Net-Shape Knitting for Complex Composite Preforms

AART W. VAN 1 AND FRANK K. Ko

VUURE
Department of Materials Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, U.S.A.
CLAIRE BEEVERS
School of Textiles and Materials Technology, Philadelphia University, Philadelphia, Penn sylvania 19144, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Net-shape weft knitting is used to produce preformsfor complex shape composite parts,
as illustrated by the wheel wells of the Sunrise all-composite electric ehicle. An
integrated design for the manufacturing methodo logy links mechanical performance to
cloth and stitch design. The use of drapable net-shape fabrics with tailored fiber rein-
forcement produced on automated knitting machinesallows for a significant reduction in
preform manufacturing costs. Net-shape two-dimensional knitted fabrics forthe wheel
wells are achieved by a combination of shaping tec hniques: holding, narrowing, widening.
and binding off. An interlock stitch is chosen touarantee sufficient mechan ical perfor-
mance and to protect the brittle knitting yarn. The mechanical
properties of the composites
are studied, and the strength in the weak direction where
warp only loope fibers are
is
present optimized by choosing sufficiently larg loop
a size. In the weft direction, lay-in
yams are tucked in to increase production speed.

In recent years there has been a lot,of interest in using
textile processes for composite preforming [4, 7, 8]. With
these processes, net-shape or near net-shape preforms
can be made for complex shaped composite
parts. These
preforms allow for cost-effective loading of closed
mould composite manufacturing processes like RTM
(resin transfer moulding) and SCRIMP (a vacuum foil
assisted one-sided mould variant of RTM).
The (potential), advantages of textile preforming in-
clude the production of complex net-shape preforms with
continuous (instead of short fiber) reinforcement, inte-
gration of many different plies as used in conventional
manufacturing methods, control of fiber orientation, use
of automated textile processes, allowing quality control
and good reproducibility, and high productivity.
In this paper, we highlight the potential of net-shape
(weft) knitting. Knitted structures add some additional
advantages to the picture: high conformability/drapabil-
ity of knitted fabrics to accommodate complex shape
moulds, good permeability to resin of the open loop
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dr. Aart W. van
1
Vuure, Unilèver Research Port Sunlight, Quarry Road East, Bebington,
Wirral CH63 3JW, United Kingdom, tel: +44-151-641-1658, e-mail:
AartWim@yahoo.com
structure, and the possibility creating a uniform fiber
volu e fraction throughout a art (which is not always
poss ble with alternative proc ses like braiding). There
are, owever, also two challen es with knitted preforms,
and e will address them in ~his paper: First, how to
obtain a sufficiently high filx r volume fraction, espe-
ciall for multi-layer, thicker arts (although fiber vol-
ume fractions up to 55% have been reported), and sec-
ond, how to obtain sufficient echanical strength from
the rved fibers in the knitte loops.
will illustrate the case fo knitted preforms by their
deve opment for the wheel ells of an all-composite
elect ’c vehicle in the NtST/NA /c/Sotectria Sunrise pro-
gra [2, 3]. In the second h lf of the paper, we will
concentrate on the experience gained in this project in
pref rm shape and (tailored) it stitch design on auto-
mate knitting machines, em loying brittle reinforce-
men yarns (glass and carbon bers).
fo Manufacturing
Integrated Design
Knitted Preform
approach chosen in development of knitted
preforms s for composite parts i‘ an integrated design for
manufacturing, involving bo aspects of mechanical

