

He directeth the ordinance from the heaven unto the earth; then it ascended unto Him in a period,

whereof its duration is a thousand years of that ye reckon (5)

80
Thus, for two points on the boundary at distances 𝑅ℎ ′ and 𝑅ℎ at time 0 from the earth, even

though 𝑅ℎ ′ > 𝑅ℎ , if two rays of lights are sent at the same time toward those two points, both

rays will reach the boundary at t=𝑡𝑏 . The horizon pictured by the boundary seems to be the same

as the horizon of the Rh(t) = ct model with the difference that here t=𝑡𝑏 =1000 years in the past,

now, and in future.

3.5 Cosmological Tests and our Model

3.5.1 Supernovae
The case of supernovae is explained in Chapter 1, Section 1.7.

3.5.2 Quasars
Quasars are explained in Chapter 2.

3.5.3 Angular Size Test

The variation of the angular sizes of objects with redshift provides another valuable source of

information to discriminate between cosmological models. This test has been repeatedly applied

over different ranges of redshifts (Wei, 2014), (López-Corredoira, 2010; López-Corredoira,

1
2017) and the results show a dependence of the form 𝜃 ∝ 𝑧 𝛼 with 𝛼 very close to 1. This is not

specifically compatible with any expanding universe model unless a strong evolution in size is

assumed. For the standard model, it appears that all the mechanisms for evolution including age

variation of the population, mergers, and ejection of massive outflows in the quasar feedback

lead to some caveats. However, it seems that a static Euclidian model with tired light mechanism

fit the data for angular sizes though with 20-30% of errors (López-Corredoira, 2010).

81
In our model, farther away objects (earlier compared to now) in the spacetime emerge smaller in

size than the closer ones because length scale started to expand in the brane. This provides the

unexplained size evolution needed in the standard model.

Note that, in contrast to the standard model for which an isotopic evolution is assumed for the

galaxies and large structures, the evolution mechanism in our model is anisotropic and happens

only in the line of sight direction with respect to earth (see 3.6). Note also that, the story for

quasars is different since they do not have time or length scale change. So, they do not evolve

with redshift by themselves, though they might show a bit of evolution because of their light

passing through our world to reach us.

3.5.4 The Tolman Surface Brightness Test

This is a test of the observed surface brightness of galaxies with redshift, which is proportional to
1
(1+𝑧)𝑛
with n=4 for the expanding space model and n=1 for the static model (Lerner, 2006;

Lerner, 2014), (López-Corredoira, 2006). The results of this test favor a static universe and

exclude the standard model without evolution in size (Lerner, 2006; Lerner, 2014), (Andrews,

2006). As it is already illustrated for the angular size test, the evolution needed in the expanding

space universe models (as the main competitor of a static universe) is provided in the length

scale expansion (before the cosmic jerk) in our model.

3.5.5 Alcock-Paczynski Test

The basic assumption behind this test is the two-point correlation function in a distribution of

galaxies, which supposedly have spherical symmetry in space. This means that this correlation

function depends only on the distance between the sources not on any of the two angles which

define the relative position between the two sources (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013). Consequently, in
82
an isotropic universe the decline of the two-point correlation function against distance along the

line of sight axis is the same as along the perpendicular axis to the line of sight. On the other

hand, since the distances of two sources along the line of sight (which is determined by the

difference of their redshifts) and in the direction perpendicular to the line of sight (which is

determined by their angular separation) depend on the cosmological model, it is assumed that in

an isotropic universe the Alcock-Paczynski test does not depend on the evolution of galaxies.

Thus, it is claimed that this test is a good indication of the geometry of spacetime defined by

different cosmological models (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013).

Some recent works show that the Alcock-Paczynski test favors the Static universe with the Tired

Light (STL) mechanism (or the Rh(t) = ct universe because it has the same function y(z) in

Figure 3.1 for the Alcock-Paczynski test) and quite confidently disfavors the current standard

model (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013), (Melia, 2016). For example, Figure 3.1 shows the result

reported in (Melia, 2016) that compares different models against the Alcock-Paczynski test for 3

values of the Byronic Acoustic Oscillation (BAO) peaks.

Figure 3.1. The plot of the Alcock-Paczynski test against redshift for different cosmological models. Data come

from 3 BAO peaks (Melia, 2016).

83
As expressed in 3.5.3, the difference between the evolution mechanism in our model and the

standard model is that in our model i) the evolution takes place due to the length scale expansion;

ii) the evolution is anisotropic and happens only in the line of sight direction with respect to earth

because our brane formation started from earth. An immediate consequence of ii) is that the

angular size of large scale structures would not be affected by the expansion of space, resulting

in a similar angular size change with redshift as it is the case for a static universe. On the other

hand, while the size evolution affects the angular diameter, it does not have any effect on the line

of sight diameter of large structures. The latter result is due to the fact that the information we

receive from two events in the line of sight have simultaneous time scale contraction and length

scale expansion in the deceleration phase (or vice versa in the acceleration phase) which cancel

each other out, the net result of which is the lack of any observable effect. Thus, with respect to

the Alcock-Paczynski test our model acts similar to the STL model.

3.5.6 CMBR
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) in our model comes from a pre-

Lorentzian era where the footprint of the motion of the earth and the ecliptic plane are depicted

in the so called “the axis of evil” observed in the CMBR (Huterer, 2007), (López-Corredoira,

2017), (Zhao, 2017). Because this radiation comes from a hot era before the emergence of the

Lorentzian spacetime, as we return back in time the temperature of the CMBR will increase

(𝑇 = 𝑇0 (1 + 𝑧)) (Luzzi, 2015). The alignment of the dipole, quadrapole, and octapole of the

CMBR with the earth motion around sun comes from the effect of earth on this radiation (when

the size of earth was probably enormously large) in the pre-Lorentzian era when there was not

relativity and the time scale was fixed.

