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Effectively Clean Tanks and Reactors

Select the Right Instrument-System

MARCH 2011

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Clamp-On Flow Meter Gains Firm Hold

Keep Out of Hot Water

CP1103_01_Cover.indd 1 2/24/11 4:13 PM

 CHEM

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 CONTENTS
MARCH 2011 | VOLUME 74, ISSUE 3

22 30 36

COVER STORY COLUMNS

22 Water Turns Green 7 From the Editor: Is Water the New
Global constraints on the supply of fresh water, declin- Carbon?
ing water quality and increasingly stringent regulations on
discharges are forcing chemicals companies to rethink how 9 Chemical Processing Online: Learn By
they manage and use their water resources. Optimization has Osmosis.
become a corporate mantra.
11 Field Notes: Keep Out of Hot Water.
FEATURES
MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONS 19 Energy Saver: Optimize Your Steam
30 Effectively Clean Tanks and Reactors System, Part I.
Automated clean-in-place systems offer many benefits and,
so, their use has increased rapidly. However, determining the 21 Compliance Advisor: EPA Expands
best cleaning equipment can be hard. This article offers some Endocrine Disruptor Testing.
guidelines to help you choose the most appropriate unit for
your operation. 46 Plant InSites: Consider More Than Static
Mixers.
INTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
36 Select the Right Instrument-System Valve 50 End Point: EU Carbon Trading Gets
A variety of choices exist for instrument-system valves. To Hacked.
make the best choice, first ask: What do I want the valve to
do? This article reviews the basic types of valves, how they DEPARTMENTS
work, what functions they fulfill, and what to think about 12 In Process: Converting Heat to Electricity
when choosing one over another. Gets Easier | Toluene Offers Golden Oppor-
tunity | Piloting Begins for Polyol Process
MAKING IT WORK
42 Clamp-on Flow Meter Gains Firm Hold 44 Process Puzzler: Choose Cleaning Sol-
Eastman Chemical’s site in Kingsport, Tenn., features a wide vent Wisely
range of piping carrying various chemicals. Seeking to improve
flow monitoring capabilities, the company investigated recent 47 Product Spotlight/Classifieds
advances in flow metering. Here, Eastman explains why it chose
an ultrasonic device. 49 Ad Index

Chemical Processing (ISSN 0009-2630) is published monthly by Putman Media Inc., 555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301, Itasca, IL 60143. Phone (630) 467-1300. Fax (630) 467-1109. Periodicals postage paid at Itasca,
IL, and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Chemical Processing, P.O. Box 3434, Northbrook, IL 60065-3434. SUBSCRIPTIONS: Qualified reader subscriptions are accepted from
operating management in the chemical processing industries at no charge. To apply for a qualified subscription, fill in the subscription card. To nonqualified subscribers in the United States, subscriptions are $68
per year. Single copies are $14. Canadian and foreign annual subscriptions are accepted at $115 surface per year. Single copies are $16. Canada Post International Publications Mail Product Sales Agreement No.
40028661. Canadian Mail Distributor information: Frontier/BWI, PO Box 1051, Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada, L2A 5N8. Copyright 2011 Putman Media Inc. All rights reserved. The contents of this publication may not
be reproduced in whole or in part without the consent of the copyright owner. REPRINTS: Reprints are available on a custom basis. For price quotation, contact Foster Reprints, (866) 879-9144, www.fostereprints.
com also publishes Control, Control Design, Food Processing, Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Plant Services. Chemical Processing assumes no responsibility for validity of claims in items reported.

5 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM ● MARCH 2011

CP1103_05_TOC.indd 5 2/24/11 10:13 AM

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Is Water the New Carbon?
Companies face increasing pressure to disclose, as well as optimize, water use
The rising cost and tighter regulation of water,
coupled with concerns about long-term availability in
many regions, is prompting many chemical companies
to treat water conservation as an imperative in their sus-
tainability efforts, as our cover story, p. 22, highlights.
“State of Green Business 2011,” a report released in
early February by GreenBiz.com, trumpets the trend. In
a section titled “Water Footprinting Makes a Splash,” it
notes: “Water has been rising as a sustainability issue…
we’ve referred to it as ‘the new carbon’ due to its parallels
to companies’ efforts with their greenhouse gas foot-
print: understanding and measuring it, reducing it, even
offsetting it to the point of being ‘neutral.’”
Yet, the report points out that accounting for wa-
ter can be even tougher than accounting for carbon.
The amount of water used to make a product can vary
significantly depending up where a plant is located
and the process it uses. In addition, analyses should
consider the source and quality of the water.
Nevertheless, it stresses: “Despite the complex-
ity, companies are finding that conducting a water
footprint analysis can help them seek opportunities
for efficiency and optimization. It can also lead to
innovation.” The report adds: “Growing pressures to
disclose water footprints — much as companies have
done with their carbon footprint — will lead many
companies to dive in.”
Some of that pressure stems from an initiative of
the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), London (which
around 3,000 organizations from 60 countries use as a
conduit for disclosing their greenhouse gas emissions).
In 2010, it launched CDP Water Disclosure.
Paul Dickinson, CDP’s executive director, sum-
marizes the thinking behind the effort: “So is water the
new carbon? In the sense that water presents an equally
pressing challenge to the long-term sustainability of
business, yes it is, and the need for greater transparency
and access to high quality information to inform and
improve decision-making is just as vital. As companies
have repeatedly demonstrated with carbon, what they
measure they manage. Thinking about challenges in
a strategic way will enable them to mitigate risks and
identify opportunities, putting companies in a far stron-
ger position to navigate a water-constrained world than
would otherwise be the case.
“In other respects water is very different from car-
bon. Whereas sustainable alternatives to carbon do exist,
for water there is no substitute. The challenge therefore
lies in managing what we have among competing users,
CP1103_07_Edit.indd 7
FROM THE EDITOR
be they businesses, communities or ecosystems. Those
competing users... are linked by the geography and
politics of their local water systems, making water a local
rather than a global management issue, even if its im-
pacts can be felt across the world through the displace-
ment of populations and higher commodity prices.
“CDP Water Disclosure’s goal is to make
meaningful, systematic and comparable reporting “Water is a
on water a standard corporate practice globally, en-
local, rather than
abling investors, companies themselves, governments
and other stakeholders to put this data at the heart of global, manage-
their decision-making.”
ment issue”
The group sent questionnaires to 302 of the world’s
500 largest companies (according to the Financial
Times’ “Global 500” rankings), and got 175 responses.
“The strong response rate in this inaugural year is
indicative of the high level of importance being placed
on water by global corporations across sectors and
geographies,” notes the report summarizing the findings
(available at https://www.cdproject.net/CDPResults/
CDP-2010-Water-Disclosure-Global-Report.pdf).
All ten chemical companies surveyed (a group
that includes Akzo Nobel, BASF, Dow and DuPont)
provided inputs, compared to 17 of 21 pharmaceuti-
cal firms and just 15 of 51 oil and gas outfits. Besides
presenting data, the report highlights best practices
from companies in a number of industries.
Risks cited by chemical companies include: tougher
regulation of water withdrawals and discharge quality,
coupled with better contaminant-detection techniques,
will boost treatment and management costs and make
obtaining production licenses more difficult; and falling
levels of both surface and groundwater will limit opera-
tion and expansion of some facilities.
On the positive side, the companies see opportuni-
ties to contribute to overall water availability through
better water- and wastewater-treatment chemicals,
water-efficient fertilizers, and processes and products
to produce and recycle water.
In this green thrust one point is clear: How efficient-
ly and sustainably a chemical firm uses water ultimately
will affect whether it sinks or swims economically.
Mark Rosenzweig, Editor in Chief
mrosenzweig@putman.net
7  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011
2/24/11 9:26 AM
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 CHEMICAL PROCESSING ONLINE

555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301

Itasca, IL 60143
Phone: (630) 467-1300
Fax: (630) 467-1109
www.chemicalprocessing.com
Learn By Osmosis
E-mail: cpnews@putman.net Industry leaders offer you insights via free webinars
Subscriptions/Customer Service:
(888) 644-1803 or (847) 559-7360

EDITORIAL STAFF
WHEN I learned about osmosis in grade school I started fantasizing about how
cool it would be to apply that theory to learning. If only I could place my text-
Mark Rosenzweig,
Editor in Chief, x478 books under my pillow and have the knowledge that lay within seep through to
mrosenzweig@putman.net
my brain during my sleep.
Amanda Joshi, Trust me when I tell you it doesn’t work that way. To learn via osmosis I had to
Managing Editor, x442
ajoshi@putman.net refine my technique. What I did find useful to help prepare for exams was to play
Traci Purdum,
tapes while I was doing simple chores. For example, while I was weeding the flower
Senior Digital Editor, x428 beds I also was learning how to conjugate verbs in French. (Écouter (to listen to): I bet you could
tpurdum@putman.net
écoute, écouterai, écoutais, écoutant – See, I can still do it!)
Seán Ottewell,
Using the same theory, I have learned so much from Chemical Processing’s free learn a thing or
Editor at Large
Ireland Webinars and online panel discussions. I serve as moderator for these events and two from our
sottewell@putman.net
can’t help but pick up things.
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Our production team does a terrific job of rounding up top-notch speakers educational
Andrew Sloley, who are a part of the chemical processing community. From these folks I have offerings.
Troubleshooting Columnist
Lynn L. Bergeson, learned the finer points of energy-efficient synchronous belt drives as well as how to
Regulatory Columnist
Ven Venkatesan,
pinpoint problems within steam and process-heating systems during the “Energy
Energy Columnist Efficiency” panel discussion.
Dirk Willard, Columnist
I’ve also listened in as experts on the European Union’s REACH (Registra-
DESIGN & PRODUCTION
tion, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemical substances) mandate
Stephen C. Herner, discussed compliance requirements across supply chains — from procurement to
Group Art Director, x312
sherner@putman.net manufacturing to distribution — during “The Impact of REACH & GHS on Your
Brian Hertel,
Supply Chain/Manufacturing Processes” Web event.
Associate Art Director, x413 And speaking of the supply chain, during the “Best Practices In Inven-
bhertel@putman.net
tory Optimization And Supply Chain Planning” event I learned how Eastman
Rita Fitzgerald,
Production Manager, x468
Chemical Co. balances supply with demand to ensure
rfitzgerald@putman.net reliable and sustainable order fulfi llment across complex
EDITORIAL BOARD chemicals environments. VISIT THE CARTOON
Vic Edwards, Aker Solutions
I also was fortunate enough to sit in on the “Dust Control” GALLERY
Tim Frank, Dow Chemical panel discussion with several experts that I have met with in
Ben Paterson, Eli Lilly
Roy Sanders, Consultant person to gain a better understanding of the risks involved with All work and no play makes for a
Ellen Turner, Eastman Chemical
Ben Weinstein, Procter & Gamble
powder and dust in the manufacturing process. In addition very dull day! Be sure to visit the
Jon Worstell, Consultant to this event, ChemicalProcessing.com will soon be launch- Comical Processing cartoon gallery
Sheila Yang, Bayer
ing a three-part video series on explosion protection featuring to get a much-needed chuckle.
ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
interviews I did with Guy Colonna, P.E., division manager,
John M. Cappelletti, President/CEO National Fire Protection Association. (Guy was one of the www.chemicalprocessing.com/
Julie Cappelletti-Lange, Vice President
Rose Southard, IT Director panelists on the Dust Control discussion.) cartoon_caption.
Jerry Clark, Vice President of Circulation
Jack Jones, Circulation Director
We have a great panel-discussion series set up for the
rest of the year including emissions, alarm management and
REPRINTS
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Fax 219-561-2033
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Michigan City, IN 46360
I bet you could learn a thing or two from our edu-
cational offerings. And if you have anything you’d like
to teach, let me know. We’re always looking for good
presenters.

