Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725

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Construction and Building Materials

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Influence of aggregate size on the compressive size effect according

to different concrete types
Jae-Il Sim a,1, Keun-Hyeok Yang b,⇑, Joong-Kyu Jeon c,2
a
Department of Architectural Engineering, Kyonggi University, Suwon, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea
b
Department of PlantArchitectural Engineering, Kyonggi University, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea
c
Kolon Global Corporation R&BD Center, Yongin, Kyonggi-do, Republic of Korea

h i g h l i g h t s

 This study provides understanding of the compressive size effect according to concrete type.
 We also examine the influence of aggregate size on the size effect.
 We ascertain the reliability of the existing equations for different concretes.
 We find that the influence of aggregate size on size effect is negligible for lightweight concrete.
 It is observed that the size effect become stronger with the decrease of concrete unit weight.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present tests prepared 9 ready-mixed concrete batches to examine the influences of the concrete
Received 18 November 2012 type and the maximum aggregate size (da) on the size effect in compression. For each concrete mixing,
Received in revised form 24 March 2013 the aspect ratios of specimens with circular or square sections were 1.0 and 2.0, while the lateral dimen-
Accepted 25 March 2013
sions of specimens varied from 50 mm to 400 mm. A comprehensive database including the 1492
Available online 24 April 2013
normal-weight concrete (NWC) and 363 lightweight concrete (LWC) specimens was also established in
order to trace the size-effect trend in LWC through the comparisons with the modern prediction models
Keywords:
proposed by Bažant, Neville, Kim and Eo, and Sim et al. The present study clearly showed that the size
Size effect
Maximum aggregate size
effect and the slope of the size effect became stronger with the decrease of the unit weight of concrete.
Lightweight concrete The influence of da on the size effect observed in the current NWC specimens was smaller than the
Aspect ratio predictions obtained from the models of Bažant and Kim and Eo; while it was found to be negligible
Database for LWC. Further, the refined model of Sim et al. confirms that the gain of the compressive strength of
concrete due to the increase of da is insignificant, especially for LWC.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The size and shape effects on the compressive strength of con-
crete have been significantly evaluated since the experimental
demonstrations provided by Gonnerman [1]. In particular, the
introduction of fracture mechanics encourages the sophisticated
approaches of the empirical equations [2–4] to predict the size
effect in concrete properties. As a result, the size and shape effects
on compressive strength are practically generalized in some degree
for normal-weight concrete (NWC) and partially considered in
standard [5] and code [6] provisions. However, those effects are
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 (0)31 249 9703.
E-mail addresses: jisim@kgu.ac.kr (J.-I. Sim), yangkh@kgu.ac.kr (K.-H. Yang),
jkjeon31@kolon.com (J.-K. Jeon).
1 compaction of concrete and the uniform distribution of the large
Tel.: +82 (0)31 249 9843.
2
Tel.: +82 (0)31 329 0663.
still uncertain for lightweight concrete (LWC), as very few, if any,
experimental test data [7] are available in the literature. The safety
and validity of the correction factors specified in provisions [5,6] to
allow using the different geometries of specimens are fairly doubt-
ful for LWC. In addition, the experimental constants in the basic
formulas [3,4,8] to predict the size effect would need to be cor-
rected for LWC.
The non-scaling of the aggregate has been recognized as one of
the important causes of the size effect on the compressive strength
of concrete [3,9,10]. From extensive reviews, Sabnis and Mirza [9]
concluded that compressive strength of concrete tends to decrease
as the aggregate size is increased excessively, causing higher stres-
ses at the interface between aggregate particles and cement pastes.
Neville [8] introduced the concept o the wall effect to clarify the
effect of the mold size-to-maximum aggregate size ratio on the
particles of aggregates. The wall effect shows that a smaller

