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Soils and landforms from Fildes Peninsula and

Ardley Island, Maritime Antarctica

Article in Geomorphology · November 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.03.041

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 Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86

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Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Soils and landforms from Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island,

Maritime Antarctica
Roberto F.M. Michel a,⁎, Carlos E.G.R. Schaefer b, Jerónimo López-Martínez c, Felipe N.B. Simas b, Nick W. Haus d,
Enrique Serrano e, James G. Bockheim d
a
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km. 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
b
Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Av. PH Rolfs, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
c
Departamento de Geología y Geoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain
d
Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, 1525 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI, USA
e
Departamento de Geografía, Universidad de Valladolid, Prado de la Magdalena s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fildes Peninsula (F.P.) and Ardley Island (A.I.) are among the first ice-free areas in Maritime Antarctica. Since the
Received 1 March 2013 last glacial retreat in this part of Antarctica (8000 to 5000 years BP), the landscape in these areas evolved under
Received in revised form 27 March 2014 paraglacial to periglacial conditions, with pedogenesis marked by cryogenic processes. We carried out a detailed
Accepted 27 March 2014
soil and geomorphology survey, with full morphological and analytical description for both areas; forty-eight soil
Available online 8 April 2014
profiles representing different landforms were sampled, analyzed and classified according to the U.S. Soil Taxonomy
Keywords:
and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB).
Soils Soils are mostly turbic, moderately developed, with podzolization and strong phosphatization (chemical
Geomorphology weathering of rock minerals and formation of amorphous Al and Fe minerals) in former ornithogenic sites
Permafrost while in areas with poor vegetation show typical features of cryogenic weathering. Nivation, solifluction,
Periglacial cryoturbation, frost weathering, ablation and surface erosion are widespread. The most represented landform
Ornithogenic soils system by surface in Fildes Peninsula is the periglacial one, and 15 different periglacial landforms types have
been identified and mapped. These features occupy about 30% of the land surface, in which patterned ground
and stone fields are the most common landforms. Other significant landforms as protalus lobes, rock glaciers
or debris lobes indicate the extensive presence of permafrost. Soil variability was high, in terms of morphological,
physical and chemical properties, due to varying lithic contributions and mixing of different rocks, as well as to
different degrees of faunal influence.
Three soil taxonomy orders were identified, whereas thirty four individual pedons were differentiated. Fildes Pen-
insula experiences a south–north gradient from periglacial to paraglacial conditions, and apparently younger soils
and landforms are located close to the Collins Glacier. Arenosols/Entisols and Cryosols/Gelisols (frequently
cryoturbic) are the most important soil classes; Leptosols/Entisols, Gleysols/Aquents and Cambisols/Inceptisols
also occur, all with gelic properties, and with varying faunal influences. Both soil classification systems are
adequate to distinguish the local pedogenesis processes. The WRB system is broader, since it was designed to be ap-
plied in all Polar Regions; the family classes adopted by the ST were effective in separating soils with important dif-
ferences with regard to texture and gravel content, all important attributes accounting for the ecological succession
and periglacial processes. An altitudinal organization of landforms and processes can be recognized from geomor-
phological mapping. Periglacial features are dominant above 50 m a.s.l. although are present at lower altitude.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction undergo several possible processes depending on the characteristics

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems develop under extreme conditions
and are highly sensitive to environmental changes (Bargagli et al.,
1998). Once exposed due to the retraction of glaciers, mineral substrates
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: roberto@michel.com (R.F.M. Michel), carlos.schaefer@ufv.br
(C.E.G.R. Schaefer), jeronimo.lopez@uam.es (J. López-Martínez), fsimass@yahoo.com.br
(F.N.B. Simas), nhaus@wisc.edu (N.W. Haus), serranoe@fyl.uva.es (E. Serrano),
bockheim@wisc.edu (J.G. Bockheim).
and interaction of climate, relief, parent material, biological activity
and time of exposure. Alterations in the regional climate, especially the
oscillations around de freezing point of water (0 °C), cause important
changes in biological activity, chemical and physical weathering, regional
hydrology and geomorphic processes.
Pedological studies in Antarctica developed on extremely dry conti-
nental areas, such as the Dry Valleys region (e.g. Pastor and Bockheim,
1980; Campbell and Claridge, 1987; Bockheim, 1997; Beyer et al.,
1999). There, soils are formed under cold desert conditions, being poorly