84
Also, as the CMBR comes from an era before any star or galaxy is formed, surely enough the

effect of distant galaxies in our brane world should be found in this fossil. This has also been

observed under the Sunyaev Zel'dovich effect (López-Corredoira, 2017), (Luzzi, 2015).

3.5.7 Lyman-𝛂 Lines

Lyman-𝛼 lines are a record of the absorbed wavelengths of quasar’s light by the hydrogen gas

clouds in the intergalactic medium. After certain wavelengths have been absorbed by a gas

cloud, the spectrum of the emitted light will be redshifted due to the expansion of space. Thus,

some shorter wavelengths would be stretched to the characteristic absorption wavelengths of the

next gas clouds and in the next absorption stop those stretched wavelengths would be absorbed.

As a result, starting from higher redshifts, this absorbing – stretching process build a forest of

lines, indicating absorbed wavelengths from the spectrum of the light from distant quasars. As

quasars are the most distant and the earliest objects known, these lines provide valuable

information for the history of the evolution of our world. Specifically, the number of these lines

(N) and its variation with redshift could be used as a measure for studying the evolution of our

universe over time.

𝑑𝑁
A useful quantity derived from Lyman-𝛼 forest is 𝑑𝑧
, which indicates the variation of the

density of these lines with redshift. If this factor increases with redshift, it shows an expanding

𝑑𝑁
universe. On the other hand, a decreasing 𝑑𝑧
with redshift is an indication of a contracting

𝑑𝑁
universe. Almost, all studies so far have shown that up to some redshift (𝑧𝑇 ), 𝑑𝑧
remains

𝑑𝑁
constant (Janknecht, 2006), (Lehner, 2007), (Kirkman, 2007) while for higher redshifts, 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑁
increases with redshift (Janknecht, 2002), (Kim, 1997), (Lu, 1991), (Savaglio, 1999). Since 𝑑𝑧
is

85
 𝑑𝑧
the number of lines per unit redshift, its reciprocal (𝑑𝑁) could be taken as the average spacing

between clouds. In this way, these results show that though these clouds have differing redshifts,

which indicate the expansion of the universe, they are almost evenly spaced up to 𝑧𝑇 . For

example, (Kirkman, 2007) shows that those clouds are evenly spaced over a redshift from 0 to

1.6 - the same redshift range with time dilation and expansion effects for supernovae (Blondin,

2008).

Another informative quantity derived from Lyman-𝛼 line’s width is the Doppler parameter b,

which literally is an indication of the temperature of distant hydrogen gas clouds. The Doppler

parameter b is related to the thermal and non-thermal factors responsible for broadening of
2
Lyman-𝛼 lines. More precisely, 𝑏 2 = 𝑏𝑡ℎ 2
+ 𝑏𝑛𝑡 , where 𝑏𝑡ℎ and 𝑏𝑛𝑡 are respectively the thermal

and non-thermal factors. The Doppler parameter has been measured against redshift variation in

several works (Kim, 1997), (Janknecht, 2006), (Lehner, 2007), (Kirkman, 2007), (Penton, 2000)

with the consensus that it decreases with redshift. This observation implies that either the

universe becomes hotter or more calm as time goes on, which surprisingly is in conflict with the

observationally approved prediction of the CMBR temperature variation with redshift and the

prediction of an expanding universe.

𝑑𝑧
The observational data from the variation of 𝑑𝑁
and the Doppler parameter b are shown as two

curves in Figure 3.2 (Ashmore, 2009). But, as rightfully concluded in (Ashmore, 2009) the

aggregation of these two data is consistent with a universe that once started to expand, and

recently stopped expanding! Why this result should be in conflict with other data from

supernovae and the CMBR observations if the standard model for the evolution of universe is

correct?
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Figure 3.2. The gas cloud spacing and the Doppler parameter versus redshift (Ashmore, 2009).

3.6 Evidence from Geology

Our view regarding the place of earth in universe and the very existence of intelligent residences

on it biases our assumptions in answering cosmological questions. How could someone deny the

long lasting fact that earth and solar system are unique – one of the most firmly established

observations in the whole history of human beings? Is it possible to have a true picture of the

current universe and its history, yet ignoring the uniqueness of earth as the only place for the

development of life? Can we have a correct interpretation of cosmological data without resorting

to geological data? If earth has a special place in the universe, certainly answer to those

questions is “no”. So, in what follows, based on this assumption (that earth and solar system are

special) we investigate several geological data in the light of the cosmological model presented

in Section 3.4.

3.6.1 Big Fossils

The first evidence that immediately catches eyes and is a confirmation for the length scale

expansion on earth is the fossils that show in the past earth was a place for very big animals and

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plants. Much work has been devoted to the reason for the extinction of dinosaurs without a

convincing result (Silagadze, 2000). But, less attention has been given to the reason behind those

giant creatures. A big earth could be an ideal place for those huge animals and plants considering

the signs of early oxygen and life conditions on earth as will be discussed next. In fact, the size

of dinosaurs could be much bigger than their current fossils because these fossils have gone

through the same length scale contraction (after the cosmic jerk) together with earth.

Consequently, now we only see their miniaturized fossils.

