Urbina, Joline Ezra Bleesilda Q.

March 12, 2020

BSP2E PCOG-LECTURE

Pharmacognosy and Plant Chemistry 2nd Sem, 2020

Online Activity

1. Give the two types of plant constituents, define and give examples.

Answer:
Inactive/Inert Constituents

Simple molecules or polymers of simple molecules synthesized by plants,

generally do not possess therapeutic as such but essential for the life of plants
and contains high-energy bonds. Examples: cellulose, lignin, suberin, and cutin,
keratin,chitin.
Active Constituents

Unique to plants or group of plants, generally possess therapeutic activity,

neither essential for plants life nor contains high energy bonds. Examples:
Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins.

2. Differentiate pharmaceutically active and pharmacologically active

constituents and give examples.

Answer:
Pharmaceutically Active

The term used to refer to the biologically active component of a drug product
(e.g. tablet, capsule). PhACs are a group of compounds that include hormones,
antibiotics and painkillers. PhACs; caffeine, carbamazepine, triclosan,
gemfibrozil, diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen.

Pharmacologically active constituents

Any substance which on ingestion or administartion, alters your normal body

chemistry can be categorized as a pharmacologically active substance. Example:
Rheotannic acid - present in rhubarb serves as an astringent to prevent the
griping action usually associated with anthraquinone drugs.

3. Differentiate primary and secondary metabolites. Elaborate

Answer:
Primary Metabolite

Are small chemical compounds that are directly involved in the growth,
development, and reproduction of living organisms. Therefore, they are key
components in the maintenance of normal physiological functions in the body.
Thus, primary metabolites are often referred to as central metabolites. Primary
metabolites are usually formed during the growth phase due to energy
metabolism. They are the major components of proper growth. Ethanol, lactic
acid, nucleotides, vitamins, and some amino acids are considered as primary
metabolites. In industrial microbiology, ethanol is the most common primary
metabolite produced in large-scale by fermentation. Additionally, amino acids
like L-lysine and L-glutamate are produced in large-scale. Citric acid is the other
common primary metabolite produced in large-scale. It is used as an ingredient
in food production. Examples are: The examples of primary metabolites are
carbohydrates,fats,proteins.
Secondary Metabolite- The biochemical substances which are required for
growth and development of plants are called secondary metabolites. Examples
are alkaloids, tannins, resins, gums, latex, etc.

4. Define biogenesis.

Answer:
Biogenesis is the principle which states that all living things come from other
living things. Before Biogenesis people believed that things came from non-living
things. This was known was spontaneous generation.

5. Define metabolic pathways.

Answer:
Metabolic Pathways

The processes of making and breaking down carbohydrate molecules

illustrate two types of metabolic pathways. A metabolic pathway is a step-by-
step series of interconnected biochemical reactions that convert a substrate
molecule or molecules through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually
yielding a final product or products. For example, one metabolic pathway for
carbohydrates breaks large molecules down into glucose. Another metabolic
pathway might build glucose into large carbohydrate molecules for storage. The
first of these processes requires energy and is referred to as anabolic. The
second process produces energy and is referred to as catabolic. Consequently,
metabolism is composed of these two opposite pathways:

a. Anabolism (building molecules)

b. Catabolism (breaking down molecules)

6. Define primary metabolism and give sample metabolites.

Answer:

The group of pathways synthesizing simpler but essential molecules for normal
physiological growth and energy requirements of plants is called primary
metabolism and the products are called primary metabolites. They are widely
distributed in nature and are also utilized as food by man. Eg: Sugars, amino
acids, coA, mevalonic acid, nucleic acid etc. examples:
Other Examples are:
Alcohol-->Ethanol

Amino Acids--> Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid

Nucleotides-->5’ guanylic acid

Organic acids-->Acetic acid, Lactic acid

7. What are the metabolic processes/pathways that is involved in the

degradation of carbohydrates and sugars?