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.066
 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725
specimen requires smaller particles of aggregates to mitigate the
influence of aggregate size on the size effect. In contrast, artificial
lightweight aggregates generally produce a lower cohesion and a
higher void in the interface between the aggregates and with
pastes, compared to natural normal-weight aggregates [8] due to
the lower strength, smoother surface texture and poorer grading
of the lightweight aggregates. The cracks at the failure plane of
LWC also mainly passed through the aggregate particles [10].
These different characteristics would result in the unusual trend
dissimilar to the size effect that is generally observed in NWC.
On the other hand, Van Vliet and van Mier [11] ascertained that
the shape effect is affected by the boundary friction conditions
including the rotational freedom of the loading platens, and
restraint at the concrete specimen-loading platen interface. Based
on test results using prisms with a cross section of 100 
100 mm2, Van Vliet and van Mier concluded the followings in terms
of compressive strength. (1) The compressive strength of concrete
measured from specimens using conventional steel loading platens
(high friction) decreases with the increase in the aspect ratio of
specimen, whereas that obtained from specimens using a friction
reducing interlayer (low friction) in the interface is almost indepen-
dent of the aspect ratio of specimen. (2) Higher compressive
strength is observed in specimens with high friction condition than
in specimens with low friction, especially with the decrease in the
aspect ratio of specimen. (3) However, the differences of compres-
sive strength according to boundary friction condition decrease sig-
nificantly as the aspect ratio of specimen is more than 1.0 and
become negligible for specimens with a aspect ratio of 2.0. To min-
imize the effect of boundary condition at the interface between
specimens and loading platens on the compressive strength of con-
crete, the present study selected the aspect ratio of specimen as 1.0
and 2.0. Furthermore, the current tests and discussions on the size
and shape effects according to the concrete type are limited to be
high friction state using conventional steel loading platens.
In the present study, we examine the size and shape effects and
the crack propagation characteristics in LWC under axial compres-
sive load according to the maximum aggregate size (da). Nine
ready-mixed concrete batches were prepared to cast a total of
756 molds with different section shapes, aspect ratios, and lateral
dimensions. A comprehensive database including the 1492 NWC
[1,12–18] and 363 LWC [7,19] specimens was also established
from the available literature. The experimental constants in the
preferred basic formula [2,4,7,8] to predict the size effect were
then refitted using the database and the current test results to
determine the influence of the concrete type and da on the size
and shape effects.
2. Summary of database
Fig. 1 summarizes the distribution of test parameters in the
database to examine the size effect under axial compression. It is
noted that all specimens in the database were tested under high
friction state using conventional steel loading platens at the inter-
face. In accordance with ACI 213R-03 [20], the present database
classifies the type of concrete according to its unit weight (qc) as
follows: all-lightweight concrete (ALWC) with qc < 1700 kg/m3;
sand-lightweight concrete (SLWC) with qc < 2000 kg/m3; and
NWC with 2240 < qc < 2480 kg/m3. The compressive strength in
the database ranges from 6.6 MPa to 128 MPa for NWC, 6.9 MPa
to 64.8 MPa for SLWC and 28.6 MPa to 57.7 MPa for ALWC. The
database covers the following geometrical dimensions of speci-
mens: the lateral dimensions (d) are between 37.5 mm and
914.4 mm for circular section and 50 mm and 400 mm for square
section; and the aspect ratios (n1 = h/d) are between 0.4 and 4.0
for a cylinder and 0.5 and 4.0 for a cube, where h is the height of
717
a specimen. The maximum aggregate size (da) varies from
4.7 mm to 228.6 mm for NWC, and 12.7 mm to 38.1 mm for
LWC; while it is assumed to be 25 mm for the specimens with no
accessible data. The unit weights of NWC and LWC are assumed
to be 2300 kg/m3 and 1900 kg/m3, respectively, for the specimens
where no data are available.
3. Review of existing models
3.1. Neville
From the regression analysis of test data [8], Neville pointed out
that the size effect in compression should not be ignored in design
and analysis of high accuracy. Neville suggested a general relation
on the size and shape effects in terms of volume and aspect ratio of
specimen as follows:
b1
fc ðdÞ ¼ a1 þ  kd f0 ðd is in mmÞ ð1Þ
150
þ n1 c
where a1 and b1 are experimental constants, fc(d) is compressive
strength of each specimen with different sizes and shapes, fc is
the compressive strength of the standard cylinder of 150 mm diam-
eter and 300 mm height (n1 = 2.0), and k is related to the section
shape of specimen, which gives p/4 and 1.0 for the cylindrical and
cubic sections, respectively. It should be noted that Neville origi-
nally used 150 mm cube strength (fcu) as a reference value in place
of fc0 . In addition, the wall effect, which is schematically introduced
to explain the effect of aggregate size on the compressive strength
of concrete, is not reflected in the above prediction model.
Although, Neville proposed the constants a1 and b1 in Eq. (1) to
be 0.56 and 0.697, respectively, based on the regression analysis
of dozens of limited test data, the present study optimally read-
justed those constants to be 0.53 and 1.22, respectively, by fitting
the database.
3.2. Bažant
Bažant [2,3] successfully demonstrated the size effect on con-
crete strength through numerous experiments and theoretical
approaches based on non-linear fracture mechanics. To derive
the size effect law, he hypothesized the potential energy release
rate at the fracture to be dependent on the length and width of
the crack band zone formed from a number of smeared micro-
cracks. Bažant detected that the width of crack band is propor-
tional to da. Considering the energy balance at crack propagation,
the following basic formula was derived from the dimensional
analysis to explain the size effect:
A1 0
rN ¼  0:5 ft ð2Þ
d
1þ B 1 da
where rN is nominal stress at failure, ft0 is strength parameter, and
A1 and B1 are experimental coefficients. From the application of fc0
instead of ft0 and then by determining the experimental coefficients
by the regression analysis procedure using the database, the size
effect equation can be specifically written as follows:
1:2
fc ðdÞ ¼  0:5 fc
0
ð3Þ
d
1 þ 41d a
3.3. Kim and Eo
Kim and Eo [4] analyzed the trend of the size effect for speci-
mens with dissimilar initial cracks and pointed out that the basic
formula derived by Bažant needs to be modified to consider the
718 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725