TRACI PURDUM, Senior Digital Editor

tpurdum@putman.net
Folio Editorial Excellence Award Winner

9 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM MARCH 2011

CP1103_09_Web.indd 9 2/23/11 11:49 AM

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Keep Out of Hot Water
Some simple steps can ease heat exchanger commissioning
I knew we were in trouble. The client, despite
protests from me and operators with a few hun-
dred years of experience, decided to run the heat
exchanger without flushing the cooling tower. The
water was sludge. We wasted a day cleaning out the
plates.
Commissioning heat exchangers poses all sorts
of dangers. Let’s review the basics so you don’t col-
lect similar anecdotes.
A walk-through is essential and is the starting
point for a successful commissioning. First, collect
the data sheet on the exchanger and the drawings.
Next, check the punch list to confirm pressure
testing and cleaning have been completed. Verify
that at least a visual inspection, especially of the
tubesheet, tubes or plates, was done at the shop.
During the walk-through: 1) Ensure all inlets
and outlets are fitted for temperature and pressure
gauges; 2) Check foundation bolts — they should
be loose at one end, preferably in a pipe sleeve for
easy adjustment; 3) Allow space for equipment
removal — four feet or so is necessary to take out
a floating head or plates (You need a plan for safe
maintenance); 4) Look at vent cocks and relief
devices — they should be sized correctly and
vented to a safe spot; 5) Verify the exchanger can
be drained easily and hazardous waste is confined
by a dike around the unit; 6) Make certain flow
through new pipe to the unit goes through a
filter or, at a minimum, a strainer; 7) Confirm all
unused nozzles are blocked and flanges and other
joints have correct and new gaskets; and 8) Check
that relief valves are installed where they should be
for thermal expansion of liquids — if liquids flow
through the exchanger.
After the walk-through, consider a pneumatic
leak test. Soap all joints and tighten as required.
The ASME code only allows testing up to maxi-
mum allowable working pressure or 50 psig —
whichever is lower. The leak rate for N2 is 52 times
that for water, so this is a good test before initial
startup; helium is only about 1.12 times N2 and
hydrogen is 2.2 (assuming laminar flow). Leak
testing will help drive out moisture. However, the
test won’t find a tubesheet leaking into a shell —
that’s the shop’s job.
Now it’s time to go over the job safety analy-
sis for the startup procedure. Ensure all safety
equipment is in place and all instrument loops
CP1103_11_FieldNotes.indd 11
field notes
are functioning, and review contingency plans for
safety and environmental problems.
The type of heat exchanger to some degree
affects the initiation procedure. Exchangers with
fixed tubesheets offer the greatest challenge. With
fixed tubesheets: 1) Start hot f low first with a
condensing gas (e.g., steam) in the shell; or 2)
Begin both f lows simultaneously when using A walk-through is
liquids in both the shell and tubing. Otherwise,
for other fixed tubesheet configurations (U-tubes, essential and is
packed f loating heads, packed f loating tubesheets the starting point
and internal f loating heads) start cold f low first,
then hot. for a successful
Shutdowns are the opposite of startups. For commissioning.
example, with a U-tube heat exchanger, gradu-
ally close off the hot flow, then shut the cold flow.
There is one difference though: drain all steam
condensate — slowly! It’s not a good idea to leave
an exchanger full and unused even if only for a few
weeks; corrosion and freezing can cause damage,
especially to delicate tubing. So, either drain an
idle exchanger and purge it with dry gas or peri-
odically circulate fluids.
Make an allowance for venting, especially if an
exchanger is full of inert gas or where condensing
steam could pull a vacuum on tubing or a shell not
rated for full vacuum. And don’t forget to vent to a
safe location. Adjust all flows slowly and once the
exchanger reaches desired operating temperature
keep it there! Heat exchangers containing long
thin tubes don’t handle thermal shock well — so
avoid cycling them!
Your job doesn’t end once the exchanger is
operating. Don’t forget to close the vents! Tighten
bolts loosened for thermal expansion. Identify any
potential maintenance problems, such as water
hammer, poorly supported pipe, and relief lines
that don’t allow for condensation drainage. Pinch
points have been one of the leading dangers in
working with heat exchangers lately and have led
to at least one fatal accident. Workers have been
crushed aligning a head or tubesheet. Review heat
exchanger installation and make it easier and safer.
After commissioning the exchanger take the
time to document the process. Practice makes
perfect.
dirk willard, Contributing Editor
dwillard@putman.net
11  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011
2/23/11 11:50 AM
 in process
Converting Heat to Electricity Gets Easier
Development promises to enable plants to produce electricity directly from waste heat
By dispersing nanocrystals of rock salt into
lead telluride, researchers at Northwestern Uni-
versity, Evanston, Ill., have created a material that
can generate electricity directly from heat far more
efficiently than previously possible.
The researchers say the material boasts a high
“thermoelectric figure of merit” — the material can
convert up to 14% of waste heat to electricity.
“It has been known for 100 years that semicon-
ductors have this property that can harness elec-
tricity,” explains Mercouri Kanatzidis, professor of
chemistry at Northwestern’s Weinberg College of
Arts and Sciences. “To make this an efficient process,
all you need is the right material, and we have found
a recipe or system to make this material.”
Chemical plants producing high grade heat could
make their systems more efficient by using this new
technology, Kanatzidis notes. However, applicability
isn’t limited to industrial sites. “Thermoelectric technol-
ogy is scalable. So you can make small and portable gen-
erators. It can be very attractive where other technologies
are not suitable, e.g, [for handling] vehicle exhaust.”
Economic Snapshot
61,000
60,000
59,000
58,000
57,000
56,000
$ Million
55,000
54,000
53,000
52,000
51,000
50,000
Jan 10 Feb 10 Mar 10 Apr 10 May 10 June 10 July 10 Aug 10 Sep 10 Oct 10 Nov 10 Dec10
Shipments (NAICS S325) Capacity utilization
Both shipments and capacity utilization continued to rise.
Source: American Chemistry Council.
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  12
CP1103_12_16_InPro.indd 12
Material Developer
Figure 1. Northwestern University professor Mercouri
Kanatzidis and fellow researchers have developed a
material that can generate electricity directly from
heat. Source: Northwestern University.
Past attempts at nanoscale inclusions increased
the scattering of electrons, which reduced overall
conductivity. The Northwestern team overcame this
problem by using, for the first time, nanostructures
in lead telluride (PbTe) to reduce electron scattering,
while still increasing the material’s energy conversion
efficiency. More details appear in a recent article in
Nature Chemistry by Kanatzidis and his coworkers.
“We can put this material inside of an inexpensive
device with a few electrical wires and attach it to some-
82.0
thing like a light bulb,” says Vinayak Dravid, professor
81.0
of materials science and engineering at Northwestern’s
80.0 McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science
79.0 and a co-author of the paper. “The device can make the
78.0 light bulb more efficient by taking the heat it generates
77.0 and converting part of the heat, 10 to 15%, into a more
76.0
useful energy like electricity.”
Within the next year the team hopes to boost
75.0
the thermoelectric figure of merit to 2 from its cur-
74.0
%
rent 1.7; ultimately, it might reach 2.5 to 3, notes
73.0 Kanatzidis.
72.0 In addition, the team already is working with
71.0 private industry to commercialize the material, a
process which Kanatzidis expects should take two
70.0
69.0 to four years. Industrially, the technology could be
implemented via direct contact with a hot waste
68.0
stream or contact with a heat-transfer fluid heated by
67.0
the waste stream.
66.0
“One challenge remaining is the full scale-up
on the multi-kilogram and ton scale. Another is
the demonstration of long-term stability … to high
temperatures and thermal cycling,” says Kanatzidis.
“It is stable over the timescale of months and years,
but we do not know about tens of years.”
2/24/11 4:14 PM
:53 PM
CP1103_full page ads.indd 13 2/24/11 4:07 PM
 IN PROCESS