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.03.041
0169-555X/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86
developed, with negligible organic carbon content, little horizon differ-
entiation and with conspicuous salt accumulations. During the last ten
years a considerable amount of soil and geomorphological studies have
been made in warmer and moister parts of Antarctica (Michel et al.,
2006; Navas et al., 2006, 2008; Simas et al., 2006, 2007, 2008; Schaefer
et al., 2007; Serrano et al., 2008; Francelino et al., 2011; López-Martínez
et al., 2012; Moura et al., 2012; Balks et al., 2013). The relationship
between landforms and soil distribution in Antarctica has been addressed
in a comprehensive study (Balks et al., 2013).
In the northernmost part of the Antarctic Peninsula and offshore
islands, mild temperatures compared to continental Antarctica intensify
hydrological and biological cycles (Groeneweg and Beunk, 1992;
Moreno et al., 2012). Cryoclastic weathering and cryoturbation are
active processes in soils, due to the high number of daily freeze-and-
thaw cycles (Balks et al., 2013). Although chemical alteration is gen-
erally very low, it is important for soil formation, especially in areas
where acidity is generated by the oxidation of sulfides in the parent
material or due to microbiological decomposition of bird guano
(Simas et al., 2006, 2007).
Ice-free areas in the South Shetland Islands are marked by periglacial
processes and landforms (López-Martínez et al., 2012), which influence
Fig. 1. Location of Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island within Antarctica and the South Shetland Islands.
77
soil development as well as vegetation distribution (Cannone and
Guglielmin, 2008). Topography, soil characteristics, vegetation and
slope orientation are cited as the major aspects affecting permafrost
occurrence and distribution.
Due to the high number of scientific stations and increasing an-
thropic activity in the South Shetlands, the understanding and mapping
of terrestrial ecosystems is crucial for appropriate conservation and
land use strategies. The objectives of the present work are to investigate
soil–landscape relationships, characterize and classify soils from Fildes
Peninsula and Ardley Island, in order to analyze soil diversity and spatial
distribution.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
King George is the largest island in the South Shetlands Archipelago,
with approximately 1400 km2 (Fig. 1). Similar to the rest of the archipel-
ago it is almost completely glaciated, with only 5% of its area being ice-
free (Simões et al., 1999; Rakusa-Suszczewski, 2002). Fildes Peninsula
(F.P.) and Ardley Island (A.I.) are situated in the extreme southwestern
78 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86
part of King George Island (KGI). Fildes Peninsula (29 km2) is the largest
ice-free area in the island and is connected to Ardley Island (1.2 km2) by
a 400 m long isthmus, exposed during low tides (Fig. 1). F.P. and A.I.,
have a gentle topography dominated by a wide central plain several
others at different altitudes; it consists mostly of lavas with small out-
crops of tuffs, volcanic sandstones, and agglomerates (Smellie et al.,
1984).
The region experiences a sub-Antarctic cold, moist, maritime climate
with mean annual air temperature of −2.2 °C (data from 2000 through
2012, Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martin Aerodrome Meteorological
Station) and mean summer air temperatures above 0 °C for up to four
months (Rakusa-Suszczewski et al., 1993; Wen et al., 1994). Precipita-
tion ranges between 350 and 500 mm per year, with rainfall occurring
in the summer period (Øvstedal and Lewis-Smith, 2001).
Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island are among the first areas in
Maritime Antarctica to become ice-free after the last glacial maximum
(John and Sugden, 1971; Birkenmajer, 1989). Fildes Peninsula was cov-
ered by glaciers until 8000 to 5000 years BP (Mausbacher et al., 1989).
Later, during the Little Ice Age, a small advance by glaciers shaped the
northern highlands, originating the moraines (Barsch et al., 1985;
Serrano and López-Martínez, 2012), and the recently deglaciated north-
ern part. The basins of most lakes are over-deepened glacial basins, and
the valleys of the largest streams are glacial troughs, both located along
fractures. After the glacial erosive phase, glaciers retraction led to the
Holocene glacioisostatic and tectonic uplift and favored the occurrence
of paraglacial and periglacial processes such as frost weathering,
gelifluction, cryoturbation and nivation (Barsch et al., 1985; Mausbacher
et al., 1989; Zhu et al., 1996; Serrano et al., 2008; López-Martínez et al.,
2012; Serrano and López-Martínez, 2012). The periglacial and proglacial
processes reworked the raised platforms in different degrees and loca-
tions, up to 60 m a.s.l. (Simonov, 1977; Vtyurin and Moskalevskiy,
1985; Xie, 1988; Qingsong, 1989; López-Martínez et al., 2012; Serrano
and López-Martínez, 2012). Patterned ground in King George Island
dates from 720 to 2640 years BP (Jeong, 2006). In the South Shetland
Islands permafrost is regarded as sporadic or inexistent in altitudes
below 20 m a.s.l., and occurs more or less discontinuously in altitudes
from 30 to 150 m a.s.l. (Serrano and López-Martínez, 2000; Vieira
et al., 2010; Bockheim et al., 2013).
2.2. Soil characterization
Soil sampling was performed during the austral summer, in January
and February of 2008 and 2009. Soil pits were dug down to the lithic
contact or to the permafrost table and for deeper soils a control section
of 1.5 m was used. Soils morphology was described and samples of soil
horizons were collected. Soil classification followed two classification
systems: Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) and the World Refer-
ence Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006).
Soil texture was analyzed by mechanical dispersion of b 2 mm sam-
ples in distilled water, sieving and weighting of the coarse and fine sand,
sedimentation of the silt fraction followed by siphoning of the b2 μm
fraction (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Soil textural classes were deter-
mined using a soil textural chart (Coarse Sand 0.2–b2 mm, Fine Sand
0.05–b0.2 mm, Silt 0.002–b0.05 mm and Clay b 0.002 mm). All routine
analytical chemical and physical determinations were obtained using
standard procedures (Klute, 1986; Embrapa, 1997). Soil pH (determined
in 1:10 soil/water solution) and exchangeable nutrients were deter-
mined for b2 mm air-dried samples (Embrapa, 1997). Exchangeable
Ca2+ Mg2+ and Al3+ were extracted with 1 M KCl; Available P, K, Fe,
Zn, Cu and Mn, were extracted with Mehlich-1 (0.05 mol l−1 HCl in
0.0125 mol l−1 H2SO4), P was also extracted with citric-acid (1% citric
acid soluble P2O5) in order to fulfill soil classification criteria of both
Soil classification systems (Olsen and Sommers, 1982; Embrapa, 1997).
The P fraction extracted with Mehlich-1 is regarded as bioavailable in
acid soils but also comprises P–Ca phases in alkaline soils which are nor-
mally not readily available to most plants. Elements concentrations in
the extracts were determined by atomic absorption (Ca2+, Mg2+ and
Al3+), flame emission (K+ and Na2+) and photocolorimetry (P), micro-
elements were determined using inductively coupled spectroscopy. Soil
Organic Carbon (SOC) was determined by wet combustion with external
heating (Yeomans and Bremner, 1988). We also evaluated the capacity
of soils to adsorb P (P-rem) by shaking 2.5 g of soil for 1 h with 25 ml
of 0.01 mol l−1 CaCL2 containing 60 mg l−1 of P. The suspension was
filtered and the P remaining in solution (P-rem) was measured by
photocolorimetry (Alvarez et al., 2000). Therefore, the lower the value
of P-rem, the higher is the affinity of soils for the P in the solution. All
results are presented as a weighted average of the results for each hori-
zon. Horizon thickness was the factor used to correct the values.
2.3. Geomorphological characterization and mapping
Landforms and geomorphological processes were described based
on field observations, interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite
images (QuickBird satellite, monochromatic resolution of 60 cm, multi-
spectral resolution of 2.4 m), as described in López-Martínez et al.
(2012). Topographic data was obtained from the Chilean topographical
map (1:10,000 scale — Instituto Geográfico Militar, 1996) and was used
to map geomorphological features and processes. Digital elevation
models and slope models were derived from contour lines using
ArcGis@ which helped to identify landforms and in the quantification
of geomorphometric parameters. As a result, a 1:15,000 geomorpholog-
ical map was produced which represents the spatial distribution of
topographic, structural, glacial, periglacial, fluvial, marine and human
features in the studied area. Three main cold morphogenetic subsystems
and processes (gravity, gelifluction, and frost creep, and cryoturbation)
and fifteen individual periglacial landforms were mapped. The map rep-
resents the occurrence and location of processes and landforms as well
as the altitudinal distribution of each morphogenetic system.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Landform distribution
3.1.1. Coastal landforms
Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island are situated in a zone of intense
sea currents and have suffered many glacioisostatic and tectonic uplift
events. Some relevant elements in the relief are a series of raised marine
platforms. The upper platforms and the middle platform are limited by
cliffs and beaches, and generate flat-topped hills. Between the cliffs and
platforms, Holocene raised beaches are common (with 3 to 8 raised
beaches), being more developed in the eastern coast than in the west-
ern coast where the abrasion platform is largest. Intense marine erosion
shaped the platforms. The upper platform is today at 90 m a.s.l. as indi-
cated by the presence of small relict rounded stones; the large middle
platforms, are today at 40–60 m a.s.l., and the Holocene raised beaches
are all uplifted by isostatic events (Fig. 2). Abandoned and active colo-
nies of penguins, skuas, petrels and many mammals occur in coastal
areas and promote widespread sea to land transfer of nutrients enhanc-
ing vegetation growth. Zhao and Rongquan (1999) dated the bottom
part of an uplifted peat bank (18 m a.s.l.) in F.P. and found ages of
approximately 4300 years BP, corroborating with the hypothesis that
the terraces uplift was during the Holocene (e.g. Araya and Hervé,
1972; Pallàs et al., 1995; Francelino et al., 2011).
3.1.2. Paraglacial landforms
Paraglacial is defined as “…non-glacial earth-surface processes,
sediment accumulations, landforms, landsystems and landscapes that
are directly conditioned by glaciation and deglaciation” (Ballantyne,
2002). Paraglacial processes occur on recently exposed ice-free areas
and differ from periglacial processes because they occur independently
of the presence of ice. Paraglacial landforms are concentrated in
the northern part of Fildes Peninsula where erosional processes were
 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86 79