800 1100
(a) Compressive strength NWC (b) Lateral dimension of specimen NWC
700 697 ALWC 1022 ALWC
1000
SLWC SLWC

Frequency
Frequency

600 900
400 400
297
300 233 300
202 195
200 131 142 200 149
85 86
100 4868 37 100 64 52 36 36
27 22 32 1212 11 10
1 3
0 0
6.9~20 20~40 40~60 60~80 80~100 100~130 37.5~100 100~200 200~300 300~500 500~800 800~915
Compressive strength, f'c (MPa) Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm)

900 1000
(c) Aspect ratio of specimen 860 NWC (d) Aggregate maximum size 957 NWC
800 ALWC 900 ALWC
SLWC SLWC
Frequency

700 800

Frequency
500
400 377 443
400
300 224 300
211
200 200 134
100 91
100 67 67
20 38 100 18 20 18 36 18
6 5
0 0
0.4~0.5 0.5~1 1~2 2~3 3~4 4~5 5 5~10 10~20 20~40 40~100 100~229
Aspect ratio of specimen, n1 Aggregate maximum size, da (mm)

800 1100
(e) High of specimen NWC (f) Unit weight 1036
f' c 50 MPa
700 657 ALWC 1000 f' c > 50 MPa
SLWC
Frequency

600 900
Frequency

500 400
400
386 300 244
300 214 202 200 211
200 123 103 103
78 87 100
100 43 50
11 34 24 24 33 6 6 11 18 6
0 0
38.1~100 100~200 200~400 400~800 800~1830 1570~1700 1700~2000 2000~2300 2300~2400 2400~2510
High of specimen, H (mm) Unit weight, 3
c (kg/m )

Fig. 1. Distribution of different parameters in the database.

smooth transition of the size effect curve beyond a threshold point 3.4. Sim et al.
of d/da. The smooth transition was inferred from the comparisons
of test data and Bažant’s model. As the crack length at failure is In the companion paper [7], Sim et al. considered that the frac-
not easily measured experimentally, they assumed that the dissim- ture of concrete is caused by a crack band formed from a number of
ilar specimen sizes with the same da have the same initial crack smeared micro-cracks rather than a single line crack. As a result,
length. Thus, for the regression analysis within some practical the fracture of concrete was modeled as the propagation of the
range of sizes, the Eq. (2) was modified to consider a small differ- band of uniformly and continuously distributed cracks with a fixed
ence in the strength reduction trends beyond the smooth transi- width (wc). To identify the experimental observations of a smaller
tion using a factor representing size-independent strength. From crack band zone in LWC specimens compared with NWC speci-
the fitting procedure using the database, similar to adjusting the mens, wc was simply assumed to be a function of qc and da. Thus,
experimental constants of Eq. (2), Kim and Eo’s model can be based on the energy balance during the propagation of the crack
practically obtained in the following form: band and non-linear regression analysis of numerous test data,
the following prediction model was derived:
0:48 0 0
fc ðdÞ ¼  0:5 fc þ 0:63fc ð4Þ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
d
1þ 17da
1
k
ðn1 Þ0:62
1:5
fc0 ðdÞ ¼  0
 0:58 0:5 fc ð5Þ
The experimental constants of 0.48, 17 and 0.63 were deter- d
1 þ 0:006 d0:013 q qc
0
mined to be 0.41, 15 and 0.65, respectively, using cylinders with a

n1 of 2.0 by Kim and Eo. It should be noted that the experimental

constants in Eq. (4) are readjusted if the effect of da is taken as a where q0 (=2300 kg/m3) is the reference value for concrete unit
constant, as shown in Kim and Eo. weight. Further, to consider the strength reduction trends at d
 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725 719

