FUEL GASES

HISTORY OF FUEL GASES

During the 1950’s a deep and far-reaching change took place in the fuel-gas industries,
involving the domination of these widespread markets by natural gas. The first recorded use of
combustible gas was about A.D. 900, when the Chinese piped natural gas through bamboo
tubes and used it for lighting. In 1665, the first production of coal gas took place in England. And
was first utilized for lighting purpose in 1792. Discoveries of water gas, or blue gas, in 1780, and
of producer gas were essential steps in the development of this industry. In 1968, local natural-
gas shortage began appearing because of the exploitation of this gases.

NATURAL GAS

HISTORY OF NATURAL GAS

Naturally occurring natural gas was discovered and identified in America as early as

1626, when French explorers discovered native Americans igniting gases that were seeping into
and around lake Erie.

PRINCIPLE OF NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is primarily methane and is colorless and odorless in its pure form. It is
combustible, and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy. Natural gas is clean burning
compared to most other fossil fuels, emitting lower levels of potentially harmful by products into
the air. Natural gas can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane.

APPLICATION OF NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is used in an amazing number of ways. Although it is widely seen as a cooking
and heating fuel in most U.S. Households, natural gas has many other energy and raw material
uses that are a surprise to most people who learn about them. It was used to generate
electricity, heat buildings, fuel vehicles, heat water, bake foods, power industrial furnaces, and
even run air conditioners.
 End Use of Natural Gas in the United States: Electric power generation, industry,
residences and commercial buildings were the major natural gas consuming sectors in the
United States during calendar year 2013. Only 0.14% went to use as a vehicle fuel.

Uses of Natural Gas in Homes :

Over one-half of the homes in the united states are supplied with natural gas. About 21%
of the natural gas consumed in the united states during 2013 went to homes. This gas is
delivered to homes through pipelines or in tanks as CNG (compressed natural gas). Most of the
natural gas consumed in homes is used for space heating and water heating. It is also used in
stoves, ovens, clothes dryers, lighting fixtures and other appliances.

Oil & Gas Pipeline Industry Use

Companies that produce and transport natural gas are also consumers. Transporting
natural gas through pipelines requires compression stations to keep the gas pressurized and
flowing through the pipeline. Many of these compression stations use natural gas as a fuel.
Many oil refineries use natural gas for heating and power generation.
MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF NATURAL GAS

The methods used to extract, process, transport, store, and distribute natural gas
depend on the location and composition of the raw gas and the location and application of the
gas by the end users. Here is a typical sequence of operations used to produce natural gas for
home heating and cooking use.

Extracting

When the raw natural gas reaches the surface, it is separated from any oil that might be
present and is piped to a central gas processing plant nearby. Several hundred wells may all
feed into the same plant.

Processing

About 75% of the raw natural gas in the united states comes from underground
reservoirs where little or no oil is present. This gas is easier to process than gas from oil wells.
Regardless of the source, most raw natural gas contains dirt, sand, and water vapor, which
must be removed before further processing to prevent contamination and corrosion of the
equipment and pipelines. The dirt and sand are removed with filters or traps near the well. The
water vapor is usually removed by passing the gas through a tower filled with granules of a solid
desiccant, such as alumina or silica gel, or through a liquid desiccant, such as a glycol. After it
has been cleaned and dried, the raw gas may be processed further or it may be sent directly to
a compressor station and pumped into a main transportation pipeline.

Transporting

When the pressurized natural gas reaches the vicinity of its final destination, it is
sometimes injected back into the ground for storage. Depleted underground gas and oil
reservoirs, porous rock layers known as aquifers, or subterranean salt caverns may be used to
store the gas. This ensures a ready supply during the colder winter months.

Distributing

When gas is needed, it is drawn out of underground storage and is transported through
pipelines at pressures up to 1,000 psi (6,900 kpa). These pipelines bring the gas into the city or
area where it is to be used. The pressure is reduced to below 60 psi (410 kpa), and the gas is
distributed in underground pipes that run throughout the area. Before the gas is piped into each
house or business, the pressure is further reduced to about 0.25 psi (1.7 kpa).

EQUIPMENTS UTILIZED

JT SKIDS & FUEL GAS CONDITIONING

Is a self-refrigeration system that uses a drop in gas pressure, which allows the gas to
expand, to create a cooling effect. The unit condenses heavy hydrocarbons out of the gas to
meet required gas pipeline specifications.