Toluene Offers Catalyst Researcher

Golden Opportunity
A NEW catalyst enables solvent-free low-tempera-
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at high yield, report researchers at Cardiff University,
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on a carbon support — boasts turnover numbers
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Figure 2. Prof. Graham Hutchings of the Cardiff School
the chemical, pharmaceutical and agricultural busi- of Chemistry was part of the research team. Source:
ness sectors,” notes Graham Hutchings, a professor University of Cardiff.
in the Cardiff School of Chemistry who was on the
research team. prepared by sol immobilization. They contain gold
The catalyzed reaction at 160°C produces benzyl and palladium at about a 1:1 ratio by weight — the
alcohol, benzaldehyde, benzoic acid and benzyl benzo- addition of palladium significantly enhances the con-
ate but no carbon dioxide. Selectivity to the benzoate version — and are stable and reusable, the researchers
exceeds 94%. “Catalyst activity could be higher, but say. More details appear in a report in Science.
it is usable,” notes Hutchings, who adds that the next The catalyst now is in the form of a powder but
step in the development is to increase catalyst activity. could be made into pellets, adds Hutchings, who fore-
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Optimize your Steam System, Part I
A simple four-step approach can improve steam efficiency
For most process plants, steam systems are
so vital they could be compared with the human
body’s blood circulating system. Hence, consider
steam system losses just as life-threatening as a
severe blood loss in our own bodies.
Maintaining an efficient and reliable steam
system is very critical for the plant’s process
integrity and financial health. Recently, I came
across a plant that survived market recessions
successfully simply because it optimized its steam
system costs when market conditions were good.
In this two-part series, we will review four steps
for steam system optimization.
Step 1: Review your steam generation systems.
First, we have to ask ourselves, ”Did we convert
our purchased fuels into steam at the best pos-
sible efficiency?” Reviewing parameters for stack
temperature and stack oxygen content could
help identify deviations and the best possible
efficiency levels. The parameters relevant to cost
optimization include fuel costs and unutilized
waste, such as heat steam generation.
At many sites I visit, one of the most common
areas in need of steam system efficiency improve-
ments is the steam generator or boiler. The two
combustion optimization efforts — excess air
control and additional heat recovery that we
discussed in our first two columns, “Take a Fresh
Look at Your Process Heaters” — Part I and II
(www.chemicalprocessing.com/articles/2011/
fresh_look_at_process_heaters.html and www.
chemicalprocessing.com/articles/2011/take-
fresh-look-process-heaters-part-2.html), are also
applicable to the fired boilers.
Boilers offer additional opportunities for
efficiency improvements. One is the blowdown
control. Though well-established, automatic
blowdown systems are still not available in many
operating boilers. Depending upon the boiler’s
feed water quality, blowdown losses could change
from insignificant to significant levels. Adding
an automatic blowdown controller could easily
reduce and maintain the blowdown losses, instead
of depending on manual control only. Even with
an automatic blowdown system in service, it is
necessary to regularly monitor the feed water
and drum water qualities to maintain the desired
blowdown levels.
Another common efficiency improvement op-
CP1103_19_EnergySaver.indd 19
ENERGY SAVER
portunity is the blowdown heat recovery. If there
is no blowdown heat recovery system in place
at your plant, consider adding one that would
recover f lash steam and sensible heat separately to
conserve feed water and reduce waste water.
Step 2: Perform a critical evaluation of the
steam distribution system. Steam distribution
systems commonly suffer from both visible and Steam is the
invisible losses. Continuous f low of high-pres-
sure steam to a lower pressure header through blood of process
a pressure reducing valve (PRV) is one of the plants.
invisible losses. Supplying steam from higher-
than-required pressure to a user is another kind of
invisible loss.
[For details about the use of models to provide
insights, including for dealing with upsets and
transient conditions, see “Consider Dynamic
Simulation for Steam System Design,” www.
ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2010/186.html.]
The concept of cogeneration is to recover
the mechanical energy in reducing the high-
pressure steam into low-pressure steam and then
utilize the latent heat for process heating. It may
be worth running some pumps or blowers with
steam, if there is a constant f low of high pressure
steam through a PRV.
Space heating during winter months and
most tank farm heating require only low-pressure
steam. If you notice a high-pressure steam supply
to such users at your site, reconsider supplying
low-pressure steam to them.
Failed steam traps in closed condensate col-
lection systems are another kind of invisible dis-
tribution system loss. Whenever there’s excessive
backpressure in the condensate return system or
excessive venting at the collection tank, the most
probable cause is typically failed steam traps. A
systematic steam trap survey could identify the
problem.
Leaks and missing insulation are some of
the visible losses in a steam distribution system.
Standardized methods already exist to fix these
visible losses and so do not delay in taking these
obvious actions.
Next month, in Part II, we will cover steps
three and four.
Ven V. Venkatesan, Energy Columnist
VVenkatesan@putman.net
19  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011
2/23/11 11:51 AM
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EPA Expands Endocrine Disruptor Testing
Agency mandates screening of more chemicals and issues guidance
On November 17, 2010, the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) announced the second list
of chemicals for which EPA intends to issue test orders
under the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program
(EDSP). EPA also released its draft policies and proce-
dures for requiring Tier 1 screening under the EDSP,
and a new guidance document outlining weight-of-
evidence (WoE) policies. This column explains why the
issuance of the second list of EDSP screening chemicals,
and the proposed policies and procedures for obtaining
testing, are important developments.
New Additions
The second list of chemicals includes pesticides, per-
fluorocarbon compounds (PFC), pharmaceuticals, and
those used as plasticizers or in the production of phar-
maceutical and personal care products. The chemicals
include a significant number of Toxic Substances Con-
trol Act (TSCA) chemicals that EPA has identified as
priorities under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
and that may be found in sources of drinking water.
putting it in perspective
The draft policies and procedures are intended, ac-
cording to EPA, to supplement policies and procedures
published in April 2009. The policies and procedures
address both substantive and administrative issues.
EPA’s draft, “Weight-of-Evidence Guidance Docu-
ment: Evaluating Results of EDSP Tier 1 Screening
to Identify Candidate Chemicals for Tier 2 Testing,” is
intended “to set forth some general principles, criteria
and considerations EPA generally believes to be relevant
using a WoE approach to evaluate data submitted as
part of EPA’s EDSP” Tier 1 screening assays.
EPA summarizes the EDSP as a “two-tiered
paradigm for screening and testing chemicals with the
potential to interact with the endocrine system.” Tier 1
screening identifies substances that have the potential
to interact with the estrogen, androgen or thyroid hor-
monal systems. Tier 2 testing aims to identify further
and characterize chemical-induced interactions with
estrogen, androgen or thyroid hormonal systems for risk
assessment. EPA states that it expects the diversity in en-
docrine endpoints within the Tier 1 screening assays to
provide corroborating information and support a WoE
evaluation to yield a decision as to whether the chemical
identified in Tier 1 requires additional testing in Tier 2.
The guidance itself notes that this approach is
not meant to be any different in its application to the
CP1103_21_Comp.indd 21
compliance advisor
endocrine program than from other areas of scientific
assessment where EPA utilizes a WoE approach. It is
interesting that this announcement acknowledges that
the approach will be used to evaluate “other scientifically
relevant information” — which has been a controversial
element of EPA’s endocrine testing program. Many
interested parties insist that if EPA fairly and fully
evaluates the body of existing data already developed Chemical manu-
and submitted to EPA, the need for the now-required
“lower-tier” endocrine effect tests would not be justified. facturers and
downstream
Discussion
This list builds on the earlier requirements originating users of these
under the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act. EPA’s chemicals should
endocrine testing program first broadened to include
chemicals used in pesticide formulations that other- monitor this pro-
wise would be subject to TSCA testing. This latest gram carefully.
list expands EPA’s domain from pesticide and toxics
programs to chemicals in other EPA program areas such
as drinking water.
Expansion of the endocrine program’s domain indi-
cates that EPA may intend to use its authority to address
concerns with other chemicals arising out of other pro-
grams and agencies; and to compensate, to some degree,
for the shortcomings in testing authority found in other
statutes administered by both EPA and other federal
agencies. The latest list, for example, incorporates phar-
maceuticals that have drinking water exposures as EPA
believes they may present endocrine effect risks. This lets
EPA take the lead from the Food and Drug Administra-
tion in this regard. EPA’s approach could greatly expand
the number of chemicals subject to testing orders.
Chemical manufacturers and downstream users of
these chemicals should monitor this program care-
fully. Although a chemical’s inclusion in the second list
doesn’t mean the substance is an endocrine disruptor,
certain inferences will nonetheless be drawn and manu-
facturers and users of chemicals subject to screening
could be subject to deselection or other adverse com-
mercial consequences. Stakeholders should monitor the
docket, be aware of comments submitted, and watch for
new developments as to chemicals of concern.
Lynn Bergeson, Regulatory Editor
lbergeson@putman.net
Lynn is managing director of Bergeson & Campbell, P.C., a Wash-
ington, D.C.-based law firm that concentrates on chemical industry
issues. The views expressed herein are solely those of the author.
21  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011
2/23/11 11:52 AM
 Water
Turns
Green Conservation efforts are
becoming a sustainability
imperative at plants
By Seán Ottewell,Editor at Large
PRESSURE TO reduce water consumption and
switch to other, often lower-quality, sources is
prompting a major rethink about how chemical
companies manage and use their water resources.
Optimization has become a corporate mantra.
“An increasing challenge is water scarcity and
ensuring that the population has enough for their
needs, so we are seeing increasing restrictions on
where industry can get water — plus increasing cost.
Industry is also seeing significant increases in waste-
water sewer fees — disproportionately so compared
with homes,” notes Derek Miller, North American
industrial water manager, Air Products and Chemi-
cals, Bethlehem, Pa.
“Our customers are facing three pinches in terms
of their water utility footprints,” says Glen Messina,
global business leader, chemical monitoring solutions
MARCH 2011 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 22
CP1103_22_29_CoverStory.indd 22
business — water and process
technologies for GE Power &
Water, Trevose, Pa.
First, global constraints on the
supply of fresh water are growing: regulations
now are beginning either to prevent companies
from using municipal fresh water or taking more
from rivers.
Second, companies face declining water qual-
ity — for example, plants more and more must take
discharge water from municipal treatment plants.
Third, increasingly stringent regulations worldwide
govern discharges, even sometimes banning them.
Traditional tailing ponds are being closed down, so new
ways are needed to recondition the water.
VENDORS RESPOND
“Between 2006 and 2010, we doubled our investment
in the technologies in these areas and we expect this to
double again in the next three to five years. We think
we have a significant advantage here because of the
breadth of our portfolio,” notes Messina.
The company has launched an advanced system
for cooling water. This comprises GenGard anti-
fouling and anti-corrosion treatment coupled with
the TrueSense automation and control platform that
allows continuous monitoring and dosing of the
cooling water.
GE also offers a broad portfolio of filtration
systems, including basic paper cartridges, reverse
2/24/11 3:59 PM
 osmosis (RO), ultrafiltration, membrane bioreactors (MBRs), electrodi-
alysis, electrodialysis reversal and electrodeionization.
“These systems allow us to take a raw discharge and convert it into
drinking water quality. Industrial users today want to meet regulatory
standards for either discharge or recycling back into the front end of
their processes,” explains Messina.
In addition, the firm has established an integrated water solutions
group to help customers look at the water utility footprint of existing
plants and to offer engineering services for new plant construction. “…
More than a dozen of the Fortune top 50 companies have approached
us to carry out an evaluation of their existing water utility footprints,”
he notes.
GE Power & Water has dramatically decreased its own water usage.
In 2008 the company set a goal of a 20% reduction (versus a 2006
baseline) by 2012. It achieved a 30% cut by the end of 2009 and is now
working on the next benchmark.
“Each application is customized for each of our plants: there is no
cookie-cutter solution. At the same time it is important to remember
that some of these improvements are based on changing operations.
For example, a simple re-routing of water pipes reduced usage at one
site. So cold water flow redesign can be very important while not be-
ing a major capex [capital expenditure].”
Looking to the future, Messina points to the challenges posed by the
need to remove heavy metals such as mercury. In some countries,
the legal requirement is for five parts per trillion: “This is a very
complex demand to deal with and there’s no one magic solution: a
combination of technologies will be needed to achieve this.”
Dow Water & Process Solutions, Edina, Minn., is focused on
the twin requirements of reduced costs and increased sustainability.
“Industry generally will have to be very, very much more
efficient so that water use can be focused on using it for drinking
and food production. Reducing water use and then reusing it in
the system is therefore becoming more important for the forma-
tion of long-term, sustainable enterprises,” says Snehal Desai,
global marketing director.
One major technology focus for the company is a
new fouling-resistant (FR) series of fi lters for waste
treatment centers. “Th is is particularly important in
the production of chloralkalis, which requires a lot of
water. Standard RO technology was used by one customer to recycle
the water, but they wanted to increase the times between fi lter clean-
ings,” notes Desai.
Customers increasingly are talking about the net energy footprint
to treat water (Figure 1), too, prompting Dow to develop low energy
technologies that, for example, need less pressure drop across filters. A
low energy FR technology is due to be launched later this year.
MBRs are finding greater use to reduce the organic and suspended
load in water streams, which then can be polished further with an RO
system. Desai points to the new M20 series of MBR technologies as