above 500 mm and to simplify the above equation, Sim et al. pro-
posed a refined model as follows:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
5:58 ðn1 Þ1:54
fc0 ðdÞ ¼  0 0
 1:0 0:5 fc þ 0:63fc ð6Þ
qc
1 þ 0:7d q
0
4. Experimental programme
4.1. Specimen details
Table 1 gives the details of 9 ready-mixed concrete batches designed according
to the concrete type and da at the same targeted fc0 of 35 MPa. The maximum aggre-
gate size (da) varied to be 8 mm, 13 mm, and 19 mm in each ALWC, SLWC and NWC
groups. The mean aggregate sizes calculated from the particle distribution curves
were 7 mm, 9 mm and 12 mm when da is 8 mm, 13 mm and 19 mm, respectively.
The size and shape of specimens tested in each series are listed in Table 2. In each
concrete mix, circular and square section molds with n1 of 1.0 and 2.0 were used to
record compressive strength. While the circular specimens are commonly desig-
nated to be a cylinder, the square section molds are referred to be a cube and a
prism when n1 is 1.0 and 2.0, respectively. The lateral dimensions of specimens var-
ied from 50 mm to 400 mm at a spacing of 50 mm, regardless of the type of molds.
4.2. Materials
Ordinary Portland cement without supplementary cementitious materials was
used for the binder in all the mixtures. Table 3 gives the physical properties of
the aggregates used for the concrete mixes. Artificially expanded clay granules were
used for lightweight aggregates (LWAs). Locally available natural sand and crushed
granite were also used for normal-weight fine and coarse aggregates, respectively.
The LWA were spherical in shape and had a closed surface with a slightly smooth
texture and porous structure. The specific gravity of LWA was approximately 1.6–
2.2 times lower than that of natural normal-weight aggregates (NWAs), whereas
the water absorption of LWA was excessively high. The specific gravity and water
absorption of aggregates were minimally affected by their maximum size. All
LWA and NWA were batched in a damp state and a saturated surface dried state,
respectively. The amount of water absorbed in LWA was accounted for in the mix-
ture-proportioning procedure.
4.3. Test procedure
A concentric axial compressive load was applied until failure using a 5000 kN
capacity universal testing machine. The applied load was statically controlled with
a rate of approximately 10 micro-strain per second, in accordance with the standard
test procedure specified in ASTM [5]. Prior to setting up the specimens, the both
ends of all specimens were levelled using a grinding machine. Conventional steel
loading platens were also installed between testing machine and concrete speci-
mens. Hence, all specimens were tested under a high friction condition. To mini-
mize the eccentricity, the set-up of specimens was adjusted at an initial loading
stage, without any cracks occurring, until approximately consistent displacement
values were obtained from four 25 mm-capacity linear variable differential trans-
ducers installed at the four sides of the specimens. Loads and displacements were
continuously captured by a data logger and automatically stored.
5. Test results and discussions
5.1. Crack propagation and distribution
The typical crack-propagation distributions observed in
150 mm  300 mm cylindrical specimens using ALWC and NWC
are shown in Fig. 2. For NWC specimens, the initial cracks devel-
oped within the mid-height of the specimen and were slowly prop-
agated upwards and downwards, and new cracks then followed
with the increase of the applied load. The crack distribution of
NWC specimens was somewhat affected by da, showing a wider
crack zone and narrower crack spacing in concrete with da of
19 mm than in concrete with da of 8 mm. The cracks of NWC were
commonly formed along the pastes between the aggregate parti-
cles (as presented in Fig. 2a and b), which can induce aggregate
interlock action along the cracks. With the increase of da, the crack
lengths that developed around the aggregate particles tended to
increase. As a result, a better crack distribution in NWC was ob-
served with the increase of da. In contrast, the crack distribution
was independent of da in all LWC specimens. The failure of LWC
specimens after peak stress was governed by the longitudinal crack

Table 1
Details of each ready-mixed concrete batch.

Concrete mixa W/C (%) da (mm) Unit volume weight (kg/m3) fc0 (MPa) qc (kg/m3)
W C FL FS GL GC
A8 43 8 200 465 403 0 417 00 39.2 1685
A13 13 425 0 383 38.1 1614
A19 19 417 0 401 39.4 1661
S8 47 8 426 0 838 417 38.6 1935
S13 13 883 383 37.1 1910
S19 19 866 401 37.8 1920
N8 55 8 364 862 0 935 36.5 2210
N13 13 862 35.8 2303
N19 19 862 35.5 2314

Note: W/C = water-to-cement ratio by weight, FL = lightweight fine aggregate, FS = natural sand, GL = lightweight coarse aggregates, GC = natural crushed gravel, fc0 = concrete
compressive strength measured from a cylinder with 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height, and qc = unit weight of hardened concrete.
a
In the concrete mix notation, the first and second parts indicate the type of concrete and the maximum aggregates size, respectively. For example, A8 indicates an all-
lightweight ready-mixed concrete with the maximum aggregates size of 8 mm.

Table 2
Geometrical details of specimens used in each ready-mixed concrete batch.

Type Distribution of size and shape of specimen

Shape Size
Section Aspect ratio, (n1 = h/d) Lateral dimension, d (mm) Height, h (mm)
Cylinder Circle 1 50, 100, 150, 250, 300, 350 and 400 50, 100, 150, 250, 300, 350 and 400
2 100, 200, 300, 500, 600, 700 and 800
Cube Square 1 50, 100, 150, 250, 300, 350 and 400
Prism 2 100, 200, 300, 500, 600, 700 and 800

Note: For each specimen with the same geometrical details, 3 molds were prepared to measure the compressive strength of concrete.
720 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725

Table 3
Physical properties of aggregates used.