Fig. 2. Geomorphological sketch map of Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island. 1, Crest, ridge. 2, Peak, height. 3, Stream. 4, Lake, pond. 5, Glacier. 6, Contour on rock. 7, Contour on ice. 8, Struc-
tural slope. 9, Erosive glacial landforms (overdeepened basin, abraded rocks, rock bars). 10, Moraines. 11, Cryoturbation and gelifluction landforms (patterned ground, debris lobes,
gelifluction lobes, stone stripes). 12, Rock glacier. 13, Protalus lobe. 14, Marine platforms. 15, Holocene raised beaches. 16, Car track. 17, Station or airport.

recognized. At the northernmost part of the peninsula, a set of young
moraines and a large dead ice field are the most recent paraglacial
features, influenced by present processes of the border of the Collins
Glacier (Fig. 2). Glaciers cover around 92% of King George Island
(Braun and Hock, 2004) and have diminished in size in the past decades
(Simões et al., 1999; Braun and Gossmann, 2002).
3.1.3. Periglacial landforms
Periglacial landforms occupy approximately 70% of F.P. The remain-
ing 30% are composed by structural landforms and rock outcrops
shaped by glacial erosion. Wide uplifted marine platforms from 30 to
100 m a.s.l. favor the development of periglacial processes, and are the
most common landforms in the mapped area (Barsch et al., 1985; Zhu
et al., 1993; Serrano and López-Martínez, 2012). Patterned ground,
stone fields, debris lobes and cones, thermokarst, block streams, block
fields, debris talus and cones, rock glaciers and protalus lobes were iden-
tified and mapped. Solifluction features are concentrated in slopes
higher than 11°, whereas cryoturbation is common on platforms, glacial
drift deposits and infilled overdeepened basins (Fig. 2). Active layer and
permafrost monitoring at Fildes (Michel et al., 2012) indicate that active
layer thickness is around 90 cm at 60 m a.s.l.
The most common periglacial landform in Fildes Peninsula and
Ardley Island (Table 1) is patterned ground, including polygons, stone
stripes and circles (Cui et al., 1989; López-Martínez et al., 2012;
Serrano and López-Martínez, 2012). The wide raised platforms with
flat topography between 30 and 100 m a.s.l., the poor drainage and
the water accumulated from melting of snow during the summer pro-
duce an optimal environment for development of patterned ground
and stone fields. Circles and stone stripes are the most common features
above 90 m a.s.l. while stone fields are the most common between 40
and 90 m a.s.l. On the hills located near the central and southern portion
of the studied area, coarse materials are intensely cryoturbated, with
incipient development of patterned ground.
Gelifluction (mass movement where permafrost occurs) is a common
process, giving origin to gelifluction lobes and debris lobes on the slopes
of the highest hills, where displacements around 15–55 cm year−1 have
80 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86

Table 1
Altitudinal distribution of periglacial landforms in Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island.

Landforms Surface Altitude (m a.s.l.)

0–20 20–50 50–100 N100

2
Patterned ground km 0.003 0.211 0.117 0.017
% 8.82 48.50 70 60.71
Stone fields km2 – 0.212 – 0.003
% – 48.73 – 10.71
Gravitational processes km2 0.031 0.009 0.04 0.005
% 91.17 2.06 23.95 17.85
Gelifluction km2 – 0.003 0.01 0.003
% – 0.68 5.98 10.72

been measured (Govorukha, 1973; Simonov, 1977). The gelifluction pro-
cesses increase with altitude and do not exist under 20 m a.s.l.
Ice within protalus lobes and a little rock glacier (Serrano and
López-Martínez, 2000, 2012) occur mainly above 50 m a.s.l. The poor
drainage on platforms and frozen bodies in protalus lobes and rock
glaciers suggest that permafrost also occurs above 30 m a.s.l. associated
to uplifted marine platforms and hills of F.P. On the flat, bottom valleys,
platforms, and slope areas, nival landform are common; occupying wide
areas the snow pavements shape asymmetrical valleys and flat floored
valleys.
The presence of well developed lichen communities on patterned
ground and two termokarst evidences that these features are fairly

Table 2
Classification for all profiles considering the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS, 2006) and Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010).