3.6.2 Early Life on Earth

The next evidence confirms the existence of early life on earth and comes from recent findings in

zircon crystals (Valley, 2002), (Bell, 2015). These findings show that in the very early times of

earth development not only earth was not a hostile planet (as it is resulted from current theories

of earth formation), but the atmosphere and the crust of earth was mature in terms of oxygen and

water required for life. As the UCLA geochemist Mark Harrison says "open any textbook and

you see all these assumptions about the early Earth — it had no water, it had no continents, yet

every bit of evidence suggests it was much more like today than anyone imagined." Also, E.

Bruce Watson a professor at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI) in Troy, New York says

the early earth “had continents that were above sea level, that erosion of those continents was

occurring, and sediments were forming. That necessitates the presence of oceans, so that means

liquid water on the surface of the Earth. It was cool enough so that oceans didn't boil-potentially

cool enough that living organisms could get a foothold”.

These data are not reconcilable with the time expected for transferring earth from a hot and

hostile planet into a cool and habitable one when our current time scale is taken as the reference.

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One should put this observation alongside the cosmological observations showing an unexpected

maturity with abundances of iron and other heavy elements in the farthest galaxies and large

structures in short period of times (López-Corredoira, 2011). The existence of a habitable earth

before the formation of our current 4d Lorentzian brane (as it was pointed out in Chapter 1,

Section 1.8) together with the time scale contraction (before the cosmic jerk) can explain why

there exist signs of early life on earth.

3.6.3 A Soaked in Water and Mountain-less Earth

Recently, the results of a research on zircon crystals in Australia has been published that not only

support a pioneering earth model with length scale expansion and time scale contraction but

upon which a new era of geology and cosmology could be based (Burnham, 2017). The results

show that earth has been completely soaked in water and there were no mountains on it at the

beginning of its development. These findings are important because they can be used as an

entrance into the physics of the pre-Lorentzian era. An earth without mountains in its very early

lifecycle is confirmed by the verse 10 of Surah Fosselat, which also portrays a pre-Lorentzian era

for earth (see Chapter 1, Section 1.8):

He placed therein firm stabilizers (mountains) from above it, and blessed it and measured therein its

sustenance in four Days, alike for all questioners (10)

If earth together with its mountains has a pre-Lorentzian history, the size of earth and asteroids

could have remarkably been increased such that it looks like a “sudden jump” when measured in

our current time scale. The evidence for this sudden jump has been recently published in a paper

(Morbidelli, 2009), in which this mystery is named “the meter size barrier” expressed in its

abstract as: “This supports the idea that planetesimals formed big, namely that the size of solids

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in the proto-planetary disk “jumped” from sub-meter scale to multi-kilometer scale, without

passing through intermediate values”.

These findings are also a key point in understanding the meteorites construction process as has

been recently simulated and published in zero-gravity experiments (Love, 2014).

3.6.4 Missing r-Process Sites

The r-process is a name invoked for the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements with atomic mass

numbers greater than iron. Of special interest and yet a puzzling one is those stable atoms with

neutron-deficient and neutron-rich nuclides such as Sb and Ba. In heavy elements isotope’s

buildup, two different but closely related mechanisms are possible, namely, the s-process and the

r-process. When isotopes of an element are formed through neutron bombardment rates that are

slow enough to permit all 𝛽 decays exhausted between successive neutron captures it is called

the s-process. Alternatively, short–duration rapid neutron bombardments that occur more rapidly

than 𝛽 decay rates can produce other isotopes of neutron-capture elements. This is called the r-

process (Arnould, 2007), (Cowan, 1999).

A key observation in regard to the r-process is the presence of a strong r-process component in

low-metal stars for the neutron-capture element abundances (Cowan, 1999), (Sneden, 1994),

(Sneden, 1996), (Roederer, 2014). In addition, there have been supportive evidence for scaled

solar r-process abundances in those stars (Cowan, 1997), (McWilliam, 2004), (Cowan, 1998).

But, the strange repeated pattern of the solar r-process elemental pattern is not the whole story.

The other surprise is that the peaks of those patterns also are reproduced at their exact locations

in those stars as in the solar system. This solar system repeated pattern is so well-established now

that John Cowan refers to it as: “The observations indicate the same relative r-process abundance

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pattern in the oldest galactic stars and in the solar material, at least for elements with Z ≥ 56.

Therefore, the data indicate that the solar system r-process abundances are not the result of

global averages over different types of stars and epochs” (Cowan, 1998).

Conclusively, the solar system provides elemental abundances whose quantity, quality and

integrity could not be found anywhere else in the universe. This is especially true for the heavy

elements (with atomic numbers greater than iron) and in particular their isotopic compositions

obtained through s/r processes, to the extent that Anna Frebel succinctly expresses it as ” It

appears that at any time and place in the universe, the r-process creates its heavy elements in the

exact same ratios, indicating that the r-process is a universal process” (Frebel, 2014). What could

possibly be the cause of this gauged universal “pattern of evil”? If the elements on earth and

solar system have come from stars and supernovae explosions as currently is believed to be, why

then those stars which according to the standard model are born long before earth, show the

abundance pattern of the r-process in the solar system?

This alignment is similar to the alignment of dipole, quadrapole, and octapole of CMBR with the

ecliptic plane. Yet, there is another mystery regarding the r-process sites. All of the sources so

far examined as possible sites for the generation of neutron-capture elements including the most

promising one - supernovae explosions - have deficiencies in their abundance predictions

(Freiburghaus, 1999), (McWilliam, 2004). As quoted from (Cowan, 1999) “thus, even though it

would be preferred, it is currently not possible to provide results from a specific r-process site

that give a good global fit to the observed, stable solar r-process abundances”.