Type Maximum size (mm) Unit volume weight (kg/m3) Specific gravity Water absorption (%) Fineness
Lightweight aggregate Coarse aggregate 19 729 1.21 18.96 6.56
13 697 1.18 18.00 6.31
8 759 1.22 18.77 5.86
Fine aggregate 4 832 1.65 13.68 4.34
Natural normal-weight aggregate Coarse aggregate 19 1700 2.65 0.62 6.05
13 1680 5.92
8 1650 5.7
Fine aggregate 5 1750 2.6 1.85 2.51

Fig. 2. Typical characteristics of crack propagation according to the type of concrete and maximum aggregate size.

joining the top and bottom surfaces of the specimen. The initial
crack was nearly linear and had a smooth failure surface because
the cracks mainly passed through the coarse aggregate particles.
Thus, the aggregate interlock action could not be expected and
the crack distribution in LWC specimens was considerably poor,
regardless of da.
The crack propagation also influenced the post-peak behavior of
specimens, as shown in Fig. 3. The slope in the descending branch
after peak stress is steeper with the increase of the lateral dimen-
sion of specimen, showing a more brittle performance as specimen
size increases. The stress–inelastic displacement relationship
during softening is governed by the sliding of the blocks along
the localized failure plane and boundary friction condition [11].
The effect of the sliding along the localized failure plane on the
average post-peak compressive strain can be affected by aggregate
interlock action. Hence, the effect of concrete type on the post-
peak behavior should be further investigated based on more
sophisticated experimental records. The present discussions focus
on the size and shape effects on the compressive strength in each
concrete type.
5.2. Size effect according to different shapes of specimens
To examine the trend of the size effect according to different
specimen profiles including the section shape and aspect ratio,
the normalized concrete compressive strength (k ¼ fc0 ðdÞ=fc0 ) and
the best-fit curves of the points measured from concrete with da
of 19 mm are plotted in Fig. 4. Table 4 also summarizes the average
compressive strength of concrete measured from testing of the
three specimens with the identical size and shape. At the same d,
a higher k was commonly observed in specimens with n1 of 1.0
than in specimens with n1 of 2.0, regardless of the concrete type,
indicating that the size effect becomes more intensive with the
increasing n1. The differences of the values of k according to n1
were more notable in NWC specimens than in LWC specimens;
whereas the effect of section shape on k was somewhat dependent
on n1. Very similar best-fit curves were obtained in cylindrical and
prismatic specimens with n1 of 2.0, while a higher best-fit curve
was determined in cubes than in cylinders with n1 of 1.0. However,
the decreasing rate of k against d was marginally affected by the
section shape and n1 of specimens. Hence, it can be pointed out
that the specimen profile influences the modulus of the size effect
but is irrelevant to the slope of the size effect.
5.3. Size effect for each concrete type
The typical influence of the concrete type on the size effect is
evaluated in Fig. 5 using the test data measured from a cube and
a cylinder with n1 of 2.0 when da is 19 mm. At the same d, the
values of k measured from NWC specimens were generally higher
than those of SLWC specimens, which in turn was also higher than
those of ALWC specimens. This indicates that the size effect
becomes stronger with the decrease of the unit weight of concrete.
The crack band zone of LWC specimens is more localized than that

60
50
Nominal stress (MPa)
40
30
d = 250 mm
20
d = 300 mm
10
d = 400 mm d = 350 mm
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
Nominal strain
Fig. 3. Typical stress–strain curves according to the lateral dimension of cylinder
specimens made from A19 concrete mix.
of NWC specimens, as shown in Fig. 2. Further, the aggregate inter-
lock action along the crack plane is hardly expectable in LWC be-
cause of the fracture of the aggregate particles. These crack
propagation characteristics result in a stronger size effect in LWC
compared with that of the companion NWC. The best-fit curves
also show that the differences of the values of k for each concrete
type gradually increase with the increase of d and are larger in the
cube than in the cylinder with n1 of 2.0. When d was 50 mm, the
average values of k were 1.55 and 1.45 for NWC and ALWC cubes,
respectively, and 1.45 and 1.32 for NWC and ALWC cylinders with
n1 of 2.0, respectively. In contrast, for specimens with d of 400 mm,
the average values of k were 0.85 and 0.77 for NWC and ALWC
cubes, respectively, and 0.78 and 0.7 for NWC and ALWC cylinders
with n1 of 2.0, respectively. This reveals that the decreasing rate of
k against d was also more prominent in LWC than in NWC, while
the effect of the shape of specimen on the relation of the slope of
the size effect and the concrete type was indistinct.
5.4. Size effect according to different maximum aggregate sizes
The influence of da on the size effect is traced in Fig. 6 using the
measured results of a cylinder with n1 of 2.0. The intensity of size
effect according to da was dependent on the concrete type. The val-
ues of k for NWC slightly increased with the increase of da. For
1.6 The best fit curves determined from each data group are plotted using different lines
1.4
1.2
f'c (d )/f 'c
0.8
(a) ALWC with da = 19 mm
0.6
0 100
J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725 721
NWC, as da increased from 8 mm to 19 mm, the average values
of k increased by 5.8 percent in specimens with d of 50 mm and
by 6.8% in specimens with d of 400 mm. This indicates that the ef-
d = 50 mm fect of da on the values of k for NWC was marginally affected by d.
In contrast, it was difficult to find the effect of da on the values of k
for LWC because of the very similar best-fit curves determined for
each da. This may be attributed to the crack propagation character-
istics passing through the LWA particles. Hence, it is advisable that
d = 100 mm no aggregate interlock capacity on the size effect be considered in
LWC.
d = 150 mm
6. Comparisons with prediction models
0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
Typical comparisons of the trends of each prediction model on
the size effect in ALWC are presented in Fig. 7. On the same figure,
the relevant data sets extracted from the database are also plotted
in order to examine the validity of the prediction models according
to the influencing parameters. The prediction models proposed by
Bažant [2] and Kim and Eo [4] based on non-linear fracture
mechanics show a very similar trend, although the values of k pre-
dicted by the Bažant equation are gradually lower than those ob-
tained from the Kim and Eo model when d is larger than
approximately 300 mm, especially for concrete with a smaller da.
This indicates that the differences between size effect curves of
both models gradually increase with the decrease of da. In addition,
the both models overestimate considerably the influence of da on
the size effect, contrary to the present experimental observation
that the increase of k according to da is minimal even in NWC.
The predictions obtained from the Neville’s equation [8] neglecting
the aggregate interlock also significantly underestimates the test
data when d is smaller than 150 mm, beyond which the overesti-
mation gradually increases. The Neville’s equation generally shows
lower values of k and a similar decreasing rate of k against d, com-
pared with the equations by Bažant and Kim and Eo. Overall, Fig. 7
clearly shows that the above three models tend to overestimate the
compressive size effect in LWC; whereas, the original model de-
rived by Sim et al. [7] predicts lower values of k at d above
150 mm and a more rapid slope of the size effect than the other
models: it also modestly considers the influence of da on the size
effect. As a result, Sim et al.’s model tends to be closer to the exper-
imental observations.
To examine the validity of the proposed models in the same n1,
the compressive strength of cylinder with different d is normalized
(Cube) Cube
n 1 = 1.0
(Cylinder
) Cylinder
(Prism
) Prism
n1 = 2.0
(Cylinder
) Cylinder
(b) NWC with da = 19 mm
200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 500
Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm)
Fig. 4. Size effect according to the different shapes of specimens.
722 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725