ID IUSS (2006) Soil Survey Staff (2010)

Fildes Peninsula
1 Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Typic Gelorthents
2 Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Typic Gelorthents
3 Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Typic Gelorthents
4 Haplic Arenosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Oxyaquic Cryopsamments
5 Haplic Arenosol (Ornithic, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Gelorthents
6 Haplic Arenosol (“Biogenic”, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Oxyaquic Cryopsamments
7 Protic Arenosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Typic Gelorthents
8 Leptic Cambisol (Eutric, Gelic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, Lithic Eutrogelepts
9 Leptic Cambisol (Ornithic, Gelic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Lithic Eutrogelepts
10 Haplic Gleysol (Colluvic, Gelic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Fluvaquentic Aquorthels
11 Haplic Leptosols (Eutric, Gelic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Oxyaquic Gelorthents
12 Epiturbic Cambic Cryosol (Eutric, Novic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, Typic Haploturbels
13 Turbic Cambic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Calcaric, Siltic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
14 Turbic Cambic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Calcaric, Siltic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
15 Turbic Cambic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Calcaric, Siltic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
16 Turbic Cambic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Calcaric) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
17 Histic, Leptic, Cryosol (Reductaquic, Arenic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, Psammentic Aquorthels
18 Leptic Cryosols (Eutric, Oxyaquic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, Lithic Haplorthels
19 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric, Skeletic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Lithic Haploturbels
20 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (Eutric, Reductaquic, Arenic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Typic Haploturbels
21 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
22 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (Eutric, Gelic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, Lithic Haploturbels
23 Turbic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
24 Turbic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric, Arenic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Psammoturbels
25 Turbic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric, Arenic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Typic Haploturbels
26 Turbic Cryosol (Eutric, Skeletic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Lithic Haploturbels
27 Turbic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric, Skeletic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Aquic Haploturbels
28 Turbic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Eutric) Coarse loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Patterned”, Aquic Haploturbels
29 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Arenic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Lithic Haploturbels
30 Haplic Cryosol (Ornithic, Arenic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Psammorthels
31 Lithic Leptosol (Eutric, Gelic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, Lithic Cryopsamments

Ardley Island
32 Leptic Arenosol (Ornithic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Gelorthents
33 Folic Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Arenic) Sandy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Lithic Psammoturbels
34 Folic Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Reductaquic, Arenic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Lithic Haplorthels
35 Histic Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Reductaquic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic “Ornithic” Typic Aquorthels
36 Turbic Molic Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Arenic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Molliturbels
37 Turbic, Leptic Cryosol (Ornithic, Reductaquic, Arenic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Aquic Haploturbels
38 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Ornithic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Haploturbels
39 Turbic Leptic Cryosol (Eutric, Arenic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Typic Haploturbels
40 Haplic Cryosol (Ornithic, Reductaquic, Novic) Coarse-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Fluvaquentic Aquorthels
41 Turbic Mollic Cryosol (Ornithic, Oxyaquic, Arenic) Coarse -loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Haploturbels
42 Turbic Histic Cryosol (Ornithic, Reductaquic) Fine-loamy, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Aquic Haploturbels
43 Turbic Hyperskeletic Cryosol (Ornithic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Haploturbels
44 Turbic Folic Cryosol (Ornithic, Arenic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Haploturbels
45 Haplic Leptosol (Ornithic, Gelic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Gelorthents
46 Haplic Leptosol (Ornithic, Skeletic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Gelorthents
47 Hyperskeletic Leptosol (Ornithic, Gelic) Sandy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Typic Gelorthents
48 Hyperskeletic Leptosol (Ornithic) Loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, “Ornithic” Oxyaquic Gelorthents
 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86
stable in the present, they were identified near the road to the
Great Wall Station and we interpreted that the formation of most
lakes in F.P. may be closely related to this phenomenon. Alluvial
plains are more developed in the southern portion and preserve
stee per slopes; in the north are more recent, either wide and filled
with recent sediments for the Collins Glacier or narrow, slowly
evolving from the coast, eroding the marine platform. Volcanic-
rock fields composed of basaltic and andesitic intrusions are concen-
trated at the border of the many fractures that cross the peninsula.
These are well preserved features where shallow soils occur. The
most prominent is the Flat Top located on the southwest of the
peninsula.
3.2. Soil characterization and taxonomy
Thirty-one of the forty eight profiles studied in this work fit in
the Cryosol Major Group according to the WRB classification (IUSS
a b
d e
Fig. 3. Soil profiles P-46 (a), P-20 (b), P-16 (c), P-6 (d), P-42 (e), and P-48 (f); despite the limited weathering on the study area, profiles show considerable development.
81
Working Group WRB, 2006), which correspond to the Gelisols
order of U.S. Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). Soils without per-
mafrost were also identified and fit in the following classes according to
the WRB (and U.S. Soil taxonomy): Leptosols (Entisols), Arenosols
(Entisols), Gleysols (Gelaquents) and Cambisols (Inceptisols) (Table 2).
High contents of gravel are present in most soils and large areas have
soils with Leptic and Skeletic characters. Soil depth ranged from 10 to
120 cm with average of 55 cm considering all 48 studied profiles. Frozen
ground was identified in 19 profiles. At deeper soils, permafrost
presence was inferred in the first 2 m due to near zero temperatures
measured during profile description and the presence of gelic materials.
Soil temperature measured at the bottom horizon of the profiles aver-
aged 1.4 °C with a maximum of 4.5 °C at 50 cm in a Protic Arenosol
and a minimum of 0.0 at 90 °C cm in a Turbic Cambic Cryosol
(Table 3). Moderate soil structure is common with preponderance of
granular and subangular blocks type. Textures ranged from loam clay
to sand with great content of coarse fragments (N2 mm). Soils have a
c
f
82 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86

mixed mineralogy, and the soil thermal regime is subgelic for all profiles
(Soil Survey Staff, 2010).
3.2.1. Cryosols/Gelisols
The diagnostic criterion for these soils is the presence of permafrost
in the first meter below the surface or within 2 m if gelic materials
(cryoturbation) are evident. In the studied soils, typical cryoturbation
features and processes such as vertical orientation of stones, buried
organic horizons, patterned ground and frost heaving were observed.
For this reason, the majority of the Cryosols found in F.P. and A.I. show
Turbic features, being named Turbic Cryosols (WRB) or Turbels (Soil
Taxonomy). Ice wedges and ice lenses were not present (Fig. 3).
Soil texture ranged from loam-clay to loam-sand, with average
values for the 31 profiles of 33.10% (± 12.49%) for coarse sand (CS),
21.71% (± 8.99%) for fine sand (FS), 30.87% (± 8.91%) for silt and
14.74% (± 3.99%) for clay (Table 3). Soils with coarser textures have
simple grain structure while loamy profiles show a massive or weak,
medium sized, subangular blocky structure. Soils with higher clay +
silt content such as the loam-silt and loam-clay have a weak to moder-
ate, small to medium granular structure. This corroborates with previ-
ous descriptions for Cryosols, which relate the ovoidal, granular
structure to differential freeze-and-thawing and ultradessication of
soil fine particles during the freezing process (Van Vliet-Lanoë et al.,
2004; Schaefer et al., 2007; Simas et al., 2007). They occupy a variety
of landform, notably moraines, cryoturbation and gelifluction landform

Table 3
Altitude, color, physical attributes and soil organic carbon content of the sampled profiles.