23 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM MARCH 2011

CP1103_22_29_CoverStory.indd 23 2/24/11 4:00 PM

 being crucial for users that need to
produce water that can be re-used
again in the process stream.
He also cites geographic
challenges. “Companies on the
Houston Ship Channel have big
issues with fouling because the
surface water can be very dirty
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there. On the Gulf Coast, the
challenge is to provide cost-
effective desalination technol-
ogy. In China it also depends on
sector and location of the plant,
but the government is being very
aggressive now in pushing water
cleanliness.”
Dow Water & Process Solu-
tions is focusing its R&D efforts
on three main areas: improved
rejection of salt from water, lower
energy use and better fouling
resistance.
Typically, required salt rejec-
tion is 99.5–99.7% but ultrapure
water, which is a rapidly growing
market, demands even better
performance — this often involves
RO coupled with ion exchange.
One of the big costs here is resin
regeneration; the company now is
actively working on this.
Work also is advancing on
nanofiltration. This is important
where divalent ions such as cal-
cium and sulfate must be rejected.
For example, in oil production,
injecting water with a high sulfate
level increases scaling in wells.
PLANT INITIATIVE
Bayer HealthCare aims to reduce
water consumption at its Berkeley,
Calif., site by 10% by 2015 from a
2010 baseline. “We know exactly
what our total water consumption
is and the volume of our waste
stream, so we can drill down and
see exactly how much water is used
in each process, each building and
so on,” says Thomas Daszkowski,
vice president, BTS Process Tech-
nology (BTS). BTS is the tech-
nological backbone of the Bayer
group worldwide, developing and
implementing process and plant
optimization for the company.
One of the major uses of water
at Berkeley is in cleaning opera-
tions. They rely on high purity
water also known as water-for-
injection (WFI). Such water is
expensive because it has to be
purified by processes such as RO
or distillation and then stored and
distributed at high temperature.
So reducing its use also pares
site demand for natural gas and
electricity. “Our evaluation has
2/24/11 4:00 PM
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showed us that all our resources are linked, and
making a conscious effort to reduce one resource
can help reduce our overall consumption as well,”
notes Daszkowski.
Operations are benefiting from a new skid, de-
signed by the Berkeley site’s PAT [process analyti-
cal technology] group, to minimize over-cleaning.
“This skid includes many of the types of analytics
such as a total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer,
dual wavelength UV analyzer, a pH analyzer, and
conductivity analyzers that are used for cleaning
validation, all packaged together in a real-time,
inline process monitoring tool,” says Chris Wil-
liams, BTS PAT manager. Early use of the skid
points to a number of pluses, including an average
water consumption reduction of up to 50%.
Pipeline projects are reaping benefits too.
“The project team has looked at many other water
savings through redesign of old systems. The RO
system in one of our buildings sends close to 8
million gallons of water a year into our drains.
Repiping the drain to our cooling towers lowered
our consumption of city water and helped us re-
duce site consumption by approximately 7%,” says
Arun Nedungadi, sustainability engineer.
Another project reuses tower water that cools
clean steam condensate, saving about 2.5 million
gallons of water annually. “In addition, 1.5 million
gallons of condensate that was being sent to drain
is now being redirected to our main steam plant
where a redesign of oversized pumps has halted
excessive water-hammering,” adds Nedungadi.
“Overall, these projects have helped cut water
consumption at the Berkeley facility by 12 mil-
Energy Efficiency
Figure 1. Companies are paying increasing attention to
the net energy footprint to treat water. Source: Dow.
2/24/11 4:01 PM
 Better Performance
lion gallons, approximately 10% of the total in
2010 — this is a major step forward in helping
us realize our 2015 goals,” explains Ron Roberts,
principal engineer, central utilities.
A key aspect of sustaining these changes is to
engage company employees in the conservation ef-
forts. “We will be looking to include employees in
identifying and implementing projects by having
dedicated energy teams for our mission-critical
buildings on site,” says David Woodard, principal,
health environment & safety group.

WASTEWATER FOCUS
As part of its overall sustainability goals, Air
Products is committed to cutting its water con-
sumption by 10% by 2015 versus 2009, and is
promoting water reuse.
In addition, the company is helping its indus-
trial clients improve wastewater treatment: “For
industrials that have wastewater treatment plants,
they can face challenges meeting production
capacity changes. The desire to increase treatment
capacity without major capital investment is a
Figure 2. Switching from air to oxygen for wastewater
treatment can double capacity. Source: Air Products
and Chemicals.
good application for oxygen,” explains Miller.
Retrofitting pure oxygen onto existing processes
that rely on air and activated sludge can double
treatment capacity (Figure 2), while adding high
efficiency mixers at the same time can reduce
power consumption by up to 50%, he notes.

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CP1103_22_29_CoverStory.indd 27 2/24/11 4:02 PM

 Revised Strategy
Figure 3. Australian refinery no longer discharges
wastewater and uses treated sewage water. Source: BP.
NaOCl Metering Pump
Are you having vapor lock problems? Stop
treating the symtoms and fix the problem.
An integrated VFD with standard 120 VAC
plug, control interface (4-20 ma), run-dry and
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CP1103_22_29_CoverStory.indd 28
Air Products also is helping
customers to reuse their own
wastewater, especially when
significant quantities of organics
or nutrients are present and use
of oxygen is a good fit. There’s a
strong focus on MBRs because
they are high-intensity, have
a small footprint and produce
very high quality water that can
be reused in a number of on-site
applications such as cooling-
water makeup.
“However, while you get
a lot more treatment/volume
with an MBR, the use of high
sludge concentrations can lead
to limitations getting sufficient
oxygen into the wastewater
using conventional air-based
aeration. So we believe that the
optimum MBR design would
run on pure oxygen. We have a
couple of these up and running
Key Facts:
Reliable, economical and effective
Less repair and downtime
Low pulsation
Significant Cost Savings:
Low operating costs
Less personnel required
now in industrial applications
and are close to commercializ-
ing a further optimized system,”
he reveals.
Overall, the company
sees an increasing drive from
industry to do more wastewater
treatment in less space, reduce
waste disposal costs and extract
value in the form of water reuse
and energy. “We are working to
make our oxygen technologies
more efficient and, with part-
ners, are developing complete
treatment systems designed to
take advantage of the benefits of
oxygen,” he says.
REDUCING INTAKE
At its Rotterdam site in the
Netherlands, Akzo Nobel has cut
fresh water consumption while
increasing the concentration of
saline water that its treatment
2/24/11 4:03 PM
 plant can handle. Salt concentration
has risen from its original maximum
concentration of 2% as process in-
tensification and expansion projects
took place.
“Our first choice, an anaerobic
biological system, did not work. But
we found we could use an aerobic
system instead. By slowly creating
and maintaining a biomass that was
adjusted to the higher salt concen-
trations, we were able to operate at
3% salts. Large water savings were
realized and we could operate the
installation at a higher total capac-
ity,” notes a spokeswoman.
At its Delfzijl, the Netherlands,

Clean 2 tubes
site, Akzo has installed an efficient
co-generation plant to generate
steam for a multi-effect evapora-
tion process, with condensate puri-

at once
fied and reused in a continuous
recycling system.
Half a world away, the BP
refi nery in Kwinana, Australia,
(Figure 3) now sends its wastewater
to a water recycling plant instead of A Saflex™ 2000 system cleans tube bundles twice as fast as
discharging it into the Cockburn
manual water jetting. Index the flexible lances manually, or from a
Sound. In addition, the company is
taking in treated sewage water from
distance using an optional X-Y manipulator with wireless controls.
a nearby effluent plant. Th is water, Key features include:
treated by intense microfi ltration
and RO, is so pure that it would ■ operating pressures up to 40,000 psi
leach metal from standard piping.
So BP has installed glass-reinforced ■ cleans on in and out strokes
epoxy pipelines. ■ feed rate up to 2 feet per second
■ adjustable for tubes 4mm to 15mm
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CP1103_22_29_CoverStory.indd 29 2/24/11 4:03 PM