Table 4
Summary of compressive strength measured from each specimen (1 MPa = 145 psi; 1 mm = 0.039 in.).

Type of specimen Aspect ratio d (mm) Compressive strength (MPa)

ALWC SLWC NWC
da (mm) da (mm) da (mm)
8 13 19 8 13 19 8 13 19
Cube 1 50 59.1 57.3 57.7 57.7 58.3 56.5 50.5 50.2 52.4
100 45.2 45.2 48.4 45.8 44.5 47.1 40.1 41.4 46.3
150 44.5 43.8 42.1 43.1 43.4 42.1 40.5 39.5 39.2
250 37.1 35.8 35.9 38.1 37.3 35.6 31.6 33.2 34.1
300 35.6 32.2 32.5 36.1 35.9 34.2 31.1 31.5 33.1
350 34.0 31.1 31.4 35.5 33.6 32.4 30.4 29.5 31.4
400 28.4 27.5 29.8 31.5 30.2 31.3 28.0 27.1 31.4
Prism 2 50 54.3 51.0 50.7 51.1 52.4 49.8 46.7 48.6 48.2
100 43.7 43.0 43.6 41.1 41.8 43.6 36.2 37.5 41.5
150 37.5 39.3 38.5 36.2 36.2 37.5 35.0 34.7 36.5
250 32.6 33.6 35.0 32.8 32.1 35.5 30.6 30.5 33.8
300 31.4 32.8 32.1 32.0 31.2 32.4 29.9 29.8 32.6
350 31.6 30.6 30.5 27.6 28.9 31.4 29.2 29.0 31.7
400 28.1 27.3 29.0 26.2 27.2 29.5 27.9 27.3 30.0
Cylinder 1 50 54.3 53.9 53.6 53.3 53.0 52.3 51.7 51.2 51.8
100 42.8 43.5 44.4 42.5 42.2 43.2 41.4 41.1 43.9
150 39.2 40.7 40.5 40.7 39.4 39.4 38.5 39.1 38.4
250 34.4 34.2 36.0 36.1 35.6 36.4 36.0 36.6 35.7
300 33.3 32.2 33.1 34.1 33.6 34.2 33.8 34.4 33.1
350 32.9 31.6 31.6 33.8 34.6 33.7 33.6 34.8 32.3
400 30.1 29.2 30.3 30.9 31.3 30.4 31.0 30.4 30.2
2 50 52.2 51.6 50.9 50.4 50.7 50.7 48.8 47.3 49.9
100 42.9 40.9 43.6 40.3 39.8 43.4 38.6 35.2 40.5
150 39.2 38.1 39.4 38.6 37.1 37.8 36.5 35.8 35.5
250 34.9 34.2 33.1 32.7 32.1 33.0 32.8 32.0 33.8
300 31.3 31.1 30.2 30.5 28.7 32.2 30.6 30.0 30.8
350 30.0 28.1 30.0 29.9 28.8 31.4 30.2 30.4 30.9
400 27.0 26.9 28.6 27.0 27.8 30.0 27.5 27.6 29.8

1.6 The best fit curves determined from each data group are plotted using different lines

NWC
( ) NWC
1.4
( ) SLWC
SLWC
( ) ALWC
ALWC

1.2
f' c (d )/f'c

0.8

(a) Cube (n 1 = 1.0) with d a = 19 mm (b) Cylinder (n1 = 2.0) with d a = 19

0.6
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm)