1
 2
analysis and process analysis. For (2D) braided compos-
ites, this approach has proven to be successful [9]. For
knitted composites this process is still being developed
and contains the following steps: First, mechanical anal-
ysis of the composite part, mainly through finite element
analysis; definition of the mechanical requirements for
the knitted preform. Second, mapping of the stitch con-
figuration as a function of location on the part to fulfill
the mechanical requirements (supported by mechanical
testing). Third, design of net-shape cloth (either 2D or
3D) that covers the part; this is currently still a matter of
fashion design. Fourth, choice of net-shape knitted
cloth(s) that can be knitted on automated knitting ma-
chines (here doubleN-bed knitting machine): ’Fifth, syn-
thesis of the second and fourth steps, stitch lay-out and
shape; choice of solution. Sixth, verification of the cho-
sen solution through mechanical analysis (FEA) and pos-
sible adaptations.
, The wheel wells are the highest externally loaded part
Wheel Wells of the Sunrise Electric Vehicle
,
The Sunrise all composite electric vehicle was devel-
’
oped by Solectria Inc. [2}. In a NIST-ATP program called
,
FIGURE 1. Composite part breakdown of Sunrise body-in-weight (before assembly); textile
’ :
.. and composite manufacturing processes used.
&dquo;Integrated Agile Manufacturing for Advanced Compos-
ite Electric Vehicles&dquo; (t 996-1999), technology and pilot
production tools were developed by various companies
to produce the Sunrise monocoque structure cost-effec
tively at 20,000 units per year. The major target was a
body-in-white weight of 160 kg (350 lb). )
Figure I shows how the design of the car was broken
down into major parts for manufacture. A modular de-
sign was chosen with as high a part integration as pos-
sible while maintaining ease of manufacture. Figure I
also shows which preforming techniques were chosen for
the various parts of the car.
For the integrated lower body shell, a combination o
various preforming techniques and RTM was chosen as
the manufacturing process. For the four complex shaped
wheel wells, net-shape knitting was chosen as the pre-
forming process (combined with some more traditional
fabrics).
of the vehicle. They directly transfer the loads betwee
the suspension of the wheels and the body shell. The
also play an important role in the structural performanc
of the entire integrated lower body shell. /
I
preforming processes