 Effectively Clean
Tanks and Reactors
Choose the right equipment to avoid costly contamination problems
By Anthony Wood, Spraying Systems Co.
TANKS, REACTORS and other vessels can be
cleaned in many ways. However, use of automated
clean-in-place systems has increased rapidly. Th at’s
because automated devices clean more thoroughly
than other methods, dramatically reducing or
eliminating risk of cross-contamination caused by
product or cleaning-chemical residue.
Automated cleaning provides other benefits as
well:
• faster return to service of vessels — downtime
can be reduced by as much as 90%;
• decreased water and chemical use;
• lowered wastewater disposal costs;
• improved safety because workers no longer
have to enter tanks; and
• better staff productivity because people can
be deployed to other tasks.
The decision to automate is easy — a plant usu-
ally can recoup the cost of an automated system in
the fi rst few months of operation through reduced
chemical and water costs and increased produc-
tion. However, determining the best cleaning
equipment can be hard. If vessels are large, have
MARCH 2011 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 30
CP1103_30_35_Maint.indd 30
obstructions such as mixing paddles, and con-
tain sticky, fl ammable or toxic residues, selection
can get challenging. So, this article offers some
guidelines to help you choose the most appropriate
equipment for your operation.
THE STARTING POINT
Before you begin evaluating cleaning equipment,
you must understand your cleaning requirements.
Residue. First, assess the residue to determine
what’s required to remove it. Is the substance
sticky or easily cleaned? Can a cleaning liquid
dissolve it? If not, what level of impact is needed to
break it up and wash it away?
(If you’re not sure how to remove the residue, a
cleaning equipment vendor can use computational
fluid dynamics modeling to determine the flow
rate, operating pressure, coverage and the position
of the spray head for complete cleaning of the ves-
sel and any permanently installed equipment.)
Cleaning agents. Once you understand the resi-
due’s characteristics, you can sort out which clean-
ing agents to use. Chemical additives typically are
2/23/11 11:36 AM
 employed to remove contaminants, improve tank
wetability and reduce foam. Heat can boost the
cleaning action of many water-based detergent
chemicals.
Vessel size. Interior surface area and distance
between the walls substantially affect selection.
Evaluate the spray distance, usually measured in
terms of the vessel diameter, but also consider
vessel length and height. For example, for a 20-ft.-
dia., 40-ft.-long vessel, use two vessel cleaners
that each can handle up to 20 ft. or a single vessel
cleaner that can handle up to 40 ft. You many
need multiple nozzles if the spray can’t reach a part
of the vessel due to internal obstructions such as an
agitator (Figure 1).
Impact. The level of impact needed to thor-
oughly clean vessels depends on the residue,
cleaning chemicals and water temperature. Hard-
to-clean residues require greater impact. The theo-
retical spray impact, I, equals K Q P ½ where K is a
constant, Q is flow rate and P is liquid pressure.
If you’re not certain how much impact is
needed, a cleaning equipment vendor should be
able to provide guidance and impact data. Some
manufacturers will conduct tests in their spray labs
with your specific residue to optimize cleaning
performance. Another option is a short-term lease
on a pumping system and vessel cleaner, so you
can evaluate the equipment in your production en-
vironment. Some vendors also offer no-obligation
equipment trials.
Safety. Is the residue, cleaning solvent or
environment toxic or fl ammable? The answer will
significantly influence the type of equipment you
choose.
Once you understand your cleaning require-
ments, the next step is to evaluate the cleaning
equipment. So, let’s look at what’s available and the
pros and cons of each option.
THE TYPE OF POWER
The fi rst decision is whether to use a machine pow-
ered by fluid or a motor.
• Fluid-driven cleaning machines use fluid to
spin a turbine that powers a gear set (Figure 2).
The nozzle assembly rotates as the hub revolves
around its central axis. The higher the liquid pres-
sure and flow, the faster the rotation.
• Motor-driven cleaning machines rely on an
external electric or air motor to drive the nozzle as-
sembly (Figure 3). The nozzles revolve around the
central axis of the nozzle assembly.
CP1103_30_35_Maint.indd 31
OPTIMIZE CLEANING
Six steps may provide significant benefits:
1. Reduce use of heated water. Hot water is
costly but frequently is viewed as a necessary
evil to remove some residues. However, increas-
ing impact often can often get the job done and
cut or eliminate the need for hot water.
2. Minimize “striping.” Vessel cleaners pro-
vide 360° coverage. However, the solid stream
sprays don’t overlap as they rotate, so there’s
a small distance between the sprays and thus
a so-called striping effect. The greater the dis-
tance the nozzles are from the vessel walls, the
greater the distance between the sprays. The
best way to minimize striping is to use a four-
nozzle hub rather than the standard two-nozzle
hub. This will cut striping in half.
3. Change spray head position. Use an ad-
justable ball fitting to clean vessels in sections.
Clean the top half of the vessel, then lower the
device and clean the bottom half of the vessel
or change the angle to clean difficult locations.
4. Decrease the number of cleaning cycles.
Simple adjustments to pressure and flow may
enable a reduction in the number of cycles
needed for thorough cleaning. To increase
impact and cleaning efficiency it’s far more
effective to increase flow than pressure.
Doubling flow rate boosts impact as much as
100%; doubling pressure only provides 40%
more impact.
5. Recirculate. Do you spray and drain?
Check into recycling your cleaning solution if
you aren’t using hazardous materials and your
water is debris free.
6. Activate cleaning with the flip of a
switch. Hard piping your vessel cleaner in
place can save time and reduce labor costs.
Consider permanently installing the device if
the material or its temperature won’t damage
the cleaning equipment.
Both machines operate at high pressures, provide
360° cleaning coverage and suit large vessels (up to
100 ft. dia.). They often offer comparable cleaning
performance. However, there are several operational
differences.
Clogging. A fluid-driven machine is more prone
to clogging. As fluid passes through the device,
debris can accumulate in the internal flow passages
or get caught in the gears. When this happens, the
machine stops working because the gears no longer
can rotate. Verifying operation is crucial but can be
challenging — it’s difficult to visually observe the
inside of a large vessel.
31 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM MARCH 2011
2/23/11 11:37 AM
 Multiple Nozzles
Figure 1. The size of a vessel or internal obstructions may
require use of multiple nozzles for effective cleaning.
A motor-driven machine will continue to oper-
ate even with debris in the nozzles. The external
motor ensures continued rotation and cleaning.
Plus, you easily can hear the sound from the motor
and verify operation without having to inspect the
vessel.
If you’re using less than pristine water and it’s
difficult to see inside your vessel, a motor-driven
machine is a better choice.
Cleaning cycle time. If short cleaning cycles are
a priority, consider a motor-driven unit. Using an
electric motor, cycle times remain constant regard-
less of operating pressure and flow rate. With an
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  32
CP1103_30_35_Maint.indd 32
Fluid-driven Machine
Figure 2. Rotational speed depends upon liquid pres-
sure and flow.
Motor-driven Cleaner
Figure 3. Electricity or air can power the motor.
air motor, you can increase air pressure to make
the nozzle hub rotate more quickly.
Fluid-driven machines can achieve comparable
cycle times to motor-driven machines by raising
pressure. However, operating at higher pressures
increases wear of internal parts and results in more
frequent maintenance.
Sparking or explosion risks. Explosion-proof
electric motors are available or you can use an air
motor. Or you may be able to change cleaning
solvents to eliminate the explosion hazard without
negatively impacting cleaning. Other options in-
clude increasing humidity in the vessel to mini-
2/23/11 11:37 AM
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CP1103_full page ads.indd 33 2/23/11 11:58 AM

 Retractable Head

mize the risk of static electricity, prevent complete

drying of the residue and ease residue removal.

Figure 4. Cleaning head can be set at any position from
zero to full extension.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Fluid-driven machines generally cost less than mo-
tor-driven ones, although the cost depends upon
the size of the machine. However, fluid-driven
machines have many internal parts and disassem-
bly, replacement and reassembly of worn parts can
be time-consuming. In some cases, maintenance
requires a special tool kit. Factory refurbishing
usually is recommended based on hours of use.
Motor-driven machines require minimal
maintenance and are serviced easily by the user.
The motors are positioned outside the tank, ensur-
ing long life and minimal exposure to harmful
solvents.
Which is a better choice? Fluid-driven ma-
chines usually cost less. Motor-driven machines
are less expensive to operate and maintain. The
specifics of your operation such as water quality
and hours of use will determine which is more
cost-effective.
If you’ve determined that a motor-driven cleaner is
your best choice, you must select between two types:
1. Machines with nozzles in a fixed position.
These can be permanently installed or moved from
vessel to vessel but the cleaning head is in a fixed
position on the unit. Maximum operating pressure
is 5,000 psi. Various types of motors are available
and users specify extension length, flange size and
a two- or four-nozzle hub.
2. Machines with retractable nozzles. These
permanently installed units offer a higher level of
automation (Figure 4). A pneumatic mechanism
inserts and retracts the extension and the clean-
ing head. A control panel allows setting multiple
stopping points between full insertion and full re-
traction to position the nozzles where more impact
is required or to clean around obstructions. The
control panel can be located away from the vessel
for convenience or safety. Maximum operating
pressure is 4,000 psi.
The properties of the residue or the cleaning
agents and your desired level of automation will
determine which option is best for your operation.

PERFORMANCE VALIDATION
Once you’ve selected and installed a new cleaning
machine, how do you know if it’s doing its job?
Visual inspection is one option. Monitor the
machine to make sure it’s working and inspect the

CP1103_30_35_Maint.indd 34 2/23/11 11:37 AM

 Material Handling Equipment
Acoustic Monitoring Device

Drum Discharger Container Discharger

Lift & Dump

Container Discharger

Bulk Bag Filler

Lift & Dump Bulk Bag
Drum Discharger Discharger

Figure 5. Unit mounted on onside of vessel detects loss

of rotation and variations in rotation speed and fluid
pressure.
inside of the vessel when the cleaning cycle is com-
plete. Swab or ribofl avin tests are common ways to
verify cleanliness. Of course, the viability of these
approaches depends on the size and location of
your vessel.
Another option is using an acoustic monitoring
device (Figure 5). A sensor mounted to the exterior
of the tank “listens” to the performance of the
cleaning equipment and identifies variations from
a pre-determined baseline. It instantly can detect
rotation failure and changes in rotation speed or
spray pressure and can notify operators via audible
or visual alarms. The monitoring device also
transmits performance documentation for qual-
ity control and record keeping. It obviates visual
monitoring and post-cleaning tests.
ANTHONY WOOD is a tank cleaning specialist at Spray-
ing Systems Co., Wheaton, Ill. E-mail him at Anthony.wood@
spray.com.
Call: 800.836.7068
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CAS-192E.indd 1 1/27/11 4:59 PM

CP1103_30_35_Maint.indd 35 2/23/11 11:38 AM

 Select the Right Instrument-System Valve
Start by matching valve type to desired function
By Michael Adkins, Swagelok Company
Picking a valve for an instrument system means
sorting through what may seem an overwhelm-
ing number of choices. Just to name a few, there
are ball, diaphragm and bellows valves, as well as
check, excess flow, fine metering, gate, multi-port,
needle, plug, rising plug, relief and safety valves.
And each of these comes in many sizes, configu-
rations, materials of construction and actuation
modes.
To make the best choice, it’s always good prac-
tice to first ask: What do I want the valve to do?
Most valves fulfill one of five primary func-
tions — on/off, flow control, directional flow,
over-pressure protection and excess flow protection.
Matching valve type to function is the first and
most important selection step. It’s not unusual to
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  36
CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 36
see misapplied valves, such as a ball valve used for
throttling flow. In some cases, the mismatch can
be catastrophic, say, if a ball valve were in a high-
pressure oxygen system. With a source of ignition,
the sudden burst of oxygen — enabled by the fast
opening of the valve — could lead to a fire.
So, here, we’ll review the basic types of valves,
how they work, what functions they fulfill, and
what to think about when choosing one over
another.
ON/OFF VALVES
On/off control — stopping and restarting system
fluid flow — is the most basic valve function. Pri-
mary on/off options are ball, gate, diaphragm and
bellows valves.
2/23/11 11:41 AM
 Selection Guidelines

On/Off Valves
Visual Indication Shutoff Packing or
Valve Type Flow Path of Shutoff? Speed Packless? Typical Use
Ball Straight Yes Rapid Packing Very broad, suitable for many applications —
practical and economical
Gate Straight No Gradual Packing General industrial use — typically for large pro-
cess or transmission lines
Diaphragm Globe Yes Rapid Packless Applications, often high-purity, requiring rapid
shutoff, precise actuation speeds and high cycle life
Bellows Globe Sometimes Gradual Packless Services where a high-integrity seal to atmosphere
is critical and access for maintenance is limited

Flow Control Valves

Precision of Shutoff
Valve Type Flow Path Flow Control Capability? Typical Use
Needle Globe Excellent Yes Applications requiring precise flow control and
leak-tight shutoff — often used for high-temperature
applications and with lighter, less viscous fluids
Fine Metering Globe Excellent Sometimes Applications, frequently in laboratory settings, requiring
the most precise flow control
Quarter-Turn Straight Good Yes Economical utility valves typically chosen for low-
Plug throttling applications
Rising Plug Straight Good Yes Services where the valve needs to be cleaned out, such
as when system media can coagulate and clog valve
Table 1. Each valve type has basic characteristics that suggest it for particular applications.