Answer:
Degradation of carbohydrates and sugars generally proceeds via the well-
characterized pathways known as glycolysis and the Krebs/citric
acid/tricarboxylic acid cycle, which release energy from the organic compounds
by oxidative reactions. Oxidation of fatty acids from fats by the sequence called
β-oxidation also provides energy.

Further important pathways in carbohydrate metabolism include the pentose

phosphate pathway (conversion of hexose sugars into pentoses), glycogenesis
(conversion of excess glucose into glycogen, stimulated by insulin),
glycogenolysis (conversion of glycogen polymers into glucose, stimulated by
glucagon) and gluconeogenesis (de novo glucose synthesis).

Example is in animals, excess glucose is converted to its storage form,

glycogen, by glycogenesis. When glucose is needed as a source of energy or as
a precursor molecule in biosynthetic processes, glycogen is degraded by
glycogenolysis. Glucose can be converted to ribose-5-phosphate (a component
of nucleotides) and NADPH (a powerful reducing agent) by means of the pentose
phosphate pathway. Glucose is oxidized by glycolysis, an energy-generating
pathway that converts it to pyruvate. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is
converted to lactate. When oxygen is present, pyruvate is further degraded to
form acetyl-CoA. Significant amounts of energy in the form of ATP can be
extracted from acetyl-CoA by the citric acid cycle and the electron transport
system. Note that carbohydrate metabolism is inextricably linked to the
metabolism of other nutrients. For example, acetyl-CoA is also generated from
the breakdown of fatty acids and certain amino acids. When acetyl-CoA is
present in excess, a different pathway converts it into fatty acids.

8. Give the intermediates and pathways where the most important building
blocks employed in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites are derived.

Answer:
Shikimic Acid Pathway

The shikimate pathway provides an alternative route to aromatic compounds,

particularly the aromatic amino acids L phenylalanine, L-tyrosine, and L-
tryptophan. This pathway is employed by microorganisms and plants, but not by
animals, and accordingly the aromatic amino acids feature among those
essential amino acids for men whom have to be obtained in the diet. A central
intermediate in the pathway is shikimic acid, a compound which had been
isolated from plants of Illicium species (Japanese ‘shikimi’) many years before
its role in metabolism had been discovered.

Acetate-Mevalonate Pathway

Mevalonic acid further produced isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and its isomer
dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). These two main intermediates IPP and
DMAPP set the ‘active isoprene’ unit as a basic building block of isoprenoid
compounds. Both of these units yield geranyl pyrophosphate (C10-
monoterpenes) which further association with IPP produces farnesyl
pyrophosphate (C15-sesquiterpenes). Acetate pathway operates functionally
with the involvement of acyl carrier protein (ACP) to yield fatty acyl.

9. Enumerate the eight building blocks that form the basis of many of the
natural product structures (carbon and nitrogen skeleton of a natural
product).

Answer:

C1- The simplest of the building blocks is composed of a single carbon atom,
usually in the form of a methyl group, and most frequently it is attached to
oxygen or nitrogen, but occasionally to carbon. It is derived from the S-methyl
of L-methionine. The methylenedioxy group (OCH 2O) is also an example of a C1
unit.
C2-A two-carbon unit may be supplied by acetyl-CoA. This could be a simple
acetyl group, as in an ester, but more frequently it forms part of a long alkyl
chain (as in a fatty acid) or may be part of an aromatic system (e.g. phenols).
Of particular relevance is that in the latter examples, acetyl-CoA is first
converted into the more reactive malonyl-CoA before its incorporation.
C5-The branched-chain C5 ‘isoprene’ unit is a feature of compounds formed from
mevalonate or deoxyxylulose phosphate. Mevalonate itself is the product from
three acetyl-CoA molecules, but only five of mevalonate’s six carbons are used,
the carboxyl group being lost. The alternative precursor deoxyxylulose
phosphate, a straightchain sugar derivative, undergoes a skeletal rearrangement
to form the branched chain isoprene unit.
C6C3-This refers to a phenylpropyl unit and is obtained from the carbon skeleton
of either L-phenylalanine or L-tyrosine, two of the shikimate-derived aromatic
amino acids. This, of course, requires loss of the amino group. The C3 side chain
may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be oxygenated. Sometimes the side
chain is cleaved, removing one or two carbons. Thus, C6C2 and C6C1 units
represent modified shortened forms of the C6C3 system
C6C2N-This building block is formed from either L-phenylalanine or L-tyrosine, L-
tyrosine being by far, the more common. In the elaboration of this unit, the
carboxyl carbon of the amino acid is removed.
Indole.C2N- The third of the aromatic amino acids is L-tryptophan. This indole-
containing system can undergo decarboxylation in a similar way to L-
phenylalanine and L-tyrosine so providing the remainder of the skeleton as an
indole.C2Nunit.
C4N-The C4N unit is usually found as a heterocyclic pyrrolidine system and is
produced from the nonprotein amino acid L-ornithine. In marked contrast to the
C6C2N and indole.C2N units described above, ornithine supplies not its α-amino
nitrogen, but the δ-amino nitrogen. The carboxylic acid function and the α-
amino nitrogen are both lost.
C5N- This is produced in exactly the same way as the C4N unit, but using L-
lysine as precursor. The ε-amino nitrogen is retained, and the unit tends to be
found as a piperidine ring system.

10. Give the precursors of the ff: phenylpropyl unit, Indole.C 2N,
heterocyclic pyrrolidine (C4N), and piperidine (C5N).

Answer:
Phenylpropyl unit- precursors are the carbon skeleton of either L-phenylalanine
or L-tyrosine, two of the shikimate-derived aromatic amino acids.
Indole.C2N- It is obtained from its precursor L-Tryptophan
Heterocyclic pyrrolidine (C4N)- It is derived from its precursor non-proteinogenic
amino acids L-ornithine.
Piperidine (C5N)- It produced from its precursor L-lysine to form the usual
piperidine ring system.

11. Give the five groups of plants hormone (growth regulators), their
effects in plants and effects in the formation of secondary metabolites.

Answer:
Auxin
Is the active ingredient in most rooting compounds in which cuttings are dipped
during vegetative propagation.
Auxin causes several responses in plants:

a. Bending toward a light source (phototropism).

b. Downward root growth in response to gravity (geotropism).
c. Promotion of apical dominance (the tendency of an apical bud to produce
hormones that suppress the growth of the buds below it on the stem).
d. Flower formation.
e. Fruit set and growth.
f. Formation of adventitious roots.

Gibberellins
Gibberellins stimulate cell division and elongation, break seed dormancy, and
speed germination. The seeds of some species are difficult to germinate; you
can soak them in a GA solution to get them started.
Cytokinins
Unlike other hormones, cytokinins are found in both plants and animals. They
stimulate cell division and often are included in the sterile media used for
growing plants from tissue culture. If a medium's mix of growth-regulating
compounds is high in cytokinins and low in auxin, the tissue culture explant
(small plant part) will produce numerous shoots. On the other hand, if the mix
has a high ratio of auxin to cytokinin, the explant will produce more roots.
Cytokinins also are used to delay aging and death (senescence).
Ethylene
Ethylene is unique in that it is found only in the gaseous form. It induces
ripening, causes leaves to droop (epinasty) and drop (abscission), and promotes
senescence. Plants often increase ethylene production in response to stress, and
ethylene often is found in high concentrations within cells at the end of a plant's
life. The increased ethylene in leaf tissue in the fall is part of the reason leaves
fall off trees. Ethylene also is used to ripen fruit (e.g., green bananas).
Abscisic acid
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a general plant-growth inhibitor. It induces dormancy and
prevents seeds from germinating; causes abscission of leaves, fruits, and
flowers; and causes stomata to close. High concentrations of ABA in guard cells
during periods of drought stress probably play a role in stomatal closure.