The major design loads for the wheel wells are high
tensile and compressive forces in the radial direction of
the dome, concentrated in the corners. Further, high
stresses are present in the top of the dome (cap area) and
at the bottom part where loads are transferred to the floor
pan (mount areas). A structural finite element analysis of
the wheel wells, loaded in a worst case, complex, com-
bined loading condition shows that the critical maximum
loads stay well below the material design limit (the
material strength, including a safety factor) when the
optimized knitted fabric reinforcement is used.
The traditional composite design, which resulted
from the FE analysis design phase, prescribed the use
of quasi-isotropic multi-axial warp knit (MWK) mate-
rial for the entire structure of the wheel wells, with
unidirectional carbon fiber strips added to the corner
areas. MWK material is also made by knitting, but the
bulk of this material is made up of multi-axially in-
serted straight fibers, resulting in a fabric with limited
drapability. A wheel well fabricated according to the
traditional laminate design meets the property require-
ments, but it proved too laborious to manufacture and
failed to meet the required production economics of
the Sunrise program [3].
Therefore, the choice was to use a fully fashioned
knitted fabric (net-shape) with high drapability and the
added advantage that the unidirectional carbon fibers
could be laid-in in the comer areas of the fabric. For the
rest of the fabric, laid-in glass fibers were used to realize
the required radial dominance in properties.
A two-dimensional knitted preform design was chosen
because the knitted fabric can be easily draped around
the part to cover it completely, without cuts or overlaps.
The final fabric design is shown in Figure 2, together
with the wheel well shape it has to fit onto. The fabric
was divided into various sections for knitting. Fabric
widening, narrowing and the use of triangular sections
were employed as further described in one of the next
FIGURE 2. Net-shape
2D knitted preform for
the front wheel wells; the
fabric drapes around the
mould easily to produce
the complex shaped part:
the unidirectional carbon
fiber reinforcements are
integrated into the pre-
form.
3
sec ons. The drawing of the heel
well also shows the
loc tion of extra reinforcements (next to the knitted
fab c) in the cap and moun areas of the wheel well,
whore high stresses are present. Also, one additional
pie of MWK fabric was used to connect cap and mount
are s.
~ e complete (proposed) reduction process for the
knitted wheel well preforms is as follows: First, net-
shape knitting of preform fa ic on automated knitting
ma hine (demonstrated), th application of binder
mat rial in automated bind application installation
(co ceptual phase, good resu ts were obtained in man-
ual trials with thermoplasti powder binder), auto-
mated cutting of broad goo s (woven fabrics, MWK
mat rial) for cap and moun areas via carefully de-
signed patterns (demonstrate ), semi-automated lay-up
of p and mount sub-prefo s via diaphragm thermo-
fo ing (using vacuum) (de onstrated), machining of
met 1 insert parts, and finally, semi-automated lay-up of
co plete wheel well via diap gm thermoforming (con-
cep ual phase: complete prot type preforms were dem- .
ons ated).
he use of net-shape knitt d preform fabrics for the
bas c wheel well constructi n has shown high poten-
tial for a significant cost re uction of the total wheel
preform, especially due to the high drapability of
the knitted material. Overa labor time savings (in-
clu ing knitting operator ’ of more than 30~ were
realized for prototype whee well preforms (employ-
ing first generation near net shape knitted fabrics), in
comparison to the case whe only broad goods were
use [3].
R M production trials
with complete lower body
she I preform, with the knitte preforms integrated, have
con nned that the knitted p forms also have a good
penneabihty for resin flow. w ich allows the removal of
add tional flow mats that we added to the wheel well
prenorms consisting of traditi nal reinforcements.
4
Study of Knit Microstructure-Mechanical
Performance
’
.. ,
The mechanical performance and especially the
strength of knitted fabrics is a concern in composite
applications, due to the looped, curved architecture of the
fibers. Therefore, in the study of the tensile properties of
the selected knitted fabrics, a simplified model was used
to give modulus and strength as a function of stitch
geometry.
The stitch type we chose for this application was an
interlock stitch (see next section) with straight fibers
laid-in in the weft direction. We assumed that an inter-
lock fabric can be modeled in a simplified way as two
interconnected plain jersey fabrics. A sketch of the plain
jersey weft knit stitch with fibers laid-in in the weft
direction is given in Figure 3. We decided to model the
6urved loops by straight fiber sections, as shown in the
figure.
FIGURE 3. Sketch of one layer of interlock fabric with weft lay-in
yams and simple model geometry with straight fiber segments.
I
To estimate the mechanical properties, it is neces-
sary to know the amount of fibers (fiber volume frac-
tions) in the principal material directions. For the areal
weight of fibers in the weft and warp directions, we
can write
where clm is the number of courses/meter, w/m is the
number of wales/meter, 1/m is the number of lay-in
yarns/meter, v is the overlap factor loop height/course
=
length, n is the number of knitted layers in the fabric (in
this case, two), yarn tex is the linear yarn weight in g/km, ,
and cu is the curve factor, representing the excess of ~
I
material present in the loops. We estimated the curve i
factor as 1.3 for the fabrics studied here. :i
We calculated the fiber volume fractions from the ~I
areal weights simply by dividing by the fiber density and
normalizing this fiber thickness to the composite thick-
ness. To model straight fiber sections for
estimating the
mechanical properties, we ignored the curve factor, so
wherever this factor was used in Equations I and 2, we I
took it out. ,
I
We obtained the composite moduli in the principal ~
material directions by means of the rule of mixtures,’i
again in a simplified way, by assuming resin properties
for the fiber segments oriented in the other material’
I
direction: ,
I
where Vf is the fiber volume fraction of straight
segments, Ef is the fiber modulus, and E, is the rein
fiberi
modulus. In the case of hybrid fibers, e.g., glass fiberI
knits and carbon fiber lay-ins, the fiber fraction of lay-in
yarns has to be separated out and the correct modulus
value used for the contribution of each fiber type. Model
results for various systems are compared with the expel-/
iment in Figure 4, showing that reasonable first-order
I
approximations can be made with the simple model. I
We can calculate a theoretical strength by again just
I
looking at the contribution from straight fiber segments ~
oriented in the direction concerned and assuming con-’
tinuous unidirectional fiber properties. This exercise is
especially interesting for the warp direction of the knitted
fabric, since this is the weak direction with only curved!
fibers present. So,
Ij j
where u) is the strength of unidirectional fibers. Due to
the looped character of the knitted fabric, the actuali
i
strength is considerably lower, so we had to use a knock-~,
down factor. We empirically determined such a strength;
efficiency factor (experimental strength normalized to
theoretical strength) for a range of glass fiber knitted.
composites, and the results are presented in Figure 5.
I
.
jI ’