Perhaps the most common of all valve types,
ball valves (Figure 1) are designed for on/off con-
trol. Quarter-turn actuation starts or stops flow by
rotating a metallic ball with a large hole through its
center. Straight-through flow occurs when the hole
is lined up with the flow path. When the hole is
turned 90° from the flow path, flow stops. If you’re
seeking an on/off valve with quick shutoff and high
flow capacity, a ball valve is a good choice. The
position of its handle provides a quick indication of
whether the valve is open or closed; ball valves are
easy to lock out and tag for safety purposes. They
are most practical and economical at sizes between
¼ in. and 2 in.
Typically used for process control rather than
instrumentation applications, gate valves commonly
are chosen for on/off control — particularly for
lines above 2 in. They also frequently serve as the
first valve off the process line for instrumentation,
often in a double-block-and-bleed configuration.
Among the oldest types of on/off valves, they usu-
ally are specified in general industrial applications,
such as large process or transmission lines. Some
can exceed 100 in. Multiple rotations of the handle
lower or raise a sealing mechanism in or out of a
straight flow path. Shutoff is gradual.
Packing surrounds the stem, the cylindrical
part connecting the handle (or actuation) with the
inner mechanism, preventing system media from
escaping to atmosphere where the stem meets the
valve body. Valves that seal to atmosphere with
metal-to-metal seals are referred to as “packless”
because they don’t contain soft packing material,
e.g., gaskets and O-rings, normally found around
the stem in other valves.
All stem seals or packing are subject to wear,
which can lead to leakage. Valves with packing re-
quire servicing or replacement at regular intervals,
although some types of packing, such as the two-
piece chevron design, create more effective seals and
last longer than others.
Unlike packed valves, diaphragm valves (Figure

37  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011

CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 37 2/23/11 11:41 AM


KEEP FIVE POINTERS IN MIND
1. Know your application. When choosing a
valve, you must have on hand certain pieces of
information, including the chemical composition of
the system media and the full range of pressures
and temperatures the valve may experience over its
life. Make sure your valve choice can accommodate
these parameters. Don’t go with hunches or ap-
proximations. Consult the product data.
2. Check for material compatibility. It’s possible
to have the right valve but the wrong materials of
construction. Valves often come in a standard set
of materials, but others often are available. Always
check the product catalog to identify temperature
and pressure ranges, as well as compatibility with
different system media (chemicals). When in doubt,
consult your manufacturer’s representative.
3. Factor in the maintenance schedule. Differ-
ent valves have different maintenance schedules.
Your system parameters, including the number of
times the valve is cycled, will affect this schedule.
Your maintenance team must be able to manage
the schedule. This seems like an obvious point
but it’s often overlooked. Are you willing to ser-
vice that valve once every 20 days when it’s 100
feet in the air?
4. Understand pressure drops. Almost every
valve or other component produces a drop in pres-
sure. You must check the cumulative pressure drop,
to avoid risks of ending up with too little pressure at
a certain point in the line. Every valve is rated with a
flow coefficient, Cv, which describes the relationship
between the pressure drop across an orifice, valve
or other assembly and the corresponding flow rate.
The higher the Cv, the lower the pressure drop. Ball
and needle valves of the same size will produce
very different pressure drops — very little for the
ball valve but significant for the needle valve (or
other globe valves).
5. Consider cost of ownership. The true cost
is the purchase price plus the expenses of owning
and maintaining or replacing a valve over time. To
calculate the cost of ownership, you must know how
long the valve will operate in your particular system
between maintenance checks. Maintenance costs
should include replacement parts, labor and down-
time. Some valves are much easier to maintain than
others; some can be serviced in place, while others
must be removed from the process line. Also, given
your valve choice, what are the chances of unsched-
uled maintenance and downtime?
MARCH 2011 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 38
CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 38
Ball Valve
Figure 1. Quarter-turn actuation and straight-through
flow path suit this valve for many on/off applications.
2) are packless. They provide rapid shutoff and
precise actuation speeds and, in some cases, also
may deliver consistent quantities of process fluid.
Diaphragm valves typically are employed in high
purity applications. They offer the highest cycle
life of any valve type, thanks their highly engi-
neered anatomy. Each valve contains a thin metal
or plastic diaphragm that flexes up and down,
creating a leak-tight seal over the inlet. Th is ro-
bust valve usually is small, with the largest orifice
or internal pathway typically less than 2 in.
Bellows valves also are packless, making them
a good choice when the seal to atmosphere is
critical and access for maintenance is limited.
They frequently are specified for the contain-
ment area in nuclear power plants. A welded seal
divides the lower half of the valve, where the
system media resides, from the upper parts of
the valve, where actuation is initiated. The stem,
which is entirely encased in a metal bellows,
moves up and down (without rotating), sealing
over the inlet.
Bellows and diaphragm valves are said to
have a globe-like flow path. In globe valves, fluid
doesn’t flow straight through on a level plane as
in a ball valve. Instead, it enters the valve under
the seat and exits above the seat. Globe valves
have lower flow rates than straight-through-flow-
path valves of the same orifice size.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
These enable an operator to increase or decrease
flow by rotating a handle. Once adjusted to a
desired flow rate, the valve will hold that flow
rate reliably. Some flow control valves also pro-
vide very reliable shutoff, but many turns of the
handle are necessary to move from the fully open
to the fully closed position.
The most common flow control valves are
2/23/11 11:41 AM
 Diaphragm Valve Needle Valve
needle, fine metering, quarter-
turn plug and rising plug.
Needle valves (Figure 3) of-
fer excellent f low control and,
depending on design, leak-tight
shutoff. They consist of a long
stem with a highly engineered
stem-tip geometry (e.g., vee- or
needle-shaped) that fits pre-
cisely into a seat over the inlet.
The stem is finely threaded,
enabling precise f low control.
Stem packing provides the seal
to atmosphere.
Some designs feature a metal-
to-metal seat seal; consequently,
needle valves are a good choice
for high-temperature applica-
tions. However, flow is limited
because of the globe-style flow
path. Needle valves also suit
Figure 2. Benefits include rapid shutoff, Figure 3. Finely threaded stem enables excel-
lighter, less viscous fluids. precise actuation speeds and unrivalled cycle lent flow control; some designs offer leak-tight
For the most precise flow life. shutoff.
control, consider fine metering
valves. Typically found in labora-
tory settings, these are a type
of needle valve with a long, fine
stem that lowers through a long,
narrow channel. This makes for a
pronounced globe pattern, ideal
for marking fine gradations of
flow. Some fine metering valves
aren’t designed for shutoff.
Quarter-turn plug valves
are economically priced utility
valves. Quarter-turn actuation
rotates a cylindrical plug with
an orifice in a straight-through
flow path. Plug valves commonly
are used for low-pressure throt-
tling applications in addition to
shutoff.
Rising plug valves, like needle
valves, lower a tapered element
into an orifice to reduce flow.
They differ from needle valves in
their flow path, which is straight-
through rather than globe pat-
terned. Because of the straight
path, the valve isn’t as effective at
providing fine gradations of flow.
The rising plug is roddable —

CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 39 2/23/11 11:42 AM

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CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 40
Check Valve
Figure 4. Unit prevents reverse flow and can come with fixed or adjustable cracking pressure.
and so it’s a good choice if there’s a risk
of clogging with system media.
DIRECTIONAL FLOW VALVES
A third function of valves is to direct flow.
Check valves (Figure 4) ensure flow
in only one direction. In most designs,
the upstream fluid force pushes a
spring-loaded poppet open, allowing
flow. An increase in downstream or
back-pressure force drives the poppet
back into the seat, stopping reverse
flow. Check valves are available with
fixed or adjustable cracking pressures.
Some ball and diaphragm valves are
designed with multiple ports. In most
multi-port valves (Figure 5) fluid enters
through a single inlet but may exit through
one of several outlets, depending on the
position of the actuator. Multi-port valves
may or may not have a shutoff position.
OVER-PRESSURE PROTECTION
VALVES
These devices prevent buildup of system
pressure beyond a certain setting. They
come in two types: relief valves and
rupture discs.
One type of relief valve is a propor-
tional relief valve (Figure 6). It contains
a vent to atmosphere that opens when
system pressure exceeds a set point. A
spring-loaded poppet enables the mea-
sured release of fluid. The vent closes
when pressure returns to a point below
the set point.
A safety relief valve is designed to
open very quickly, releasing a large
amount of system media. Safety codes
require use of such valves in certain
applications.
Don’t use safety relief and propor-
tional relief valves interchangeably with
check valves — the three serve different
functions.
Rupture discs are found mainly on
sample cylinders to protect against
over-pressurization, which may occur,
for example, when temperatures rise
during transport. Like relief valves,
rupture discs vent to atmosphere. A
metal diaphragm bursts when pressure
reaches a value preset by the manufac-
turer. Once activated, the rupture disc
must be replaced. A rupture disc is an
economical choice where transportation
codes require equipping compressed gas
cylinders with a pressure relief device.
EXCESS FLOW VALVES
Designed to stop uncontrolled release
of system media if a downstream line
ruptures, excess flow valves use a spring
to hold a poppet in the open position
under normal conditions. When excess
flow arises downstream, the poppet
moves to a tripped position, prevent-
ing almost all flow. When the system is
corrected, the valve returns to its open
position. These valves are available with
fixed tripping values.
A GOOD START
Once you have matched valve type to
function, you’re well on your way to
selecting the right valve for your instru-
ment system. However, you still must
grapple with many details, including:
2/23/11 11:42 AM
 Multiple-port Valve Proportional Relief Valve

Figure 5. Some ball and diaphragm valves can direct flow to

one of several outlets.

• installation issues, maintenance schedules and

access;
• safety and code requirements; and
Figure 6. When actuated by over-pressurization,
• system parameters, such as pressure, tempera- this valve provides a measured release of fluid.
ture, flow rates and system media.
Ultimately, you’ll need to determine:
• valve size and type of actuation; and
• materials of construction (including O-rings
and seals), which must be compatible with the
MONITOR VISCOSITY SIMPLY
chemical composition of the system media,
pressures and temperatures. Sense Motor
A valve manufacturer’s representative as well as Horsepower
product catalogs and product test reports can be with Universal
valuable resources in refi ning your choice. Power Cell

MICHAEL ADKINS is product manager, general industrial EASY INSTALLATION

valves, for Swagelok Co., Solon, Ohio. E-mail him at michael. • No holes in tanks or pipes

adkins@swagelok.com. • Away from sensitive processes

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CP1103_36_41_Instru.indd 41 2/23/11 11:43 AM

 Making it work

Clamp-on Flow Meter

Gains Firm Hold
Site finds ultrasonic device provides easy
installation and accuracy

By Greg Harper, Eastman Chemical Co.

Eastman Chemical’s main facility in King-

sport, Tenn., is a huge challenge for anyone responsible
for monitoring flow in its miles of pipe. Started in
1920, the complex now stretches over 4,000 acres and
contains 550 buildings. The main plant site alone covers
900 acres. The facility makes a wide range of products
to support Eastman’s five business segments. So, not
surprisingly, it boasts every type of piping imaginable,
carrying gases, slurries and an incredible number of
industrial chemicals.
Because we have such a variety of piping and prod-
ucts, we periodically reassess our measurement capabili-
ties. In 2009, we decided to thoroughly investigate flow
metering to see if we could benefit from recent advances.
Much of my job as an environmental and process
analytics chemist is to use portable devices to ensure ac-
curacy of installed flow meters, to troubleshoot process
upsets and to do flow checks on unmetered lines. Ac-
curacy is my main concern. So, I try my best to keep up HOW ULTRASONIC WORKS
with the latest technology. The technique most ultrasonic flow meters use
The need for accurate, representative flow data is called transit-time difference. The meter sends
that we could archive and access has been increasing ultrasonic pulses through the medium, one in
exponentially, but nothing in place could provide all the flow direction and one against it. Transducers
the information we required. Several internal develop- alternate as emitters and receivers. The transit time
ment and engineering groups had looked independently of the signal going with the flow is shorter than the
into earlier-generation clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters one going against. The meter measures transit-time
with data logging capability and had varying degrees of difference and determines the average flow velocity
success with them. For the most part these meters were of the medium. Because ultrasonic signals propagate
collecting dust on a shelf. The problem was accuracy. I in solids, you can mount the meter directly on a pipe
often heard things such as: “We’ve had a clamp-on ul- and measure flow non-invasively, eliminating any
trasonic for years and I’ve never had much luck with the need to cut the pipe.
thing” or “Clamp-on meters are very frustrating to use. The tests. One of my first tests for all the meters
You never know if they are giving you accurate readings, was in a parking lot where we have a 30-in. water line.
if you actually get any readings at all.” I believed such Aside from accuracy, I focused on ease of installation.
meters had vast potential but hadn’t lived up to it. So, I After all, I have to go all over the plant measuring
resolved to see if there had been any advances. flow and I don’t want to waste time setting up. I also
I called every clamp-on ultrasonic flow meter was looking for reliability, data logging capability,
manufacturer I could identify. My intent was to get diagnostic tools and good battery life.
these meters in-house and test each of them on process The water line provided telling results. If a meter
and utilities pipes. I selected 20 points throughout the took too long to set up or didn’t give adequate accu-
site; several are in our coal gasification plant, which racy on such an easy task, there was no point trying it
transports gases and liquids as well as slurries of chang- at the other test sites. Some meters didn’t make it out
ing consistency and temperature. of the parking lot.