ID Altitude GMU⁎ Temp Depth Color Texture N2 mm PD⁎⁎⁎ SOC

CS⁎⁎ FS⁎⁎ Silt⁎⁎ Clay⁎⁎ Class YB#

−1 −3
m °C cm g kg % g cm dag kg–1

Fildes Peninsula
1 12 15 1.4 50 10YR 4/3 54 13 21 13 Loam-sand 31.4 2.21 0.56
2 5 15 1.8 40 10YR 5/2 76 5 12 8 Sand-loam 41.4 2.23 0.31
3 18 15 1.7 40 10Y 4/2 69 9 13 9 Sand-loam 20.7 2.58 2.25
4 8 15 1.2 100 10YR 3/1 57 21 16 7 Sand-loam 36.1 2.63 0.13
5 10 15 3.8 50 7.5YR 7/2 86 8 2 5 Sand 43.1 2.21 0.48
6 10 15 3.4 70 2.5Y 3/3 45 19 25 12 Sand-loam 20.2 2.51 3.08
7 33 14 4.5 50 7.5YR 7/2 48 15 22 16 Loam-sand 31.6 2.31 0.50
8 20 9 1.6 40 5Y 7/6 26 11 43 19 Loam 37.4 2.24 0.31
9 28 15 1.9 40 10YR 4/2 28 21 34 17 Loam 27.4 2.21 10.38
10 45 14 0.6 85 10YR 5/2 44 19 23 14 Loam-sand 39.2 2.20 1.20
11 12 15 1.2 100 7.5YR 5/2 64 8 18 11 Sand-loam 44.7 2.76 0.67
12 35 14 2.8 50 2.5Y 5/2 24 16 40 21 Loam 35.0 2.15 0.54
13 105 11 0.1 70 5Y 6/6 29 12 47 12 Loam-silt 30.3 2.56 0.29
14 53 11 0.0 80 2.5Y 7/6 20 29 42 9 Loam-clay 15.9 2.42 0.38
15 29 11 0.1 95 2.5Y 7/6 51 20 18 12 Loam-clay 14.3 2.51 0.26
16 35 14 0.0 90 7.5YR 5/4 33 16 33 18 Loam 21.5 2.53 0.30
17 45 14 0.5 25 10YR 5/4 46 20 20 14 Loam-sand 48.2 2.18 5.20
18 102 11 2.3 12 2.5Y 4/2 32 15 39 14 Loam 29.6 2.14 0.52
19 117 11 0.8 25 7.5YR 5/2 40 19 27 15 Sand-loam 42.9 2.23 2.31
20 80 2 1.2 45 7.5YR 6/3 38 19 30 13 Loam-sand 55.1 2.11 0.17
21 116 11 0.3 50 10YR 6/2 58 17 14 11 Loam-sand 48.7 2.45 0.89
22 52 11 2.3 40 10YR 4/4 35 9 37 19 Loam 37.7 2.56 0.55
23 46 11 0.1 90 7.5YR 7/2 30 15 43 13 Loam 34.5 2.19 0.48
24 33 11 1.3 100 10YR 5/4 51 16 17 16 Loam-sand 32.8 2.48 0.88
25 23 15 1.7 50 7.5YR 6/3 33 20 35 13 Loam 39.1 2.56 0.64
26 45 11 1.1 20 10YR 5/2 35 25 25 15 Sand-loam 41.7 2.72 2.54
27 52 10 0.3 100 2.5Y 5/3 51 11 25 14 Sand-loam 39.7 2.63 0.54
28 60 14 0.1 100 10YR 6/3 24 22 39 16 Loam 38.6 2.56 1.63
29 116 14 0.9 50 7.5YR 4/3 39 24 26 12 Sand-loam 19.8 2.63 3.13
30 28 14 0.7 75 2.5Y 5/4 46 21 22 10 Loam-sand 9.1 2.59 1.01
31 9 15 2.3 25 2.5Y 3/2 63 14 14 10 Sand-loam 18.2 2.70 0.53

Ardley Island
32 31 14 2.8 30 75YR 4/2 66 10 12 13 Sand-loam 39.2 2.48 2.17
33 77 2 1.5 10 5Y 2.5/1 21 36 33 11 Loam-sand 32.8 2.38 19.90
34 69 2 1.8 8 10YR 4/3 16 30 31 23 Loam-clay 33.0 1.98 15.67
35 60 14 1.5 20 10YR 4/4 9 42 39 10 Loam-sand 28.5 1.12 19.32
36 60 9 1.2 30 10YR 6/3 32 20 34 16 Loam-sand 40.5 2.31 9.68
37 51 14 1.5 50 7.5YR 2.5/2 41 23 23 13 Loam-sand 28.5 2.35 4.93
38 31 14 1.7 40 2.5Y 6/2 25 31 28 17 Loam-sand 37.1 2.20 15.25
39 45 14 1.7 20 2.5Y 7/4 32 12 36 20 Loam 37.9 2.95 0.24
40 30 14 1.5 30 5Y 4/1 7 44 40 9 Loam-sand 26.9 2.56 5.85
41 38 14 1.0 70 2.5Y 5/3 33 20 32 15 Loam-sand 35.0 2.38 9.46
42 42 11 1.1 70 2.5Y 7/2 22 11 42 26 Loam-clay 33.9 2.55 5.93
43 29 11 1.4 50 10YR 4/2 24 38 22 16 Loam-sand 41.8 1.96 26.74
44 50 14 1.4 35 10YR 5/4 49 20 18 14 Loam-sand 37.4 2.54 2.99
45 12 15 2.5 30 2.5Y 7/4 25 15 16 25 Sand 36.5 2.55 0.46
46 9 15 2.0 70 10YR 5/2 22 9 19 27 Loam-sand 46.2 2.52 8.5
47 12 15 2.2 40 2.5Y 3/3 27 19 15 23 Sand 38.9 2.68 1.78
48 12 15 2.4 70 2.5Y 7/3 30 21 26 19 Sand 35.5 2.46 7.67
⁎ Geomorphological Mapping Unit of geomorphological sketch map of Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island.
⁎⁎ Coarse Sand (0.2–b2 mm); Fine Sand (0.05–b0.2 mm); Silt (0.002–b0.05 mm); Clay (b0.002 mm).
⁎⁎⁎ Particle Density.
#
Yeomans and Bremner (1988).
 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86 83

Table 4
Selected chemical attributes of the sampled soil profiles.