FIGURE 4.
Simple model predictions for moduli of knitted
composites, compared with experiment.
FIGURE 5. Strength efficiency (experimental/theoretical) in the warp
direction of single layer interlock knitted glass fiber reinforced com-
posites.
j rei forcement yarns. A useful introduction to many tech-
There is a clear effect of the loop length in the warp
direction on strength efficiency. This observation corre-
sponds to observations with short fiber composites (e.g.,
injection moulded), where the fiber length is a crucial
parameter for stiffness and especially strength.
To obtain sufficient strength in the warp direction of the
knitted composites developed for the wheel well applica-
tion, there was an effort to design fabrics with a sufficiently
large loop size. In the weft direction there is a lot of design
freedom by varying the weight and type of lay-in yarn.
There were some other interesting observations. As is
known from various other authors (e.g., Gommers [5]),
5
stacking layers can ’be very
strength of knitted fabric
~neficialfor improving the
composites, since layers can
nes and interlock, yielding a higher fiber volume frac-
tio This was confirmed by et al. [3].
e observed that when us ng two or three layers of
knitted fabric and when sufficient pressure could be
app ied in the mould after res injection, a fiber volume
fraction of 50°k could be ob ined. From other work on
a m Itilayer part (about fiftee layers), where the knitted
fabnc had to be wrapped aro d the inner mould half of
a closed mould configuration, n this case it was
virtually
im ssible to obtain a high fi r volume fraction. With-
out ebulking (compressing), he fiber volume fraction in
a knitted fabric can be as 1 as 25%. and the freely
wrapped preform cannot be 10 ed into the mould. In this
cas , it would be necessary debulk each layer after
wr ping. This may be feasi le by using tacky preim-
fabric
pre nated fabric, but it seems mpossible with dry fabric.
e made a very interesti g observation in the case
wh re two knitted fabrics itl~ lay-ins were stacked
together under an angle of thus with lay-ins in both
,
pri cipal material directions. e composite strength was
sig ificantly higher than the s m of the individual layers
would suggest (synergy eff ). This may be interesting
for urther research.
Di cussion of Fabric Sh pe and Stitch Design
on Automated K tting Machines
lectronic V-bed weft kni ing machines are fully au-
to ated, guaranteeing a low level of operator interfer-
en and a high level of producibility and
quality
control. Two- or even th -dimensional preforms of
complex parts can be knitted n or close to a net-shape.
By steering the knit stitch co figuration as a function of
location in the preform, the echanical performance of
the knitted fabric composite an be tailored to the load-
ing conditions on the part. I the following discussion,
we focus on shape and stitc design when
using brittle
nic 1 terms and concepts is g ven in &dquo;Knitting Technol-
ogy by Spencer[10].
&dquo;
e following processing parameters may play a roll
in ssessing shaping and st tch variation capabilities:
Fir t. machine type: Number of knitting beds: the stan-
dar is two in a V-configura determines how many
layers of fabric can be knitte at the same time. A new }
development is the introduction of multibed machines
(fo r beds), which will allow multilayer fabrics. Width
of d. Number of knitting h ds and knitting systems (a
kni ting head can have m knitting systems, which
contain the cams); determin s number of actions per
str ke of the head(s) and num r of strokes per course of
 6
, I