PORTABLE NATURAL GAS LIQUID STORAGE

NGL Storage is important for facilities because it helps reduce the cost of having to
create a functional natural gas liquids storage tanks for the facility. Gas is renewable liquid so
mobile ways of storing ngls are extremely important. This storage solution is not only a piece of
cake to install, but it is skid mounted and has all of its loading accessories located on the skid.
NATURAL GAS COOLERS

A great mobile way to eliminate the negative operating effects of high gas and liquid
temperatures. These pieces of equipment receive liquid streams for cooling and flow through
tubes to lower the temperature. Eventually, this process eventually controls the natural gas and
helps achieve the desired outlet temperature.
 SYNTHESIS GAS

HISTORY OF SYNTHESIS GAS

 In 1780, Felice Fontana discovered that combustible gas develops if water vapor is
passed over carbon at temperatures over 500 degrees. This CO and H2 containing gas
was called water gas and mainly used for lighting purposes in 19th century. As of
beginning of 20th century, H2/CO mixtures were used for syntheses of hydrocarbons and
then as a consequence, also called a synthesis gas.
 The production of liquid hydrocarbons and oxygenates from syngas conversion over iron
catalysts was discovered in 1923 by Fischer and Tropsch.

PRINCIPLES OF SYNTHESIS GAS

 The ideal synthesis gas has a low content of inerts, mainly CH4 and n2, and a high
CO/CO2 ratio.
 The conversion of natural gas to synthesis gas is called methane reforming.
 Synthesis gas is prepared from carbonaceous feedstock. The only essential requirement
is that the feed should contain carbon.
 Methane and synthesis gas are important petrochemical feedstock for the manufacture
of a large number of chemicals, which are used directly or as intermediates, a number of
which are finding use in plastic, synthetic fiber, rubber, pharmaceutical and other
industries. ‘Synthesis gas’ is commonly used to describe two basic gas mixtures -
synthesis gas containing CO, hydrogen and synthesis gas containing hydrogen and
nitrogen for the production of ammonia.

RAW MATERIALS FOR SYNTHESIS GAS

Various raw materials for synthesis gas production are natural gas, refinery gases, naphtha, fuel
oil/residual heavy hydrocarbons and coal. Although coal was earlier used for production of
synthesis gas, it has now been replaced by petroleum fractions and natural gas. Petrocoke is
the emerging source for Synthesis gas. Coal is again getting importance alone are with
combination of petroleum coke.

1.1. APPLICATIONS

Syngas can be used to produce a wide range of fertilizers, fuels, solvent and synthetic
materials. Few examples are as follows:
  Steam for use in turbine drivers for electricity generation
 Nitrogen for use as pressurizing agents and fertilizers
 Hydrogen for electricity generation, use in refinery industry to extract more diesel and
gasoline from crude oil and for a large variety of hydrogenation reactions where
hydrogen is added to unsaturated hydrocarbons
 Ammonia for use as fertilizers and for the production of plastics like polyurethane and
nylon.
 Methanol for the production of plastics, resins, pharmaceuticals, adhesives, paints and
also as a component of fuels.
 Carbon monoxide for use in chemical industry feedstock and fuels
 Sulfur for use as elemental sulfur for chemical industry
 Minerals and solids for use as slag for roadbeds.

1.2. Manufacturing Process of Syngas

The production of syngas includes the following phases:

1.3. The Heating Phase

The first step is gasification, a thermo-chemical process in which carbon-rich feedstocks like
petro-coke, biomass or coal are converted into a gaseous compound consisting of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen under high-heat, high pressure, oxygen depleted conditions.

Very high temperatures of gasification, normally between 800 and 1500°C (1472 and 2732°F)
are achieved with the help of an external heat source or through partial oxidation of feedstock
which releases heat.

1.4. The Reaction Phase

The feedstock reacts with carbon dioxide, water vapor and oxygen during gasification. The
reaction is triggered by thermal decomposition for oxygen-rich materials.

1.5. The Purification Phase

The gas obtained from gasification is raw and not clean enough to use. A purification process is
carried out to eliminate impurities like ash, tar, sulfur compounds, methane, water vapor and
carbon dioxide. The hydrogen-oxygen proportion is adjusted after purification depending on the
applications of the synthesis processes.