Fig. 5. Size effect according to the concrete type.

by that of the companion cylinder specimen with the same n1 and
d of 150 mm (see Fig. 8). Similar to the observations of Fig. 7, equa-
tions proposed by Bažant [2] and Kim and Eo [4] quite overesti-
mate the test results, especially for LWC. Furthermore, the
predictions obtained from the Neville’s equation [8] are higher
than experimental results of LWC. On the other hand, the original
model derived by Sim et al. [7] predicts accurately the experimen-
tal trends, regardless of the type of concrete. This indicates that
Sim et al.’s equation is in better agreement with experimental size
effect than the previous models, even in the same n1 .
Fig. 9 shows the comparisons of the reviewed equations and a
total of 2611 test data including 386 ALWC, 481 SLWC, and 1744
NWC specimens according to the main parameters considered in
each prediction model. Table 5 also gives a comparison of the mean
(ccs,m), standard deviation (ccs,s), and coefficient of variation (ccs,v)
of the ratio (ccs ¼ fc0 ðdÞExp: =fc0 ðdÞPre: ) between test results and predic-
tions using the experimental constants fitted by the present data-
base. The error coefficients (ecf) determined from the comparisons
were also given in the same Table. As Bažant’s equation is set to be
the function of the only d/da parameter, the differences between
 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725 723

1.6
The best fit curves determined from each data group are plotted using different lines (8mm
) d a = 8 mm
Cylinder with
(13mm
) d a = 13 mm
n 1 = 2.0
1.4 (19mm
) d a = 19 mm

1.2
f'c (d)/f 'c

0.8

(a) ALWC (b) SLWC (c) NWC

0.6
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 500
Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm)

Fig. 6. Size effect according to the maximum aggregated sizes.

1.6 and the experiments are excessively high in NWC when d/da is less
ALWC (cylinder with n1 =2.0) dExp.
a = 8 mm
Exp. than 10.
dExp.
a = 19 mm The comparisons of Kim and Eo’s model and the test results also
1.4
Bažant (da =19 mm) show a similar trend with those obtained from Bažant’s equation:
provided that the predictions of Kim and Eo are higher than those
1.2 Kim and Eo (da =8 mm)
of Bažant when d/da is larger than 25, beyond which the differences
f'c (d )/f 'c

Neville (da =8 mm and da =19 mm)

gradually increases. The statistical values and error coefficient
1 Kim and Eo (da =19 mm) determined from Kim and Eo’s model are evenly matched with
those obtained from Bažant’s equation, regardless of the concrete
0.8 type.
Regardless of the concrete type, the predictions of Neville’s
Bažant (d a =8 mm)
0.6 model appear unsatisfactory: they indicate higher statistical values
Sim et al. (d a =8 mm and d a =19 mm) than the other models, and, as a result, the highest values for ecf are
0.4 observed in this model. The values of ccs,m indicate that the Nev-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 ille’s equation comprehensively underestimates the size effect. In
Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm) particular, the underestimation increases as n1 increases, though
the model considers the effect of aspect ratio on the size effect.
Fig. 7. Trend of the prediction models and comparisons with ALWC test results.
In contrast, the predictions obtained from Sim et al.’s models
are in good agreement with the test results, regardless of the con-
1.6 crete type, showing that the values of ecf for ALWC, SLWC and NWC
For cylinder specimens with n 1 =2.0 ALWC are approximately 0.125, 0.133, and 0.149 respectively, in the ori-
Exp. SLWC ginal model, and 0.115, 0.116, and 0.148, respectively, in the re-
1.4
NWC fined model neglecting the minor influencing parameters
Bažant
including the maximum aggregate size and section shape of spec-
1.2
imen. The comparisons of the statistical values and error coeffi-
f 'c (d)/f ' c

Neville Kim and Eo cients between the original and the refined models confirm that
1 the influence of da on the compressive strength of concrete can
be neglected, especially for LWC. In addition, the decreasing rate
0.8 of the size effect predicted from Sim et al.’s models has a consistent
agreement with that observed from the experimental results.
0.6 Sim et al. (NWC)
Hence, it can be concluded for LWC that the strengthened size ef-
fect should be considered, neglecting the influence of da, in order to
Sim et al. (ALWC)
rationally predict the compressive strength of concrete according
0.4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 to the different specimen geometries.
Lateral dimension of specimen, d (mm)
7. Conclusions
Fig. 8. Typical comparisons of prediction models and test results at the same aspect
ratio (n1 = 2.0).
The present study tested a total of 756 compressive specimens
made from 9 ready-mixed concrete batches and established a com-
the predictions and test results become larger in LWC than in NWC, prehensive database including the 1492 NWC and 363 LWC speci-
in particular, when d/da is larger than 10. This trend increases with mens. Then, we reviewed the preferred prediction models through
the increase of n1. As a result, the values of ccs,m determined from the comparisons of the database and the current tests in order to
the equations of Bažant are 1.0, 1.04 and 1.06 for ALWC, SLWC ascertain the size effect in LWC and the influence of the maximum
and NWC, respectively. Meanwhile, the values of ecf are higher in aggregate size (da) on the size and shape effects according to the
NWC than in LWC because the errors between the predictions concrete type. It is noted that the influence of boundary friction
724 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725

3.5 3.5
(a) Bažant ALWC (b) Kim and Eo ALWC
Bold and white symbols indicate concrete specimens SLWC Bold and white symbols indicate concrete specimens SLWC
3.0 with 0.4 n 1 <2 and 2 n 1 4, respectively. 3.0 NWC
NWC with 0.4 n 1 <2 and 2 n 1 4, respectively.