knitting. Number of yam carriers: determines how many
yams can be put into action in a fabric. Machine gauge
(number of needles/inch): determines the stitch density
and loop size (together with the stitch cam setting). The
presence of a presser foot or sinker control. This is
especially relevant to brittle reinforcement yarns, since
they will facilitate knitting with these yams [I I]. The
take-down system: the presence of variable take-down
by splitting the take-down roller in separately controlled
subsections. This will also facilitate knitting with brittle
yarns. -~
stretch in the weft direction, which involves knitting on
all the needles within the knitting width per knittin4
system used, putting maximum stress on the yarn during
knitting; and interlock stitch on two beds, creating a trues
double-layer fabric with strong interlaminar bonding’.
Using only half of the needles across the knitting width
per stroke of each knitting system results in less yarn
failure and &dquo;safer&dquo; knitting. This is the stitch
chosen for the wheel well application. structuret

t
LAY-IN ’YARNS I
I
Second, yam type: Material: glass or carbon fiber or Yams laid-in across) the weft direction of the fabric
other (typically brittle for
composites, except, for exam- can supplement each of the basic stitch types. For singlet
ple, aramid). Linear weight (tex): determines cross-sec-
tional Thickness of individual fibers; affects bend-
area.
layer jersey fabrics, the lay-ins have to be tucked in to be
integrated with the fabric, as illustrated in Figure 7. For
ing stiffness and strength,. Third, method of yarn feeding double layer fabrics, like with a rib stitch or interlock
and tensioning, linear speed of head (knitting speed), and
stitch, lay-in yarns can simply be deposited in between
stitch cam setting: determines loop size (stitch length) the two beds, on the sections of yarn crossing over
and number of courses/inch; there is an allowable range .
I

for the setting for each machine (and yarn type).

between the two beds. )
To use heavy brittle lay-in yarns at high speeds, it i~
beneficial to tuck the yarns into the fabric frequentlyi
STITCH STRUCTURES Because this introduces a curved aspect to the otherwise
,

There many different stitch structures possible,

are straight yarn, which has a negative effect on mechanicai
involving combinations of the basic stitch types: knit performance, a balance has to be found between produc;
stitches, tuck stitches (incomplete stitches), transfer tivity and mechanical performance. I
stitches (transferring a loop from one needle to another), There are machines, though largely experimental, that
and racked stitches (by repositioning the needle beds). also allow warp lay-ins. At every needle, a yarn can be
Most of the more complex stitch structures are diffi- fed into the fabric without interfering with the interlooprt
cult to achieve with brittle yarns, and to date, four (basic)> ing operation at the needles.
!
structures have been realized (see illustration in Figure
STITCH VARIATION RULES I
6): single jersey stitch on one bed; single jersey stitch on
two beds forming two separate layers of fabric; rib stitch
on two beds, creating a double layer fabric with high
In principle,
width of a course
the
stitch type
and allso from
can be varied
course to course.
over
the
In one
)

real/
Frcurte 6. Illustration of interlock stitch
ized in brittle reinforcement yarns on (double)
V-bed weft knitting machine: (a) knitting)
scheme, (b) sketch of structure, (c) knitting
action on needles, half of the needles are knit-inl
ting at the same time. )