3.6.5 Radioactive Dating

The detection of thorium in the ultra-metal poor halo star CS 22892-052 (the first r-process star

discovered) (Frebel, 2008), together with the detection of third r-process peak elements in the
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same halo stars (Cowan, 1998) has paved the way for practicing radioactive dating procedure in

stars. These elements are used as chronometers for calculating the age of these stars and the

result - though with some uncertainty - gives an average age of 15.6 Gyrs, bigger than the age of

the universe. This same result has been approved elsewhere for other old stars with ages more

than the age of the universe. However, usually these results have been put under the rug in order

to save the standard big bang model.

3.6.6 Deep-Sea 224Pu

A study on live 224Pu (half-life = 81 Million years) in deep-sea reservoirs has recently been

published (Wallner, 2015) and contains some interesting results. They show that the abundance

of 224Pu in the Early Solar System (ESS) relative to 238U was ~ 0.8% for which as quoted from

(Wallner, 2015) “we must conclude from our findings that, given the presence of short-lived

actinide 224Pu (and 247Cm) in the ESS, it must have been subject to a rare heavy r-process

nucleosynthesis event shortly before its formation”.

Furthermore, one of the main results in (Wallner, 2015) is that SNe (supernovae) did not

contribute to actinide nucleosynthesis for the past few hundred million years and therefore, it is

suggested that actinide nucleosynthesis as deducted from live 224Pu seems to be very rare.

3.6.7 Conclusive Remarks

What is common in the geology cases studies in this chapter is the peculiarity of earth and solar

system in one aspect or the other with respect to the rest of the universe. Usually, ad hoc

resolutions are invoked to rescue current assumptions regarding evolution of the universe. As

these ad hoc rescues have been accumulated over time, the so called standard big bang model has

become a hank that revolves over itself despite its partial success. Instead, if we stop searching
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for the main sites of nucleosynthesis in our Lorentzian spacetime and knowing that the earth and

life were developed and mature before our 4d world being emerged, then the nucleosynthesis of

elements must have taken place in a pre-Lorentzian era.

For example, as for using thorium as a chronometer for the age of stars, initial production ratios

(Th/Eu) is assumed to be the same for a poor metal star as well as in solar system. But, what if

the initial ratios are much higher in solar system than any other star in the universe? Why if in

essence the established single site for the r-process was in the ecliptic plane in a pre-Lorentzian

era and over time those elements have propagated to other places in the universe? This claim is

supported by the following observations: i) no site in our Lorentzian world is qualified as the

seed for the r-process; ii) no other place in the universe has been found with such a complete

catalogue of elements as the solar system (Arnould, 2007). If solar system is younger than other

stars and not a special place in the universe, why we cannot trace some elements - for example

the p-process elements - outside of our galaxy?

The case of 224Pu in the deep-sea floor is closely related to the case of radioactive dating

elements such as Th or U. The first commonality is the confirmation of the lack of a candidate r-

process site for the production of 224Pu (as it is the case for general r-process elements). Thus,

let’s for a moment assume that like as we said in the case of radioactive dating for Th/Eu, the

missing site for the r-process is the ESS in a pre-Lorentzian era. Moreover, as it is also suggested

in (Wallner, 2015), this rare and heavy nucleosynthesis has produced much more actinides than it

is predicted in current models. Then, considering the time scale contraction and an initial large

amount of an actinide like 224Pu in pre-Lorentzian era, the current low value of 224Pu found in

the deep-sea study in (Wallner, 2015) is simply the remnant of its high initial values produced in

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that era, which because of its short life time has quickly been exhausted compared to (for

instance) Th. Unfortunately, the current predictions of the initial abundance ratios are based on

the assumption of the existence of an eternal Lorentzian spacetime despite having strong

indications that it is a false assumption. One such indication is the famous “non-reconcilability”

of quantum mechanics with gravity under a Lorentzian spacetime which is a flagship for the

failure of an eternal Lorentzian spacetime assumption.

3.7 Discussion
The quest for understanding the right story of the universe not only is important for theoretical

physics, but also it fulfills a deep curiosity inside us regarding our position in the universe and

our fate. The theory of big bang with its various descendent models is an attempt to uncover the

true history of the universe. However, despite its partial success in matching certain

cosmological data, with the advent of the precision cosmology its failures and incapability have

become more revealed. It has been long enough that the dogma of the big bang and its standard

model is making serious deadlocks in the progress of science (Lopez-Corredoira, 2013). If this

trend continues, more research budget will be wasted for a wrong picture of the universe and its

development. The failure of the basic assumptions in the standard model of cosmology is not

new since in the past, similar false or approximate assumptions have also blocked the progress of

physics and postponed its achievements.

Regarding the current standard model, we have long been waiting for this model to deliver its

baby but it has not happened yet and worse the signs of its infertility are all around us. It is time

to abandon false stories for the beginning and evolution of our world despite what have been

invested so far in developing theories based on those stories. The sooner the reality of our world

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history is accepted, the sooner the dark sides of current physics will be unraveled. More

importantly, we will be prepared for the inevitable upcoming future of our world, which is

explained in Chapter 1, Section 1.8 and somehow pointed out in (Mars, 2007) - our world is

quickly approaching to a change in signature that would be its freezing point.

On the other hand, equipped with a correct picture of the universe could have positive impacts on

our technology and life. For instance, suppose that we find out that in the (near) future our

Lorentzian spacetime comes to its end. Then, on what aspect of life individuals should invest? Or

is it still reasonable for governments to continue their race for developing atomic bombs when

they would be useless in an upcoming Galilean era?!