ID pH P K Na P_citr⁎ P-rem⁎⁎ Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Zn Fe Mn Cu Cr Ni Cd Pb

H2O mg kg−1 mg l−1 cmolc kg−1 mg kg−1

Fildes Peninsula
1 6.98 14.7 66 186.7 14.2 25.6 8.44 4.97 0.01 0.29 74.31 8.04 1.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 6.92 31.0 140 274.6 22.5 40.9 4.56 5.32 0.16 0.17 108.03 12.71 3.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 7.02 23.3 67 101.6 19.9 34.7 4.76 1.40 0.00 0.50 43.14 19.83 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 7.32 27.0 67 140.0 16.5 49.8 12.50 4.98 0.00 0.30 67.66 51.50 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 7.42 22.4 58 317.2 8.9 40.0 6.54 1.97 0.00 0.07 16.58 3.26 0.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
6 6.26 75.2 76 99.2 142.4 27.7 5.80 2.19 1.39 0.90 104.50 21.49 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
7 7.35 5.1 96 191.1 5.1 25.2 8.12 8.99 0.00 0.13 44.44 9.16 2.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
8 8.52 2.1 40 58.0 0.0 30.8 3.15 1.67 0.00 0.14 3.85 20.43 0.1 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 4.93 190.7 51 67.1 471.0 10.1 0.37 0.07 2.85 0.43 193.95 0.83 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
10 7.29 25.5 93 133.0 22.6 26.3 8.75 4.94 0.00 0.71 73.83 13.66 3.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
11 7.08 26.8 80 129.8 24.1 33.5 4.88 2.26 0.01 0.33 39.63 23.76 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
12 7.71 92.0 62 173.3 42.1 37.5 9.62 5.09 0.00 0.17 31.40 23.44 1.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
13 8.50 4.7 17 34.3 0.0 30.0 4.16 3.18 0.00 0.06 15.95 8.90 0.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
14 8.53 2.3 14 24.5 0.0 28.9 4.40 4.64 0.00 0.12 91.19 20.16 0.2 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
15 8.51 1.6 17 22.9 0.0 19.3 6.34 1.34 0.00 0.21 64.10 34.19 0.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
16 8.76 45.0 53 190.4 8.4 34.1 12.19 3.25 0.00 0.08 111.87 31.35 3.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
17 6.80 11.6 32 107.1 20.7 33.5 5.19 2.77 0.01 0.26 81.31 5.29 1.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
18 7.12 87.5 119 237.1 52.7 32.1 4.24 6.32 0.00 0.28 44.91 7.94 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
19 6.42 10.9 90 123.9 14.5 16.0 3.91 5.29 0.04 0.49 59.78 23.43 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
20 8.48 80.7 77 155.3 29.6 39.1 8.40 5.84 0.00 0.24 96.49 82.61 3.7 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
21 7.02 6.7 58 218.2 5.2 19.1 6.12 4.33 0.00 0.41 52.99 2.01 1.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
22 7.27 7.3 57 145.5 4.5 29.5 9.37 7.07 0.00 0.02 50.16 7.38 0.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
23 7.57 56.4 81 129.1 34.1 34.5 7.89 8.57 0.00 0.32 53.29 12.69 3.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
24 7.11 8.5 61 151.3 7.6 28.5 9.33 7.45 0.00 0.17 40.96 4.17 1.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
25 7.57 16.5 75 178.7 11.5 24.0 7.25 4.48 0.00 0.32 73.83 14.65 2.4 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
26 6.6 14.5 73 116.1 24.0 15.7 2.37 1.46 0.00 0.72 52.79 36.58 5.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
27 6.86 11.9 86 114.1 13.0 26.7 2.95 2.85 0.01 0.77 47.34 20.11 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
28 7.00 35.2 97 135.0 27.2 29.5 6.31 3.34 0.00 1.60 62.50 20.55 5.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
29 6.28 35.7 72 108.8 71.3 10.5 4.16 0.93 0.95 0.26 64.83 10.40 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
30 5.05 116.4 92 46.4 177.7 14.2 4.10 0.79 4.29 1.61 167.41 11.04 5.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
31 7.32 25.7 187 404.9 27.4 42.9 6.75 4.40 0.04 0.61 120.52 66.96 6.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0

Ardley Island
32 5.91 551.0 56 83.8 423.3 46.9 2.78 1.34 0.00 14.24 93.37 31.21 3.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
33 5.25 1043.7 87 236.6 898.4 18.7 1.75 0.96 0.51 15.57 133.87 13.05 3.6 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.0
34 5.12 192.5 67 109.5 501.0 16.1 1.47 1.37 1.04 1.55 102.83 3.89 1.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
35 5.64 30.3 17 49.8 33.1 35.5 1.49 1.22 0.17 1.48 88.48 3.93 3.4 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0
36 5.96 126.1 60 83.1 323.0 6.5 0.49 0.56 0.54 0.73 205.35 7.32 4.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
37 5.95 202.1 40 75.1 563.2 10.4 0.80 0.60 0.31 1.63 162.51 8.38 9.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
38 5.6 222.3 62 107.4 626.6 10.3 0.83 0.61 1.16 6.12 155.73 9.27 10.8 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0
39 7.69 0.1 8 15.2 0.0 13.1 2.22 1.16 0.00 0.01 0.47 5.93 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
40 5.45 847.1 48 113.9 679.5 32.9 2.16 1.04 0.00 15.12 130.64 59.74 10.1 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.0
41 4.52 223.9 34 41.5 419.6 12.7 0.16 0.14 1.28 0.34 213.16 0.38 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
42 5.97 886.6 80 121.9 490.3 23.9 2.49 1.53 0.17 20.38 83.82 16.57 14.7 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.0
43 5.03 33.6 22 51.4 173.9 9.7 0.42 0.44 1.33 0.66 191.94 1.07 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
44 5.92 88.4 63 93.6 549.5 21.5 1.98 3.92 1.24 1.00 172.30 3.86 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
45 5.82 119.7 24 48.8 71.7 30.7 1.22 1.79 0.13 0.80 49.47 11.12 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
46 5.65 2655.0 581 423.9 887.0 177.9 0.92 1.42 0.29 2.94 20.18 2.04 2.9 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0
47 6.02 40.1 26 49.2 85.3 24.5 1.76 1.14 0.00 0.86 79.44 10.75 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
48 5.72 356.6 73 147.4 356.2 24.2 2.32 1.67 0.41 5.74 110.78 18.57 4.6 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0
⁎ P citric-acid extraction.
⁎⁎ Remaining P.