2.5 2.5

f'c (d )/f 'c

f'c (d )/f 'c

Predictions using the experimental constants fitted by

the present database Predictions using the experimental constants
2.0 2.0
fitted by the present data base

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d/d a d/d a

3.4 3.4
(c) Neville Bold and white symbols indicate concrete specimens ALWC (d) Sim et al. (Orignial) ALWC
with 0.4 n 1 <2 and 2 n 1 4, respectively. SLWC Bold and white symbols indicate concrete specimens SLWC
2.9 2.9
NWC with 0.4 n 1 <2 and 2 n 1 4, respectively. NWC

2.4 2.4
f'c (d )/f 'c
f'c (d )/f 'c

Cylinder with n 1 =1.0

1.9 Predictions using the experimental 1.9 Cube
constants fitted by the present database
Cylinder with n 1 =2.0
1.4 1.4 Prism with n 1 =2.0

0.9 0.9

0.4
0.4 0 200 400 600 800 1000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
kd/150+n1

3.4
(e) Sim et al. (Refined) ALWC
SLWC
2.9 Bold and white symbols indicate concrete specimens
NWC
with 0.4 n 1 <2 and 2 n 1 4, respectively.

2.4
f'c (d )/f 'c

1.9
n 1 = 1.0
1.4 n 1 = 2.0

0.9

0.4
0 200 400 600 800 1000
-1.22

Fig. 9. Comparisons of experiments and predictions according to the main parameters considered in each reviewed model.

Table 5
Statistical comparisons of predictions by different models and test results.

Prediction model ALWC SLWC NWC Total

ccs,m ccs,s ccs,v ecf ccs,m ccs,s ccs,v ecf ccs,m ccs,s ccs,v ecf ccs,m ccs,s ccs,v ecf
Bažant 1.00 0.160 0.160 0.162 1.04 0.160 0.164 0.164 1.06 0.237 0.223 0.243 1.05 0.216 0.205 0.231
Kim and Eo 1.00 0.165 0.164 0.166 1.05 0.164 0.167 0.167 1.07 0.240 0.224 0.244 1.07 0.238 0.221 0.237
Neville 1.68 0.255 0.152 0.265 1.77 0.268 0.277 0.277 1.86 0.415 0.223 0.307 1.83 0.411 0.225 0.384
Sim et al. Original 1.05 0.129 0.123 0.125 1.02 0.123 0.132 0.133 1.01 0.123 0.123 0.149 1.01 0.120 0.119 0.104
Refined 1.00 0.116 0.116 0.115 1.00 0.103 0.114 0.116 1.01 0.117 0.116 0.148 1.01 0.113 0.113 0.057

1=2
1
P ðfc ðdÞExp fc ðdÞPre: Þ2
ecf ¼ fc ðdÞ n ¼ error coefficient, where fc(d)M is the mean of the measured compressive strength and n is the number of measured points.
M
 J.-I. Sim et al. / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 716–725
conditions on the size and shape effects is not considered in the
current tests and discussions because all specimens were tested
under high friction condition at the interfaces between concrete
specimens and loading platens. From the experimental observa-
tions and verifications by the comparisons with prediction models,
the following conclusions may be drawn:
1. The crack distribution of NWC specimens was somewhat
affected by da, showing a wider crack zone and narrower crack
spacing with the increase of da; whereas, the crack distribution
observed in LWC specimens was independent of da.
2. The size effect became more intensive with the increasing the
aspect ratio (n1) of the specimen, regardless of the concrete
type; whereas, the influence of the section shape on the size
effect decreased with the increase of n1 .
3. The size effect and the slope of the size effect became stronger
with the decrease of the unit weight of the concrete. The differ-
ences between the best-fit curves determined from test data
according to each concrete type were larger in the cube than
in the cylinder with n1 of 2.0.
4. The influence of da on the size effect observed in the current
NWC specimens was smaller than the prediction models of
Bažant and Kim and Eo; while it was found to be negligible
for LWC.
5. The Sim et al.’s models are in better agreement with experimen-
tal observations than other prediction models, regardless of the
concrete type. In addition, the refined model of Sim et al. con-
firms that the gain of the compressive strength of concrete
due to the increase of da is insignificant, especially for LWC.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Basic Science Research Pro-
gram through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF:
2009-0067189).
725
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