March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  42

CP1103_42_43_MIW.indd 42 2/23/11 11:46 AM


And the winner is… I’m not going to name
those meters or, for that matter, the others I didn’t
ultimately select — some were good products with
good accuracy and I don’t want to make them look
bad. But, at the end of six months, one meter met
all of my standards, especially for ease of set up and
accuracy. It was from Flexim.
It had two distinct advantages over the others.
First, it is a combination gas/fluid meter; so I only
had to buy one meter, not two. Second, its instal-
lation is a snap. The main problem with the others
was installation. Flexim has a fi xed frequency on its
transducers. Regardless of what’s being measured,
they keep that frequency. The others use a sweep
frequency — it takes quite a bit of time to set up
their transducers and put them on the pipe. Then
you have to fi nd a “sweet spot” and, even after
you’ve found the spot, you still have to adjust the
transducers to get an accurate measurement.
There are many ways of getting a signal to a
pipe. Lots of meters rely on multiple transducers
that operate at different frequencies to cope with
the various types and wall thicknesses of pipes and
diverse liquids. Flexim uses the same transducer for
everything but fi lters the transmission pattern and
either increases the transducer voltage (which can
range from 15 V to 90 V), or breaks up the pattern
of transmissions to adapt to real-world conditions.
The meter sends approximately 1,000 pulses back
per second in 500 pairs; the system automatically
recognizes a change in liquid consistency. Not
even coal slurries are a big challenge. The system,
through a combination of software, clever trans-
ducers and signal processing, automatically realizes
it’s losing signal and boosts power to the transduc-
ers. It can monitor anything from ¼-in. tubing to a
30-ft. penstock.
I think it’s safe to say that ultrasonic flow
meters fi nally have achieved their potential. I have
taken more than 600 readings — including on
pipes containing acids, water, gases, and slurries at
several hundred degrees — with this portable meter
and my success rate is 99.8%. (The photo shows me
checking a 42-in.-dia. line.) At the end of the day,
I collect all the data dumps from the built-in data
logger and export them to a spreadsheet.
Our internal customers have gained faith in
ultrasonics and have bought ultrasonic units to
replace their older meters. Concerns about accuracy
are a thing of the past. One of our clients was run-
ning an addition process and having some problems
with the feed rates. An orifice plate flow meter on
the line wasn’t giving consistent measurements. I
CP1103_42_43_MIW.indd 43
MAKING IT WORK
RELATED CONTENT ON
CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM
“Ultrasonic Flow Meter is Portable, Fast and
Reliable,”www.ChemicalProcessing.com/vendors/
products/2009/262.html
took the portable over there and spent three days.
The client liked the results but wasn’t sure about
the accuracy. So, I brought the Flexim meter to our
metrology group, which has a Coriolis flow meter
set-up, and we bench tested the portable against it.
The correlation was 0.9999.
NEXT STEPS
We currently have five ultrasonic meters in our
group — four Fluxus F601 liquid units and one
Fluxus G601 gas unit, which actually can measure
liquids as well. Most applications we have are for
liquid measurements but with a plant this size the
ability to measure gas flows from outside the pipe
is definitely a plus. The G601’s specifications give a
100-psi minimum requirement to measure gas flows.
The lowest-pressure line I’ve personally attempted to
measure is 140 psi; that particular application was
for a nitrogen header and the meter worked well.
At the present time our Flow Measurements
Group consists of three people (two utility opera-
tors and me). All across the site, people are clamor-
ing for us to come over with the clamp-on meters.
Th is has prompted us to do some “creative schedul-
ing,” but that’s a good problem to have. Ultimately,
we may add people to the group.
We continually are fi nding new applications
for this technology. When we fi rst started using
the devices we were doing straightforward chores
— basically chemical-addition-type measurements
expressed as gal/min or lb/min. We also did a fair
amount of checking and troubleshooting existing
flow meters. We have begun to expand our rep-
ertoire by adding heat flow (BTU) type measure-
ments. The meters are dual channel and configured
for temperature inputs, allowing us to measure sup-
plies and returns simultaneously. We never had this
energy meter functionality before and it’s already
starting to pay off. It’s defi nitely something we’ll
keep our eyes on.
Where I used to hear “Ultrasonics might as
well be Ouija boards,” now all I hear is “What’s my
flow?” Ultrasonic is definitely the way to go today.
GREG HARPER is an environmental and process analytics chem-
ist and leads the Flow Measurement Group at Eastman Chemical’s
facility in Kingsport, Tenn. E-mail him at gharper@eastman.com.
43 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM MARCH 2011
2/23/11 11:47 AM
 PROCESS puzzler
Choose Cleaning Solvent Wisely
Readers raise a variety of issues to consider
This month’s puzzler
At our batch specialty chemicals plant the production manager wants us
to use waste isohexane as a cleaning solvent. He proposes pumping the
isohexane, which is available from a nearby process, into our columns
prior to cleaning for startup. The commissioning engineer opposes
using it on the grounds that a safer cleaning solvent, such as spent
methanol or acetone, could be available. He suggests using methanol
because it’s cleaner. We’re cleaning two knockout pots and two distil-
lation columns that have been used for several months in the produc-
tion of fish oil (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid). The
material safety data sheet for fish oil shows the following: closed-cup
flash point, 149°C; auto-ignition point, unknown; and conditions to
avoid, “oxygen.” The columns each contain one 8-ft. bed of structured
packing. Normally, the columns operate at a maximum of 100-torr with
electric thermosiphon reboilers. The condensers use chilled glycol. (The
cleaning process proposed by the production manager appears online
at www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2011/vanquish-vexing-vent-
ing.html.) What do you think of the commissioning engineer’s objec-
tion? Is there a better approach for cleaning the process?
`SCRUTINIZE THE SOLVENT
Check the K b [Kari-butanol] value and check the
toxicity [for the solvent] before you go further.
Guy Weismantel, president
Weismantel International, Kingwood, Texas
USE ACETONE
Isohexane is very harmful to the environment and
health. Methanol is also very toxic. So, I suggest
using acetone for f lushing as it is clean and less
hazardous to the environment and health.
Wikipedia notes: “According to a report
by the Cornucopia Institute, hexane is used to
extract oil from grains as well as protein from
soy, to such an extent that in 2007, grain proces-
sors were responsible for more than two-thirds of
hexane emissions in the United States. The report
also pointed out that the hexane can persist in
the final food product created; in a sample of
processed soy, the oil contained 10 ppm, the meal
21 ppm and the grits 14 ppm hexane. The adverse
health effects seem specific to n-hexane; they are
much reduced or absent for other isomers. There-
fore, the food oil extraction industry, which relied
heavily on hexane, has been considering switch-
ing to other solvents, including isohexane.”
Some notes about acetone usage from Wiki-
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  44
CP1103_44_45_Puzzler.indd 44
pedia: “Acetone has been studied extensively
and is generally recognized to have low acute
and chronic toxicity if ingested and/or inhaled.
Inhalation of high concentrations (around 9,200
ppm) in the air caused irritation of the throat
in humans in as little as 5 min. Inhalation of
concentrations of 1,000 ppm caused irritation of
the eye and throat in less than 1 hr; however, in-
halation 500 ppm of acetone in the air caused no
symptoms of irritation in humans even after 2 hr
of exposure. Acetone is not currently regarded as
a carcinogen, a mutagenic chemical or a concern
for chronic neurotoxicity effects. Acetone can be
found as an ingredient in a variety of consumer
products ranging from cosmetics to processed and
unprocessed foods. Acetone has been rated as a
GR AS (Generally Recognized as Safe) substance
when present in beverages, baked goods, desserts,
and preserves at concentrations ranging from 5 to
8 mg/L. Additionally, a joint U.S-European study
found that acetone’s ‘health hazards are slight.’”
Amr Hatem Rashed, production engineer
Abu Qir Fertilizers & Chemical Industries,
Alexandria, Egypt
WHICH SOLVENT WORKS BEST?
For safety, the case that methanol or acetone is
“safer” is weak. Commonly accepted values for
f lash point, lower explosion limit (LEL) and
upper explosion limit are: isohexane, -9°F, 1.0
v%, 7.4 v%; acetone, -4°F, 2.5 v%, 12.8 v%;
methanol, 54°F, 6.0 v%, 36 v%. All are heavier
than air and vapor clouds will tend to travel along
the ground (though methanol is just a little bit
heavier). All will be used at temperatures far in
excess of the f lash point. Methanol has a higher
f lash point and higher LEL but a much wider
range for potential explosive mixtures. Isohexane
has the lowest f lash point and the lowest LEL but
also the narrowest explosive range. Acetone lies in
between on all of the criteria here. Toxicity and
exposure data are also mixed. It’s difficult to say
which is the safer solvent here.
From the question, it’s apparent that both
isohexane and methanol are available in the plant.
However, both also appear to have some con-
taminants in them. No mention was made of the
2/23/11 12:01 PM
 PROCESS puzzler

availability of acetone. There is a big advantage
in using something already present. Safety data,
permitting, training, and experience in han-
dling the solvent are already in place. The steps
outlined look reasonable but the specific details
will count. Details such as temperatures and hold
times and specific steps need to be worked into a
true procedure for operations.
The real question that needs to be answered is
which solvent works best for the process require-
ments and gets the equipment clean? A shorter
time spent using the more effective solvent could
easily give a safer operation than more time
required when using a less effective solvent. With-
out knowing which solvent will work better, you
can’t come to a decision.
Andrew W. Sloley, principal engineer
CH2M HILL, Bellingham, Wash.
CONSIDER VARIOUS HAZARDS
Isohexane poses an unseen hazard. A typical
material safety data sheet shows it contains a mix-
ture of branched butanes and pentanes, e.g., 2, 2
di-methyl butane. Butanes are considered more
dangerous than propanes and natural gas because
they tend to evaporate easily at room temperature
and then recondense somewhere you don’t want
them to be. That’s why the American Petroleum
Institute’s “Recommended Practice for Classifica-
tion of Locations for Electrical Installations at
Petroleum Facilities Classified as Class I, Divi-
sion 1 and Division 2” (API-500) recognizes this
exceptional hazard by labeling butanes as “highly
volatile liquids.”
Although API’s “Protection Against Igni-
tions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray
Currents” (API-RP-2003) and the National Fire
Protection Association’s “Recommended Practice
on Static Electricity” (NFPA-77) don’t provide
convenient reference for comparing solvents, I
found a useful article on the web: http://www.
chilworthpacific.com/pdfs/Vahid_Ebadat_cv.pdf.
Ebadat shows clearly that acetone would be the
best choice based on lower minimum ignition
energy (MIE) alone: 0.3 micro-Joules (mJ) for
hydrocarbons, 0.14 mJ for alcohols and 1.15 mJ
for acetone.
This is not the whole picture, though. The
dangers of static electricity are measured by ac-
cumulated energy and voltage. A low MIE and
high accumulated energy are the worst for risk of
explosion and high voltage is a risk to personnel.
Energy is directly proportional to accumulated
voltage and the liquid dielectric constant. Metha-
nol has a higher dielectric constant than either
acetone or isohexane: 34 vs. 21 vs. 2 at about
77oF. In other words, with methanol you have
the lowest threshold with the highest capacity for
producing energy. Methanol is a bad choice; how-
ever, isohexane appears to have gained in stature
because, for a given f luid velocity, the accumu-
lated energy and volts are much lower than for
acetone. The auto-ignition temperatures and f lash
points also favor acetone over isohexane.
Now, let’s consider the cleaning method.
Fish oil exposed to oxygen forms aldehydes and
ketones, so purging and avoiding high tempera-
ture is crucial. Operating at a high temperature
is a poor idea, so is vacuum. I would lower the
temperature of the columns down to about 50°C
and increase pressure to atmospheric. The KOH
may saponify much above 7–8 pH. Before using
the cleaning procedure it would be a good idea to
test it in the laboratory.
Dirk Willard, senior process engineer
Middough Engineering, Holland, Ohio