It was our position in this work to take a phenomenological approach in cosmology with

emphasis on the uniqueness of earth and solar system. With this approach, we confronted with

the current dominant paradigms in cosmology, specifically the ɅCDM model for the beginning

and evolution of the universe. Several assumptions in the current model could be contrasted with

our work despite some commonalities such as the expansion of space.

In our proposal, the universe development has gone through at least two main phases: A pre-

Lorentzian spacetime followed by the emergence of our current 4d brane of Lorentzian

spacetime. All elements of the periodic table and life have been created in the pre-Lorentzian era.

Specifically, the missing seed for the r-process elemental factory is in this era. We should note

that even though we are currently living in a Lorentzian world with its relativity principle, the

horizon of human thought has already spanned beyond this, examples are the idea of extra

dimensions and string theory. However, from the history of science we have learned that

intuition is not always trustful since nature is not willing to readily show its subtleties. For

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example, the constancy of the speed of light is not compatible with our intuition and everyday

experience yet it provided a breakthrough in physics with many fruitful results. Thus, as

rightfully pointed out in (López-Corredoira, 2017) quote, “from a deductive-empiricist point of

view we should deduce theories from the observations, and not the opposite“, the confirmed

observations should have final word on validity of our theories.

We have provided evidence from theory and experiment that support the existence of at least one

extra world together with time and length scale changes. String theory and brane world scenario,

condensed matter physics, theories with extra dimensions, and Hoˇrava theory of gravity are just

a few developments in theoretical physics that support the existence of extra dimensions.

On the other hand, in terms of observational evaluation, the assumptions and models given in

Chapters 2 and 3 have the upper hand in providing consistent explanations compared to the

alternative proposals. Evidence from quasars, surface brightness test, angular size and Tolman

surface brightness test, CMBR data, hydrogen gas clouds data, acceleration/deceleration inferred

from supernovae, Alcock-Paczynski test, the r-process nucleosynthesis and radioactive dating all

could be coherently accommodated within the proposed framework.

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Chapter 4: The Tiny Scales

97
4 Introduction
‫از ﮐﮫ ﻣﯽ ﭘﺮﺳﯽ ﮐﮫ دور روزﮔﺎران را ﭼﮫ ﺷﺪ‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻓﻆ اﺳﺮار اﻟﮭﯽ ﮐﺲ ﻧﻤﯿﺪاﻧﺪ ﺧﻤﻮش‬

Hafiz secrets divine nobody knows stay silent Whom do you ask why isn’t our turning fate now on the mend

The “cast away” movie depicts the story of a FedEx employee (Tom Hanks) ending up on

an inhabitant island after his plane crashes. His attempt to explore and survive using the

remnants of his plane and resources of the island resembles the growth of human beings on earth

where through exploring and engineering the resources on earth, human civilizations are

emerged. Like a toddler that starts exploring the world and gradually extends the scope of

exploration in the childhood, teen, youth, and adulthood, science history has gone through the

same steps in terms of exploring, understanding, and changing the world. In comparison to the

past, it seems that now we have reached at the adulthood of physics where all previous attempts

by giants such as Galileo, Newton, Plank, Einstein as well as great scientists of our era have

culminated into two main contributions, namely, the standard model of particle physics and the

standard model of cosmology. The former represents all the efforts performed in the tiny scales

for understanding the most fundamental ingredients of our world, while the latter aims at

knowing its large scale behavior, its evolution, our position in the universe, and possibly our fate.

4.1 The Tiny Scales of the Universe

The standard model of particle physics shortly answers this question: what is everything made of

and how does it hold together? the quest to find answer to this question has passed through many

centuries of human endeavors with the dawn and twilight of great scientists such as Archimedes,

Galileo, Newton, Bohr, Plank just to name a few. The results of all those efforts have been

98
culminated into what is called the standard model of particle physics. It describes 3 out of four

fundamental forces of nature i.e. the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, but not the

gravitational force. It also accounts for all constituent particles of nature and divides them into

two main groups: leptons (such as quarks) and fermions (such as electrons). The most

challenging problem for the standard model of particle physics is that it comes with 19 free

parameters the values of them must be set experimentally for the model to work. Once the values

of those 19 parameters are set, the model just works fine and is the most successful achievement

of mankind, since almost all its predictions have been so far experimentally verified. However,

nobody knows why these parameters should have the specific values they have (Table 4.1),

which is the darkest side of the model, even though there are other unresolved issues such as the

hierarchy problem - the huge gap between the Plank and the electroweak scales.

4.2 The 19 Parameters in Quran

Quran-Surah Moddaser:

َ ‫ﺎر ِإ ﱠﻻ َﻣ َﻼ ِﺋ َﻜﺔً ۙ َو َﻣﺎ َﺟ َﻌ ْﻠﻨَﺎ ِﻋﺪﱠﺗَ ُﮭ ْﻢ ِإ ﱠﻻ ِﻓﺘْﻨَﺔً ِّﻟ ﱠﻠﺬِﯾﻦَ َﻛﻔَ ُﺮوا ِﻟ َﯿ ْﺴﺘَ ْﯿﻘِﻦَ اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ أُوﺗُﻮا ْاﻟ ِﻜﺘ‬
‫َﺎب‬ ِ ‫ﺎب اﻟﻨﱠ‬ ْ َ ‫( َو َﻣﺎ َﺟ َﻌ ْﻠﻨَﺎ أ‬30) ‫َﻋﻠَ ْﯿ َﮭﺎ ِﺗ ْﺴ َﻌﺔَ َﻋﺸ ََﺮ‬
َ ‫ﺻ َﺤ‬