FIGl’RE 7. Knitting scheme + sketch of tucking in
in a single Jersey fabric.
course, different stitch types can be used. In principle,
the stitch type can be changed needle by needle, since all
needles are separately controlled on modern automated/
electronic knitting machines. One can, for example, start
a course with a single jersey stitch and introduce a double
layer interlock stitch only in the center section of the
fabric. The fabric thickness will, of course, be double in
the center in this case.
In practice, the stitch cam setting can only be set per
course, so the length of the loops in the warp direction is
the same over the width of one course. Regarding lay-
ins, it is possible to lay-in yarns over only part of the
width of a course. Per course, the decision can be made
to use lay-in yams or not.
From course to course, many variations are possible.
Increasing the number of beds in action, e.g., by goiog
from single jersey to rib stitch, is easy. The number of
beds in action can also be decreased relatively easily by
transferring the yarn from one bed to the other, although
transferring brittle yarns is difficult.
SHAPING RULES
Fabric structures formed on a V-bed
be shaped using one or
can a combination of the follow-
,..
&dquo;’
ing principles.
.
Holding
By taking certain needles out of action in a course of
the machine and holding the yarn on the inactive needles,
the sections of the fabric coming from the active needles
will extend further in the knitting direction. This can, for
example, result in the formation of a wedge or triangular-
shaped section of fabric. The dimensions of the triangle
are controlled by the number of needles within the knit-
ting width, and the number of courses or stitches formed
upon each of these needles.
7
isprinciple dates back o the mid 1950s and the
production of woolen berets, hich were knit in a singk
pi e of fabric consisting of continuous triangular
sh s. The beginning of t first wedge was simply
se n to the finish of the las
wedge to form the com-
ple d beret. This is illustr ted in Figure 8. Knitted
tri gles were used many ti es for the knitted wheel
we s (see Figure 2).
a lay-in yam
FIGURE 8. Illustration of kni ng triangles for the case
of a woolen I oeretI 11.
’
(
.
e number of courses tha the fabric can be held on
ina ive needles is restricted for brittle reinforcement
ya s like glass and especially carbon fibers, due to the
fric on caused by stresses in e fabric. The exact num-
ber ill have to be determine experimentally, depend-
ing n the yarn used. Wear ca be minimized by knitting
full width courses as regular y and often as possible.
de nding on the shape to be roduced. Another option
is to control the take-down ten ion across the fabric. The
knitting machine
use f a take-down roller split into separately controlled
subs ctions has proven succ sful. The fabric can be
posi ioned across several subr llers, which only operate
in as where knitting is taki g place.
Widi-ning
S ape can be introduced in he width direction of the
fabri by widening or narrow ng, that is. putting extra
need es into action or taking t m out of action. Widen-
ing ith single or double lay r constructions is rather
strai htforward. Stitches can picked up onto previ-
ousl empty needles at either de of the knitting width.
Ther are some limitations, wever, to the speed in
 8
which needles be added. At the location of the new
can
needles, no previous fabric is in the take-down rollers, so
the fabric is not being pulled between the beds. If wid-
ening occurs too rapidly, the fabric may jam up in the
needles because of this. A presser foot can help to push
the fabric down through the beds.
However, if widening is done gradually (one needle on
each bed per course), the tension across the new fabric
will generally be sufficient to avoid problems. Experi-
ments on a 7-gauge machine at 10 courses/inch showed
that widening at two needles per course was still possible
’
in glass fibers, giving an angle of 70° with the knitting
(warp) direction.
Narrowing ..
Narrowing is relatively involved. Needles cannot sim-
ply be taken out of action, since the fabric will unravel
(note that knitted fabric unravels most dramatically from
the point of damage down back into the already knitted
fabric). Stitches have to be transferred (moved) to nee-
dles that remain active. A special case of narrowing is
binding off, which allows instant narrowing and is de-
scribed next.
Narrowing is generally done using a combination of
racking and transferring of stitches. Racking is the move-
ment (sliding) of two beds with respect to each other.
Transferring involves the transfer of stitches from nee-
dles in one bed to needles in the other bed. Figure 9
FIGURE 9. One needle per course narrowing for double layer structure
on V-bed machine: racking, transferring, racking, transferring, and
once more racking; the three racks are quick; the two transfers take
about one second each.
. I
illustrates how narrowing is done at one needle pe
course in the case of a double bed knit construction, b
transferring stitches from both beds to the next needl
toward the center of the knitting width, upon the opposite’
needle bed. I
Experiments with an interlock structure on a 7-gaug
machine at 10 courses/inch showed single needle nar-,
rowing in glass fibers to be successful. Double needle. ’
narrowing caused problems, since the interlocked beds
had to rack over a distance of two needles at a
which was not possible with the stiff fibers.
time,
j
Single needle narrowing 7-gauge machine at
on a
courses/inch results in an angle of the side of the
10
fabricl
with the knitting direction of 55°. If sharper narrowing
required, binding off at 90° can be considered. By com-I
itsI
bining one-needle narrowing and binding off, intermedi-j ’
ate angles can be realized.
Binding Off I ’
/
By binding off, narrowing can be done instantly at an j
angle of 90° with the knitting direction, without any
knitting in between. Binding off is also used to produce
an end to a fabric that does not unravel.
Binding off is typically done from a single jerseyl
structure. Working from a single jersey section of fabric,!
the stitch at the very edge of the fabric is moved on~
needle toward the center. A single knit stitch is formed’
through this. now double, loop before it is, in turn,
moved one more needle toward the center. Repeating this
process can reduce the knitting width of the
without producing any further depth’to the piece. fabrici
I
I
STARTING AND FINISHII~G
i
Weft knitting machines may be designed to have fab
ric continuously in place down to the take-up rollers, o
may begin each piece afresh using a set-up comb. I
cases where a set-up comb is used, it is a good idea t
start a new piece with (cheap) waste yarn, and knit up to
the point where the fabric is placed into the take-sup
rollers before beginning to knit with specialized yarns. In
both cases, a separation yam may be i inserted immedir
ately prior to the start of the carbon or glass knitting. This
yarn may be removed once the piece is off the machin~,
and the starting edge will remain stable.
Finishing a fabric can be done most cleanly, withoutt
any waste yarn, by binding off, as described earlier.
across the full knitting width until only a single needle its
left in action. This is easily secured by pulling a yarh
though this one stitch when the fabric is off the machine.
Binding off can be achieved on either of the machine
’
’types described above. /
 9