1.6. The Catalytic Phase

Metals such as iron, manganese, cobalt, copper and new complex molecules are formed when
the syngas is in contact with different catalysts. Scientists are experimenting with several
catalysts to find new ways of creating already existing molecular combinations. In this way, it is
possible to create eco-friendly fuels from syngas.

1.7. Syngas Cleanup and Conditioning

Raw syngas obtained from the gasification process needs to be cleaned to eliminate the
contaminants such as mercury, chlorides, ammonia, sulfur, fine particulates and other trace
heavy metals to protect downstream processes and to meet environmental emission
regulations.

Syngas may be conditioned to adjust the hydrogen-to-carbon monoxide ratio based on the
downstream process application.

Typical syngas cleanup and conditioning processes include the following:

 Removing bulk particulates using cyclone and filters

 Wet scrubbing for eliminating chlorides, ammonia and fine particulates
 Removing trace heavy metal and mercury using solid absorbents
 Water gas shift for adjusting hydrogen-to-carbon monoxide ratio
 Catalytic hydrolysis for converting carbonyl sulfide to hydrogen sulfide
 Acid gas removal for extracting sulfur-bearing gases and carbon dioxide.

1.8. SynGas Fermentation

Syngas fermentation is a microbial process in which syngas is used as a carbon and energy
source, and then converted into chemicals and fuels with the help of microorganisms. Methane,
butyric acid, acetic acid, butanol and ethanol are the main products of syngas fermentation.
Acetogens such as Clostridium carboxidivorans, Eurobacterium limosum, Butyribacterium
methylotrophicum and Peptostreptococcus products are involved in the production of chemicals
and fuels.

Some of the key benefits of syngas fermentation process include the following:

 High reaction specificity

 Low temperature and pressure
 Does not require a specific ratio of CO to H2
 Tolerate compounds having high sulfur content.

However, syngas fermentation has certain limitations such as inhibition of organisms, low
volumetric productivity and gas-liquid mass transfer limitation.
 SUBSTITUTE NATURAL GAS

History of Substitute Natural Gas

 In 1970’s energy crisis led researchers and policymakers to to consider ways to convert
coal into gaseous and liquid fuels.
 In 1980’s Synthetic Fuel Corporation was established to produce alternatives (Coal
Gasification) to fossil fuels.

Principles of Synthetic Gas

Synthetic natural gas is a type of gas created from coal that serves as a substitute for natural
gas and is suitable for transmission in natural gas pipelines. This natural gas substitute must
have a minimum of 95% methane in it. An intermediate step in the process of creating synthetic
natural gas is the production of synthesis gas, also known as syngas.

Manufacturing Process

Synthetic natural gas is created through a thermo-chemical conversion. The first step in this
conversion is the gasification of the solid carbon source, whether it be coal or biomass (which
would create Bio-SNG), with steam or oxygen.Here the coal is burned with a limited supply of
oxygen or air and the main product is carbon dioxide.

2C+O2→2CO2C+O2→2CO

To reduce the amount of nitrogen in this gas, modern gas plants use pure oxygen for
combustion. If steam is added to this pure oxygen then a water gas reaction occurs instead of
the traditional combustion:

C+H2O⇌CO+H2C+H2O⇌CO+H2

These processes drive off some of the volatile material, and the product is known as a producer
gas. Generally, this occurs in a gasifier which feeds coal into a high pressure, high temperature
vessel and distributes steam or oxygen evenly while removing ash to gasify the coal.This
producer gas is a mixture containing H2, CO, CO2, H2O, and CH4 along with other
hydrocarbons and some impurities. The exact composition of this gas depends on the type of
reactor used, operating conditions, and other processes during the gasification process.This gas
also contains impurities such as oils, tars, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia which must be
removed – although ammonia levels are lower if the water gas reaction takes place.

To purify this gas, it must undergo gas cleaning and gas conditioning. During gas cleaning,
impurities such as ammonia and sulfur are removed from the producer gas whereas in gas
conditioning is the process by which parts of the producer gas are converted so that the final
composition of the gas is suitable for its use.What is left after this cleaning and conditioning is
useful synthesis gas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) plus some methane, and carbon dioxide.

To finish making the synthetic natural gas, the syngas must undergo water gas shift reactions
and methanation. The water gas shift reaction combines carbon monoxide with steam to create
carbon dioxide and hydrogen in the following reaction.