(patterned ground, debris lobes, gelifluction lobes, stone stripes) and
marine platforms.
All Cryosols/Gelisols studied here have a slightly acid to neutral pH
(Tables 4 and 5). Soils are eutric with highly variable levels of available
nutrients such as K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ (Table 4). Contrast is higher
when ornithogenic and non-ornithogenic soils are grouped together.
Although both are eutric, the sea–land nutrient transfer promoted by
sea birds enriches the soils with elements such as C, P and N. Acidity
generated during the microbial transformation of organic materials
favor the leacheage of Ca2 + and Mg2 + and reduce soil pH (Simas
et al., 2008). Ornithogenic Cryosols/Gelisols presented lower pH, Ca2+
and Mg2+, similar amounts of K+ and much higher contents of P and
organic C, when compared to non-ornithogenic Cryosols (Table 5).
High values of extractable Na+ are common in soils from King
George Island (Michel et al., 2006; Simas et al., 2007; Francelino et al.,
2011) this may be due to sea saline spray as well as weathering of
primary minerals. However, Na+ rarely saturates more than 20% of
the cation exchange capacity. Al3+ values were higher in two profiles
(P-29 and P-30) which have pH lower than 6.0 and ornithic character.
The levels of extractable microelements are variable; Zn values were
generally low for most Cryosols with notably higher values for
ornithogenic soils. Iron distribution is regular with depth for all profiles,
areas with low chemical weathering (Leptic and Cambic characters)
sustain low iron contents, the more weathered, deeper profiles
expressed intermediate values, while the ornithogenic profiles reached
values up to 193.95 mg kg−1, suggesting the ferrolysis process.
3.2.2. Leptosols/Entisols
The reduced time of exposition of the substrate since the deglacia-
tion during the Holocene and the constant reworking and erosion of
the landscape restrain pedogenesis in many parts of the studied area.
As a result, shallow and gravelly soils are common in F.P. and A.I. They
84 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86

Table 5
Average chemical attributes of the soil classes.

ID pH P K Na P_citr⁎ P-rem⁎⁎ Ca2+ Mg2+ Al3+ Zn Fe Mn Cu Cr Ni Cd Pb

H2O mg kg−1 mg l−1 cmolc kg−1 mg kg−1

Fildes Peninsula
Haplic Arenosol 7.06 24.0 85 175.7 18.3 37.8 7.56 4.17 0.04 0.31 73.29 23.02 3.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Arenosol (Ornithic) 7.35 5.1 96 191.1 5.1 25.2 8.12 8.99 0.00 0.13 44.44 9.16 2.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Arenosol (“Biogenic”) 7.42 22.4 58 317.2 8.9 40.0 6.54 1.97 0.00 0.07 16.58 3.26 0.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0
Protic Arenosol 6.26 75.2 76 99.2 142.4 27.7 5.80 2.19 1.39 0.90 104.50 21.49 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Leptic Cambisol 7.29 25.5 93 133.0 22.6 26.3 8.75 4.94 0.00 0.71 73.83 13.66 3.7 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cambic Cryosol 7.08 26.8 80 129.8 24.1 33.5 4.88 2.26 0.01 0.33 39.63 23.76 3.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Leptic Cryosol 5.80 792.9 176 167.3 350.1 64.3 1.56 1.51 0.21 2.58 64.97 10.62 2.5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
Turbic Cryosol 6.73 96.4 45 62.6 235.5 20.5 1.76 0.87 1.43 0.28 98.90 10.63 1.1 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cryosol (Ornithic) 8.40 29.1 32 89.1 10.1 30.0 7.34 3.50 0.00 0.13 62.90 23.61 1.3 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Leptosol (Ornithic) 7.19 34.1 72 164.5 21.2 28.2 6.21 5.27 0.01 0.28 64.27 21.44 1.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
⁎ P citric-acid extraction.
⁎⁎ Remaining P.