‫ض َو ْاﻟﻜَﺎﻓِ ُﺮونَ َﻣﺎذَا أَ َرادَ ﱠ‬

‫�ُ ِﺑ ٰ َﮭﺬَا‬ َ ‫َﺎب اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ أُوﺗُﻮا ْاﻟ ِﻜﺘ‬
ٌ ‫َﺎب َو ْاﻟ ُﻤﺆْ ِﻣﻨُﻮنَ ۙ َو ِﻟ َﯿﻘُﻮ َل اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ ﻓِﻲ ﻗُﻠُﻮ ِﺑ ِﮭﻢ ﱠﻣ َﺮ‬ َ ‫َو َﯾ ْﺰدَادَ اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ آ َﻣﻨُﻮا ِإﯾ َﻤﺎﻧًﺎ ۙ َو َﻻ َﯾ ْﺮﺗ‬

(31) ‫ِﻲ ِإ ﱠﻻ ِذ ْﻛ َﺮ ٰى ِﻟ ْﻠﺒَﺸَﺮ‬

َ ‫�ُ َﻣﻦ ﯾَﺸَﺎ ُء َو َﯾ ْﮭﺪِي َﻣﻦ ﯾَﺸَﺎ ُء ۚ َو َﻣﺎ ﯾَ ْﻌﻠَ ُﻢ ُﺟﻨُﻮدَ َر ِّﺑﻚَ ِإ ﱠﻻ ھ َُﻮ ۚ َو َﻣﺎ ھ‬ ِ ‫َﻣﺜ َ ًﻼ ۚ َﻛ ٰﺬَﻟِﻚَ ﯾ‬
‫ُﻀ ﱡﻞ ﱠ‬

Over it are Nineteen (30) And We have set none but angels as Guardians of the Fire; and We have

assigned their number (19) only as a confusion for Unbelievers, in order that the People of the Book may

arrive at certainty, and the Believers may increase in Faith and that no doubts may be left for the People

of the Book and the Believers, and that those in whose hearts is a disease and the Unbelievers may say,

"What symbol doth Allah intend by this?" Thus doth Allah leave to stray whom He pleaseth, and guide

whom He pleaseth: and none can know the forces of thy Lord, except He and this is no other than a

warning to mankind (31)

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The verses 30 and 31 of Surah Moddaser (Over it are Nineteen), present the number 19 for three

purposes: as confusion for Unbelievers; the People of the Book may arrive at certainty; the

Believers may increase in Faith. But, why the number 19 is the source of confusion for

unbelievers? Considering Table 4.1 and since the constituents of our world is completely

described by the standard model with its 19 parameters, scientists – that naturally do not believe

that the creator has set the number and the values of those parameters - are and would be forever

confused as to why and how their values are so accurately tuned such that a tiny change in one of

them (for instance the mass of electron) will be a catastrophe for our world. On the other hand,

the fact that the one who made our world with its 19 parameters is the one who revealed Quran

to his prophet would be a source for leveraging the belief of the believers on Quran. Here, this

verse points to subtle difference between true believers and the People of the Book, where it

mentions the increase in their belief for the former and certainty for the latter. Who are the

people of the book? First, these are not categorized in the believer’s group. So, they are different

from the believers. Second, they cannot be Jewish or Christians since they do not trust Quran in

the first place so that by seeing this verse presenting the number of parameters of our world, they

would be certain (that Quran is truly from the creator of the world). Thus, the people of the book

are those that have Quran (and believing that it is from the creator) while they are not regarded as

true believers. This shows that while necessary, merely having Quran and believing on it is not

sufficient for being a true believer. Confirmation for this conclusion is this sentence in the verse:

that no doubts may be left for the People of the Book, which clearly shows that the people of the

book initially have trust on Quran for whom this verse should leave no doubt.

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 Table 4.1. 19 free parameters of the standard model of particle physics.

4.3 The Case of Neutrinos

More recently, oscillation of neutrinos has undoubtedly been proved, which is an indication that

contrary to what was believed before (neutrinos are massless), neutrinos should have mass.

Because of the importance of this discovery, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2015 was awarded

jointly to Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald "for the discovery of neutrino oscillations,

which shows that neutrinos have mass”. The origin for the mass of neutrinos is currently a

mystery for scientists and different mechanisms are proposed to solve it. In a sense, these

proposals could be divided between two categories. In one hand, some works treat the neutrino

mass as a fundamental property like the mass of electrons. On the other hand, there are others

who propose effective masses for neutrinos, which means that the mass of neutrinos is not
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fundamental but the result of an underlying mechanism such as an anomaly in gravity, a

condensate, superfluidity, etc. (Azam, 2011), (Bhatt, 2010), (Dvali, 2016), (Floyd, 2017). If the

former proposal is correct, then 7 more parameters are added to the 19 parameters of SM. But in

the case where the masses are the result of some neutrinos condensate there is no need for

extending the number of free parameters of the SM. While this issue is under investigation both

theoretically and experimentally, if my interpretation of the verses 30 and 31 of Surah Moddaser

is actually true, then there shouldn’t be more parameters needed in the SM and neutrino masses

are from other mechanisms - most likely from a superfluid of neutrinos as it is already suggested

in (Addazi, 2016), (Azam, 2011), (Bhatt, 2010), (Kapusta, 2004).

4.4 Peculiarity of Neutrinos

One peculiarity of neutrinos compared to other particles is the lack of right-handed neutrinos.