CO+H2O⇌CO2+H2CO+H2O⇌CO2+H2

This reaction requires a metal catalyst to occur. Since the end "goal" of this gas is to obtain
methane (the main component of natural gas) some of the carbon monoxide is retained, so the
reaction does not go through to completion. At this point, the carbon dioxide is separated out
using a type of scrubbing and only the final methanation step remains. During methanation,
carbon monoxide reacts with the hydrogen that was created with the help of a nickel catalyst to
create methane and steam in the following reaction:

CO+3H2→CH+4H2OCO+3H2→CH4+H2O

At this point, the synthetic natural gas is complete after half of the original carbon in the coal has
turned into methane. The rest of the carbon is turned into carbon dioxide.

Bio-SNG

Bio-SNG is produced similarly to regular synthetic natural gas, but is instead made through the
gasification of biomass. Biomass such as forestry residues or energy crops are used. To make
Bio-SNG, biomass is initially dried and goes through initial gasification. After this, it undergoes
gas conditioning, SNG synthesis, and finally gas upgrading.

Equipments Utilized

Moving-Bed Gasifier - Sometimes called fixed-bed gasifier, this is the oldest gasification
device in use. Lurgi developed an atmospheric reactor in 1927 and a pressurized version in
1931. It is characterized by a reaction bed where coal moves slowly downward under gravity
and it is gasified by a blast (in general) in counter-flow to coal. An important feature of the Lurgi
dry bottom gasifier is the low consumption of oxygen and the high steam demand. Moving-bed
gasifiers need graded coal in the range 6–50 mm.Highly caking coals cannot be processed in
moving-bed gasifiers. Mildly caking coals require the assistance of a stirrer in order to avoid
pasting-up of the bed. Tars and other oxygenated compounds are produced as by-products. An
advanced variant of the original Lurgi pressure gasifier has been developed jointly by British
Gas and Lurgi during the 1950s and 1960s. The British Gas/Lurgi (BGL) slagging gasifier
incorporates a molten slag bath. The much lower steam and somewhat lower oxygen
consumption of the slagging gasifier results in much higher syngas production per unit of coal
intake and much lower yield of pyrolysis products compared with the dry bottom unit. Further,
the CO2 content of the gas is lower and the methane content is halved.

Fluidized Bed Gasifier – This device offers the advantage of promoting excellent mass and
heat transfer due to the intensive mixing. On the other hand, individual particles have widely
varying residence time in the bed volume. Therefore, unreacted carbon particles are inevitably
removed from the bed along with fully reacted particles (ash). The best existing fluidized bed
devices offer a carbon conversion of 97%. In comparison, both moving-beds and entrained-flow
processes offer carbon conversions of 99%.

Entrained Flow Gasifier - The advantage of the entrained flow gasifiers is the ability to handle
any coal feedstock and produce a clean, tar-free gas. Additionally, the ash is produced in the
form of inert slag or frit. This is achieved with the penalty of additional effort in coal preparation
and high oxygen consumption, especially in the case of coal-water slurries or coals with a high
moisture or ash content. The majority of the coal gasification processes that have been
developed after 1950 are based on entrained-flow, slagging gasifiers operating at pressures of
20 to 70 bar and at high temperature (≥1400°C). Entrained-flow gasifiers have become the
technology of choice for hard coals, and have been selected for the majority of commercial-
sized IGCC plants.
 Safety and Health Practices

As with any extractive activity, drilling for natural gas can lead to leaks. If the drill hits an
unexpected high-pressure pocket of natural gas, or the well is damaged or ruptures, the leak
can be immediately hazardous. 

Because natural gas dissipates so quickly into the air, it does not always cause an explosion or
burn. However, the leaks are an environmental hazard that also leak mud and oil into the
surrounding areas. 

If hydraulic fracturing was used to expand a well, the chemicals from that process
can contaminate local aquatic habitats and drinking water with highly radioactive materials. The
uncontained methane released in the air can also force people to temporary evacuate the area. 

Leaks can also occur slowly over time. Until the 1950s, cast iron was a popular choice for
distribution pipelines, but it allows a high amount of natural gas to escape. The cast iron pipes
become leaky after years of freeze-thaw cycles, heavy overhead traffic, and strains from the
naturally shifting soil. Methane leaks from these distribution pipelines make up more than 30
percent of the methane emissions in the U.S. natural gas distribution sector. Today, pipelines
are made out of a variety of metals and plastics to reduce leakage.