MaY’S PUZZLER
We heat heavy oil with steam before sending it to a reac-
tor. The oil, which is pumped through the shell of the heat
exchanger, enters at 100°F and exits at 250°F; 125-psig
steam goes through the tubes. The old exchanger had four
shell passes and eight tube passes. Someone at corpo-
rate engineering mistakenly ordered a heat exchanger
with three shell passes and six tube passes. The new shell
is rated for 250 psig. The oil/steam overall external heat
transfer coefficient is 100 BTU/lb-hr-°F. Is there anything
we can do to use this unit so we don’t have to order a new
heat exchanger and delay production?
Send us your comments, suggestions or solutions for
this question by April 15, 2010. We’ll include as many of
them as possible in the May 2011 issue and all on CP.com.
Send visuals — a sketch is fine. E-mail us at ProcessPuz-
zler@putman.net or mail to Process Puzzler, Chemical
Processing, 555 W. Pierce Road, Suite 301, Itasca, IL 60143.
Fax: (630) 467-1120. Please include your name, title, loca-
tion and company affiliation in the response.
And, of course, if you have a process problem you’d
like to pose to our readers, send it along and we’ll be
pleased to consider it for publication.

45  chemicalprocessing.com March 2011

CP1103_44_45_Puzzler.indd 45 2/23/11 12:02 PM

 plant insites
Consider More Than Static Mixers
A number of technologies can handle pipeline mixing
The term “pipeline mixing” covers mixing of
materials in a flowing line downstream of a junc-
tion. The mixing may involve miscible liquids,
immiscible liquids and multi-phase mixtures. Op-
tions include just letting materials mingle naturally,
using pipe fittings to spur contact, and installing
static mixers, spray nozzles or spargers. Static
The sparger and mixers now dominate pipeline mixing — but that
doesn’t mean they’re always the best choice.
the static mixer Let’s consider a recent case that involved
are the best choosing a better pipeline mixer for a liquid/liquid
service that included mixing both miscible and im-
technical choices. miscible liquids.
This application has two mixing steps: 1) mix-
ing two miscible liquid reactants; and 2) adding
the reactants to an immiscible liquid catalyst. Some
reactions take place at the interface. Others occur
inside the catalyst phase after the reactants dissolve
into the catalyst. The catalyst-to-reactants ratio is
roughly 1:1 by volume; the catalyst has the same
volume as the total reactants in the system. Neither
the reactant phase nor the catalyst phase is well
defined as either a continuous phase or a discon-
tinuous phase.
The idea was to improve yields by more-
thorough reactant/reactant and reactants/catalyst
mixing. This would increase inter-phase surface
area, which would help both types of reaction
mechanisms. The current setup relies on a simple
pipe junction upstream of the reactors. We evalu-
ated a spray nozzle, a sparger and a static mixer as a
possible replacement.
Conventional spray nozzles accelerate a liquid to
create a jet. The liquid then breaks up into smaller
droplets. The major types of spray nozzles that
might be used here are based on (1) rotating flow in
a chamber that exits 90° from the liquid inlet, (2)
swirl imparted by an internal vane or (3) a narrow
stream cut by a spiral blade (pig tail).
These nozzles form droplets primarily through a
combination of liquid ligament breakup and slicing
of liquid sheets leaving the nozzle. Both mecha-
nisms vary with liquid velocity, surface tension
between phases and other physical properties. Jet
instability is a key factor in making lots of drops.
The little data available show most mixing veloc-
ity is shed within 12 in. to 18 in. of the nozzle. No
significant droplet formation occurs because the
original liquid ligaments or sheets don’t form.
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  46
CP1103_46_Insites.indd 46
A sparger is a pipe with multiple holes that cre-
ate a pressure drop forcing flow to distribute across
the holes. (This pressure drop only is imposed on
the liquid being injected, not the entire stream.)
With the sparger installed into the main line, the
injected flow of one stream would enter the second
stream. The sparger could be aligned either across
a larger pipe (at 90°) or along the same flow line as
the larger pipe.
As with a spray nozzle, enhanced liquid mixing
comes from local turbulence created by injecting
a high velocity liquid into a second liquid. The
mixing is likely at least as good as that of a spray
nozzle. Design and installation of a liquid sparger
typically is both cheaper and simpler.
Static mixers have become dominant for good
reason. They use vanes or blades as elements. This
enables mixing to occur at relatively low pressure
drop, as little as 10% or 20% that of a sparger. The
only potential downsides are that a static mixer
often requires a longer straight pipe run for instal-
lation and pressure drop is applied to the entire
stream.
Overall, the sparger and the static mixer are
the best technical choices. Both have proven track
records. In contrast, the spray nozzle, which is
designed for liquid injection into gas, rarely is used
in liquid/liquid services and should be avoided.
Despite this, the plant has opted for spray-noz-
zle injection for both mixing tasks. It considered
spray nozzles proven technology because they have
been used in this process by other plants. Here,
though, hydraulic constraints limit the pressure
drop to a fraction of that at other units; so results
may not be as good.
Not agreeing with a decision doesn’t free an
engineer of the responsibility to help the site derive
the most benefit possible from its choice. So, we
recommended use of pig-tail-type nozzles. These
mechanically “cut” a solid liquid stream into sheets
but don’t form as uniform droplets as the other
types in conventional services. However, their me-
chanical design is guaranteed to at least do some-
thing. The cutting action will improve liquid/liquid
mixing somewhat. Also, the cutting edge acts as a
minor mixing element in its own right.
andrew sloley, Contributing Editor
ASloley@putman.net
2/23/11 11:48 AM
 CLASSIFIED
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CP1103_47_49_CLASS.indd 49 2/25/11 11:02 AM

 END POINT
EU Carbon Trading Gets Hacked
Cyber criminals view emission allowances as a gold mine
Following the January theft of emissions
allowances worth €7 million ($9.4 million) from an
account in the Czech Republic — plus hacked trad-
ing accounts in Austria, Poland, Greece and Estonia
— the European Commission (EC) has temporarily
suspended the national registries that manage its
emissions trading scheme (ETS).
Hackers target Launched in 2005, the ETS encourages compa-
nies to invest in low-polluting technologies by making
emissions trad- the firms buy allowances to cover their annual emis-
ing due to lax sions. Each country within the European Union (EU)
is allocated a certain quantity of permits which are
security. then issued to companies. More efficient companies
profit by selling or banking unused allowances. Sales
last year reached €90 billion ($124 billion).
Henry Derwent, president and CEO of the
International Emissions Trading Association (IETA),
Geneva, Switz., outlined why criminals are attracted
to the registries in an interview with National Public
Radio on January 22.
“It is essentially an allowance. This piece of paper
allows my company to emit a ton of carbon diox-
ide through a combustion process. So it has value.
Companies that produce less carbon than they’re
permitted can sell what’s left of their allowance to
companies that produce more than they should.
There’s actually a market where these allowances are
traded electronically. Over the past few months, but
especially in the last week, criminals have been able
to break into one of the registries where those carbon
allowances were recorded and change who owns
what. If you make sure that it’s transferred to an ac-
count that you own and you sell it very quickly, then
you’ve essentially got something for nothing, sold it
for a lot, and you get out of town with all the dollars
in your bag.”
What the theft proves, he added, is that carbon
emission allowances are now seen as commodities
like gold or wheat — and, if not defended by good
security, are likely to be targeted by criminals.
Eleven months prior to the attacks, the IETA
sent a letter to Jos Delbeke, deputy director general
at the EC’s directorate general for the environment,
Brussels, concerning an earlier value-added-tax fraud
associated with the scheme. Among the six measures
urged in the letter were: new anti-phishing con-
trols, a centralized monitoring/EU registry system,
comprehensive anti-fraud measures, and continuous
evaluation of ETS.
March 2011 chemicalprocessing.com  50
CP1103_50_EndPoint.indd 50
In a letter to the EC on January 20, IETA pointed
out that the thefts could have been avoided if these
recommendations had been implemented properly.
The letter adds: “We would like to invite the Com-
mission and member states to be aware of the damage
that this situation is inflicting on market participants.
We therefore call on the Commission to urgently and
thoroughly close this security gap by reviewing re-
quirements to access accounts, by ensuring the actual
implementation of stringent IT security checks by
a set date, and by clarifying liability issues once and
for all in case of a theft of emission allowances. There
must be a deadline by when security upgrades have to
occur and progress of implementation must be closely
monitored.”
Before compiling its letter, the IETA canvassed
the views of its own members on a number of issues
relating to the registry suspension. It asked, “What
mandatory security tests should be used to determine
whether registries can re-open?” More than 20 mem-
bers — including industrial companies — replied.
Most respondents considered it necessary for
registries to have second authentication in place — in
addition to ID and password — for all accounts where
a transaction can be initiated. Such authentication,
they said, could include electronic certificates, elec-
tronic ID cards, one-time passwords via short message
service (SMS), or tokens.
It was also emphasized that the e-tokens used for
second authentication shouldn’t restrict operational
arrangements. In practice, each designated user of an
account should get an e-token for second authentication.
There was much less support for two-person
authorization procedures. Here, each access to an
account where a transaction can be initiated (or each
transaction) would be initiated by one authorized rep-
resentative through ID and password, then confirmed
by a different authorized representative with a differ-
ent ID and password.
Overall, respondents felt that registry security
should respect the following requirements: strong
passwords, changed on a monthly basis; personal ac-
counts and follow up of inactive accounts; confirma-
tion of a transaction by both parties before it becomes
effective; and encrypted and secure connection to the
web server.
Seán ottewell, Editor at Large
sottewell@putman.net
2/23/11 11:48 AM
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