The handedness is a property of elementary particles on top of their charges, masses, and spins,

which indicates the direction of the spin of the particle with respect to its momentum. In contrast

to other particles that can have both left and right handed helicity, neutrinos have "intrinsic

chirality" by which all of them are left-handed (see figure below).

4.5 Some Conclusions from Q&N

Quran-Surah Wagheaa:

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 ّ ِ ‫ﺸ َﻤﺎ ِل َﻣﺎ ٓ أَﺻۡ َﺤ ٰـﺐُ ٱﻟ‬
(٤۱) ‫ﺸ َﻤﺎ ِل‬ ّ ِ ‫َوأَﺻۡ َﺤ ٰـﺐُ ٱﻟ‬

And the fans of the left handed: What of the fans of the left handed? (41)

Quran-Surah Yasin:

۬
(٤۰) َ‫ﺎرۚ َو ُﻛ ﱞﻞ ﻓِﻰ ﻓَ َﻠ ۬ﻚٍ ﯾَ ۡﺴﺒَﺤُﻮن‬ َ ‫ﺲ ﯾَ ۢﻨﺒَ ِﻐﻰ ﻟَ َﮭﺎ ٓ أَن ﺗ ُ ۡﺪ ِركَ ۡٱﻟﻘَ َﻤ َﺮ َو َﻻ ٱﻟﱠ ۡﯿ ُﻞ‬
ِ ‫ﺳﺎ ِﺑ ُﻖ ٱﻟﻨﱠ َﮩ‬ ‫َﻻٱﻟ ﱠ‬
ُ ‫ﺸ ۡﻤ‬

It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in a

fluctuating curved wave (40)

Nahjolbalaghe-sermon 1:

َ َ‫ َو ِإﺛ‬،‫ﺎر‬
ِ‫ﺎر ِة َﻣ ْﻮج‬ ِ ‫اﻟﺰ ﱠﺧ‬
‫ﺎء ﱠ‬ِ ‫ﻖ اﻟ َﻤ‬ ْ َ‫ ﻓَﺄ َ َﻣ َﺮھﺎ ِﺑﺘ‬،‫ َوأ َ ْﺑ َﻌﺪَ َﻣ ْﻨﺸَﺎھَﺎ‬،‫ﻒ َﻣﺠْ َﺮاھﺎ‬
ِ ‫ﺼ ِﻔﯿ‬ َ ‫ َوأ َ ْﻋ‬،‫ام ُﻣ َﺮﺑﱠ َﮭﺎ‬
َ ‫ﺼ‬ َ َ‫ َوأَد‬،‫ﺳ ْﺒ َﺤﺎﻧَﮫُ ِرﯾﺤﺎ ً ا ْﻋﺘَﻘَ َﻢ َﻣ َﮭ ﱠﺒ َﮭﺎ‬
ُ َ ‫ﺸﺄ‬
َ ‫ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ أ َ ْﻧ‬

ُ ‫ َﺣﺘﱠﻰ َﻋﺐﱠ‬،ِ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ َﻣﺎﺋِ ِﺮه‬

،ُ‫ﻋﺒَﺎﺑُﮫ‬ َ ُ‫ﺎﺟﯿَﮫ‬
ِ ‫ﺳ‬ ِ ‫ ﺗ َُﺮدﱡ أ َ ﱠوﻟَﮫُ َﻋﻠَﻰ‬،‫ﺎء‬
َ ‫ َو‬،ِ‫آﺧ ِﺮه‬ ِ ‫ﻀ‬َ َ‫ﺼﻔَ َﮭﺎ ِﺑﺎﻟﻔ‬ ْ َ‫ﺼﻔ‬
ْ ‫ﺖ ﺑ ِﮫ َﻋ‬ ِ َ‫ﺴﻘ‬
َ ‫ َو َﻋ‬،‫ﺎء‬ َ ‫ﻀﺘْﮫُ َﻣ ْﺨ‬
ّ ِ ‫ﺾ اﻟ‬ َ ‫ ﻓَ َﻤ َﺨ‬،‫ﺎر‬
ِ ‫اﻟ ِﺒ َﺤ‬

َ ‫ َوﻋ ُْﻠﯿَﺎھ ﱠُﻦ‬،ً‫ﺳ ْﻔﻼَھ ﱠُﻦ َﻣ ْﻮﺟﺎ ً َﻣ ْﻜﻔُﻮﻓﺎ‬

ً ‫ﺳ ْﻘﻔﺎ‬ ُ ‫ َﺟ َﻌ َﻞ‬،‫ﻤﻮات‬ َ ُ‫ﺴ ﱠﻮى ِﻣ ْﻨﮫ‬
َ ‫ﺳ ْﺒ َﻊ َﺳ‬ َ َ‫ ﻓ‬،‫ َو َﺟ ّ ٍﻮ ُﻣ ْﻨﻔَ ِﮭﻖ‬،‫ ﻓَ َﺮﻓَ َﻌﮫُ ﻓِﻲ ھ ََﻮاء ُﻣ ْﻨ َﻔﺘِﻖ‬،ُ‫ﺎﻟﺰﺑَ ِﺪ ُرﻛَﺎ ُﻣﮫ‬
‫َو َر َﻣﻰ ِﺑ ﱠ‬

َ ‫ َوﻻ ِد‬،‫ ِﺑ َﻐﯿْﺮ َﻋ َﻤﺪ ﯾَﺪْ َﻋ ُﻤ َﮭﺎ‬،ً‫ َو َﺳ ْﻤﻜﺎ ً َﻣ ْﺮﻓُﻮﻋﺎ‬،ً‫َﻣﺤْ ﻔُﻮظﺎ‬

.‫ﺳﺎر ﯾَ ْﻨ ِﻈ ُﻤﮭﺎ‬

Then Almighty created a wind and made its place unfertilized (a tornado), perpetuated its position,

intensified its motion and spread it far and wide. Then He ordered the wind to raise up deep waters and

to intensify the waves of the oceans. So the wind churned it like the churning of curd and pushed it

fiercely into the firmament throwing its front position on the rear and stationary on the flowing till its

level was raised and the surface was full of foam.