YARN CHOICE rath r sharp comer had to be itted, the speed had to be
low red to 0.5 m/s to prevent damage.
There are limitations on the yarn types that can be
knitted on certain machines. Generally, the yarn cannot H avy lay-in yams may sl down the process con-
be bulkier than a certain linear weight (tex) on a certain side bly, if they introduce t much drag in the system.
machine gauge. The stitch structure chosen and the stitch The ethodology of yarn f ng becomes important in
cam setting (loop length in the knitting direction) also
this ase. !

pose limitations on the maximum linear weight. For Knitting one piece of wheel ~uvell preform
as described
earli r in this paper took a ’ut I hour. An interlock
example, a rib structure may require a finer yarn than an
interlock structure, since all needles are used by each structure and one knitting hea with one knitting system

knitting system, creating a high density of yarn within
the needles.
The diameter of the individual fibers in a yarn is very
important. The bending stiffness of a fiber is proportional
to the fiber radius to the power four. In generally loosely
packed yarns, the bending stiffness of the yam will vary
strongly with the fiber diameter. Thicker fibers will have
more trouble making loops in a fine gauge machine. The
for nitting and one knitting ystem for laying-in was
emp oyed. Tucking in the 1 -in yarns increased the
spee by a factor of three. Tt interlock structure was
chosen because of considerati ns of mechanical perfor-
man e, ease of laying-in, an protection of the brittle
yarn .
C oosing a larger loop si (by means of the stitch
cam setting or by using a c arser machine gauge) is

bending stress is also important. Stresses will be higher bene cial for the mechanica strength of the knitted
at the surface of a thick fiber bent to a certain radius; site. In general, larger
com ps wiil also show less
furthermore, for thicker fibers the chance of defects-is chan e of failure during knitti g, so the machine could
generally higher than for thin fibers, leading to a lower be n at a higher speed with t yarn at hand. Of course,
fiber strength. the t ade-off has to be made a ainst lower fiber volume
Knitting trials in carbon yams showed that a 3K yam fract on.
with 7-lim thick fibers could not be knitted as easily as
a 6K yam with 5 Am fibers of similar linear
weight. ’