Then Almighty raised the foam on to the open wind and vast firmament and made there-from the seven

heavens and made the lowest one as a surrounded curved wave and the highest one as a protected

ceiling and a highly raised boundary without any pole to support them or nail to hold them together.

Then He decorated them with stars and the light of meteors and floated in them the shining sun and

effulgent moon in a revolving fluctuating curved wave and a moving ceiling and a vibrating written pages.

Nahjolbalaghe-sermon 90:

103
 َ ‫ َوﻧَﺎ‬،‫ﺛ ُ ﱠﻢ َﻋﻠﱠﻖَ ﻓِﻲ َﺟ ّ ِﻮھَﺎ ﻓَﻠَ َﻜ َﮭﺎ‬
… ‫ط ِﺑ َﮭﺎ ِزﯾﻨَﺘَ َﮭﺎ‬

Then He hung in its bulk its fluctuating curved wave and based its decoration on it (the heaven) ...

Considering the crucial role of neutrinos in particle physics (for instance in determining the

dominance of matter compared to antimatter, how they get masses, being proposed as dark

matter, etc.), the following conclusions could be made from the verses of Q&N above:

- Nahjolbalaghe is telling us that the Falak (a fluctuating curved wave) is in fact the lowest

heaven, which is described as a surrounded curved wave (ً ‫) َﻣ ْﻮﺟﺎ ً َﻣ ْﻜﻔُﻮﻓﺎ‬. Thus,

Nahjolbalaghe solves a long lasting question of astronomy i.e. whether our universe is

finite. That is, our universe is finite since Nahjolbalaghe is saying that the lowest heaven

is surrounded.

- Nahjolbalaghe is saying that the lowest heaven is a fluctuating wave, which explains why

scientists say the vacuum has fluctuations by which particles and antiparticles pops in and

out in the vacuum. In other words, particle creation and annihilation is the result of

fluctuations in the Falak.

- Being a wave, the Falak must be in a specific state of liquidity with all its exotic

properties. Similar exotic behaviors are also seen in certain states of some gases such as

He (Volovik, 2003; Volovik, 2000) known as superfluidity where emergent properties

such as gravity and Lorentz invariance are observed as the temperature of the gas

decreases (superfluidity is explained in Chapter 4). On the other hand, with the recent

works suggesting a superfluidity origin for the oscillation of neutrinos, Nahjolbalaghe

describing a-wave-of-sea nature for the lowest heaven strongly suggests that the

constituent particles of our universe (and why matter have dominated the antimatter) are
104
 neutrinos that behave as a sea in a superfluid state in which we are immersed. This

suggestion is further supported by the fact that neutrinos could only be found in a left-

handed state in one hand, and Quran describing those who are eager for the world we live

in (the Donya) as the fans of the left-handedness (Ashab Shemal)! Thus, according to this

result and admitting that Quran determines the number of free parameters of the standard

model as 19, the origin of the masses of neutrinos should be sought in their superfluid

state. As a result, the number of the parameters of the standard model would not change.

Note that, a left-handed bias for our world - a bias that extends to the stuff of life itself - has long

been approved. For instance, the underlying nature of handedness in the molecules upon which

life depends is under research by chemists. We know that the proteins are the building blocks for

living tissues and are made from amino acids. Also, amino acids come in two identical but

mirror-image forms meaning that a solution containing one form of amino acid twists a beam of

polarized light to the right, while a solution of its mirror-image twists the beam to the left.

Furthermore, if amino acids are synthesized in a laboratory, almost the amounts of left-handed

and right-handed ones are usually equal. The same is true for the amino acids coming from

meteorites i.e. they carry equal mixtures of left-handed and right-handed molecules. Strange

enough on earth, however, the amino acids in living things are the left-handed types and there are

no convincing explanations for it. Many scientists try to explain this oddity with the weak

nuclear force i.e. the weak force tends to impart a left-handed spin to electrons, and this effect

may bias some kinds of molecular synthesis to the left. Thus, the weak force on earth may have

influenced the composition the chemicals from which life arose. However, this speculation raises

the question of why did the left-handedness become the preferred direction in our world?

105
Also, in nuclear experiments, subatomic particles with a left-handed spin decay, which another

confirmation that the Universe has a left-hand bias.

Recently, scientists working on the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN - Europe's particle-

physics laboratory near Geneva, Switzerland - investigated the decay of trillions of some

particles known as Λb0 baryons during which a bottom quark from the baryon can turn into an

up quark. This experiment also confirmed that the weak nuclear force turns only bottom quarks

with left-handed spin into quarks.

4.6 Remarks
Though our journey into the tiny scale realm of the universe was too short, still it touched some

deep puzzles of physics and at least we had a glimpse of how the Q&N could shed light on

puzzling problems in this regime. Not only the footprints of the most advanced achievements in

science are revealed in the Q&N but it is shown that how they could help in choosing the right

directions for future research in physics. We end up our short journey into the tiny scales here,

and leave its further exploration from Q&N’s perspective for future works.

106
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