There was a similar incident for the wheel wells when 3-D SHAPING
fine glass knitting yam was replaced by coarser glass
roving; the roving broke continuously. e preforms as develope for the wheel wells are
net-. ape two-dimensional f rics, which are draped
SPEED CONSIDERATIONS around the mould and need on seam on top of the wheel
The speed of linear knitting without any shaping de- well where sections of the abric come together. In
pends on various parameters. The primary control pa- certain cases, it is possible to ( velop truly three-dimen-
rameter is the cam speed or knitting speed, which can be sion 1 fabrics that do not need any seaming when put in
up to 1.2 m/s on modem knitting machines. the ould [6, 11 ].
Very important is the stitch type(s) chosen. For exam- F r example, on a double bed machine, a tube can
ple, an interlock stitch is made by putting into action only be itted by knitting two se ate fabrics on each bed
half of the needles by any single knitting system. This (e.g. in a jersey stitch) and joi ing the fabrics together at
effectively halves the production speed. the sides. This is illustrated in igure 10. A cone can be
Clearly the number of knitting systems used directly knitted by gradually altering knitting width of a tube.
influences the speed. By doubling the number of knitting If I -ins are used. they will enerally be in the hoop
systems in action, e.g., by using more knitting heads in direction of the cone or tube. sphere can be knitted by
sequence, the speed can be increased. The width of the sta ng a tube of zero dimensi n, widening, and narrow-
fabric has a big effect. Knitting heads need a certain ing gain.
acceleration and deceleration distance in every stroke
and lose some further time on turning direction.
If shaping is introduced, the process slows down. In
lengthwise shaping, when yarn is held on certain needles,
the cam speed has to be lowered to prevent too large
stresses on the yarn on inactive needles. For instance, for
the wheel well application described earlier in this paper,
glass yam could be knitted on a 7-gauge machine at 0.9 F)cu~E E 10. Example of knitting a tube on a double bed machine: the
m/s in straight sections. Once triangular sections with a separate fabrics are joined at the sides of the knitting width.
 10
OTHER FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
The useof multi-bed machines will allow knitting of
heavy, integrated multilayer fabrics. Machines with four
beds are currently available (e.g., from Shima Seiki).
Suitable stitch structures that would allow triple or qua-
druple layer fabrics still have to be developed.
Another idea, which will allow the integration of other
fabrics with a knitted fabric, is the knitting of pockets.
The other fabrics would then be slipped into the pockets
after cutting into the suitable shape. Pockets can, for
example, be knitted in a double layer fabric like a rib
stitch or interlock fabric by separating the two layers in
certain areas. This can be done by introducing a jersey
stitch on both beds in these areas.
. Conclusions
.
’
Progress has been made in knitting net-shape preforms
in brittle yarns on electronic knitting machines. We high-
light the example of the production of net-shape two-
dimensional fabrics’for the wheel wells of the Sunrise
composite vehicle. This project has produced informa-
tion on how a net-shape fabric can be realized in brittle
yarns.
The major driving force for the choice of a knitted
preform for the wheel wells is reduced manufacturing
costs. Labor cost savings for the total wheel well preform
of at least 30% were recorded by using drapable net-
shape fabrics with tailored fiber orientations produced on
an automated knitting machine.
Sufficient strength of weft knitted composites in the
weak warp direction (typically only looped fibers
present) can be obtained by choosing a sufficiently large
loop size. ,
The net-shape wheel well fabric can be achieved with
a combination of shaping techniques: holding, narrow-
ing, widening, and binding off. An interlock stitch guar-
antees sufficient mechanical performance and protects
the brittle yam. Lay-in yams are used tp’ç~ntrol the
mechanical performance in the weft direction. Tucking
in the lay-in yarns increases production speed. The
choice of yarn linear weight and single fiber diameter
deserves attention: too coarse brittle yarns will break.
,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ’ ’
j
We wish to thank the National Institute of Standards /
and Technology (NIST) who, through the Advanced Tech- !
nology Program, has co-funded the research and devel-
opment in the electric vehicle program. We also wish to
thank the Northeast Alternative Vehicle Consortium ~ I
(NAVC) for coordinating this project. We thank Solectria I’,
for making available some of the illustrations used in this I
paper. All knitted fabric development was done on flat I
bed machinery from Shima Seiki USA and Stoll Amer-
ica. We thank Shima Seiki USA (especially Mr. Robert
Lehrick) for technical advice. i
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M(ititis(-ril)r reoeiaecl
Se·plearhj·r 13. ?(X10: uw~r/urcl May II, 20()J.