occur in a variety of parent materials (mainly tills) and landform, soils, despite their coarse texture. The high K+ values are related to
notably raised beaches and platforms, residual hills and volcanic out- the parent material and limited leaching due to the climatic setting
crops. All profiles are coarse textured (sand, sand-loam or loam-sand, and drainage impediments, Ca2 +, Mg2 + and Na+ seem favored by
Table 3). Soils have a simple grain structure and only one profile had a their geomorphological setting close to the sea and nutrient transfer
weak medium subangular blocky structure. performed by the mammals and penguins. Two profiles (P-4 and P-6)
All Leptosols (WRB) corresponded to Entisols (ST). They have slight- are affected by the fauna and presented enhanced levels of P and C
ly acidic to neutral pH and highly variable contents of K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and depleted contents of Ca2 + and Mg2 + (Table 4). Zn contents are
and Na+ (Tables 4 and 5). Such chemical variability is due to the influ- low for most profiles with the exception of two, strongly influenced
ence of parent materials in these poorly developed soils and also due by the ornithic character. Fe levels do not vary much and corroborate
to the effects of ornithogenic influence. Abandoned ornithogenic sites with values found for other classes. P values are low for the non-
have considerable vegetation cover, with lichens and moss carpets ornithic Arenosols when compared to ornithic profiles.
while the non-ornithogenic soils have sparse or no vegetation. The
difference in P and SOC content is high between ornithogenic and
3.2.5. Cambisols/Inceptisols
non-ornithogenic Leptosols. All profiles but one have small concentra-
Profiles witch showed no cryoturbation, absence of permafrost in
tions of Al3+ despite the pH near neutrality and values of extractable
the first meter depth, fine texture (loamy very fine sand or finer) and
Zn are close to the ones found in Cryosols (Table 5).
moderate structure development were classified as Cambisols (WRB)
or Inceptisols (ST). Two distinct profiles expressed the Cambic character
3.2.3. Gleysols/Gelaquents
(profiles 8 and 9) and both received the Leptic prefix qualifier and the
Only one of the studied profiles was classified as a Gleysol. It is
suffixes Eutric and Gelic. These encounter perfect correspondence in
located near a melting water channel at F.P. and develops on colluvial
the U.S. system (ST), being classified as Lithic Eutrogelepts, due to the
materials composed of basaltic lavas. It has a loam-sand texture (44%
eutrophic character, limited depth and gelic thermal regime. The two
CS, 19% FS, 23% silt and 14% clay) and weak medium subangular blocky
soils develop from different parent materials. P-9 is located at a marine
structure being colonized by a sparse moss cover. The pH is near neu-
platform 36 m a.s.l. high and evolved from basaltic lavas and is influ-
trality, and the levels of bases are high. P contents and P-rem are low,
enced by skua nesting supporting a mix cover of lichens and mosses
considering the low clay content, this indicates affinity for P and the
while P-8 is located at a erosive glacial landform at 20 m a.s.l. formed
potential for P retention in this soil.
on lapillistones and tuffs, and is devoid of vegetation. Both have loam
texture, moderate/strong medium subangular blocks structure and
3.2.4. Arenosols/Entisols
incipient horizon differentiation.
Soils with loamy sand or coarser texture, with less than 40% of
Due to the pedogenetic contrast between the two soils, the average
gravels and absence of permafrost within 1 or 2 m from the surface,
chemical properties differ greatly. P-8 has an alkaline reaction, moder-
key out as Arenosols (WRB) or Entisols (ST). Seven profiles expressed
ate contents of K+ and Mg2 +; high contents of Ca2+, Mn and Cr. Zn,
these characteristics, and were usually located at intermediate altitudes
Fe and Cu show moderate to low concentrations. Ni, Cd and Pb were
(maximum of 33 m a.s.l.), showing limited cryoturbation, little horizon
not detectable (Table 4). P contents are low and P-rem in solution is
differentiation, and no diagnostic attribute for other classes or orders.
30.8 mg l−1. This profile is developed in the same parent material
These soils developed over basaltic and andesitic lavas or related
as P-13, P-14 and P-15 (Turbic Cambic Cryosol (“Patterned”, Calcaric,
transported fragments, and are found on various landforms such as
Siltic)); all have low K+ and P values, high Ca2 + and Cr, associated
raised beaches, gentle slopes, berms and deposits as till and outwash
with lapillistones and tuffs. On the other hand, P-9 has acid pH, moder-
plains.
ate contents of K+, low amounts of Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn and Cr (below the
These soils are moderately developed reaching depths up to 100 cm.
detection limit). Fe and Cu are elevated and Ni, Cd and Pb values were
They commonly present simple grain structure and in some cases weak
not detectable (Table 4).
granular or moderate subangular blocks when enriched with organic
matter. Average particles sizes are 62.63% (± 14.18%) CS, 12.50%
(±5.55%) FS, 15.38% (±7.33%) Silt and 10.3 8% (±3.70%) Clay. Vegeta- 4. Conclusions
tion cover includes moss carpets, lichens and, when near penguin or
mammal colonies, the presence of the terrestrial algae Prasiola crispa Fildes Peninsula shows a gradient from periglacial to paraglacial con-
was also observed. ditions toward the Collins Glacier. Relict paraglacial features are scarce,
The pH values are near neutrality and high contents of extractable being observed only close to the present dead ice. Landforms observed
K+, Ca2 +, Mg2 + and Na+ are present when compared to the other in F.P. and A.I. are majorly shaped by glaciers or by the sea. Glacioisostatic
 R.F.M. Michel et al. / Geomorphology 225 (2014) 76–86
uplift acted with varying intensities in the different geological blocks sep-
arated by numerous faults.
Periglacial geomorphic processes such as nivation, solifluction,
cryoturbation, frost weathering, ablation and erosion are active and
dominant throughout the peninsula. Landforms and geomorphological
processes are distributed following an altitudinal gradient. Only a few
periglacial features exist between 0 and 20 m a.s.l., being related to
nival and gravitational processes. Periglacial processes are dominant
above 50 m a.s.l. where patterned ground is the most common feature,
related to a permafrost environment with active layer-related processes
and freeze-and-thawing phenomena.
Periglacial landforms and processes prevail in the southern part of F.P.
and paraglacial conditions occur in the northern part. Solifluction (mass
movement in non-cryotic terrain) is active on slopes. Cryoturbation is
the main process on the wide middle and upper platforms of the study
area, and patterned ground occurs wherever landscape stability, clayey
substrate and poor drainage are present to sustain moist content.
Soils in Fildes Peninsula and Ardley Island are well developed for
Antarctic standards with large areas of soils with Leptic/Lithic and
Skeletic characters. Arenosols/Entisols and Cryosols/Gelisols (frequently
turbated) are the most important soil classes, while Leptosols/Entisols,
Gleysols/Aquents and Cambisols/Inceptisols also occur, all with gelic
regime. Faunal activity plays a marked role in soil genesis at Fildes
Peninsula and is commonly found in the north shore of the peninsula,
prevailing at Ardley Island. The dominant soils in F.P. and A.I., the
Cryosols, are related to cryoturbation and active layer processes and
developed on wide areas occupied by stone fields, patterned grounds,
moraines and slopes on middle, upper platforms and hills in the north-
ern and southern areas.
On moraines, stacks and platforms also are developed Leptosols.
Both are related to the short time between the disappearance of the
ice cover during the Holocene and paraglacial and periglacial conditions
with permafrost environments until today. Arenosols are common in
places where no permafrost occurs, below 30 m a.s.l. on Holocene raised
beaches, outwash and glacial deposits.
The correspondence between the two classification systems is good,
considering that both use the same definitions expressed in different
words. In general the presence of Gelic materials, as described in ST
corresponds to cryoturbation in the WRB and a Cryic Horizon fulfills
the definition of permafrost. The inclusion of family classes in the Soil
Taxonomy to describe soil mineralogy, temperature and specially
particle-size allows a better differentiation of pedologically convergent
profiles formed from distinct parent materials (lapillistones, tuffs and
shales, most commonly basaltic and andesitic lavas). Cryosols occupy
several types of landform, stone fields, patterned ground and debris
slopes, and also deposits, remarkably till. Tills and hills; present Leptic
and Cambic characteristics being all Eutric, frequently Arenic and in
some cases Skeletic. Extensive areas have patterned ground and this
attribute was included as a suffix qualifier, written in quotes since it is
not yet included as diagnostic criteria in the WRB. Vegetation cover is
common, including moss carpets (mainly Warnstorfia and Sanionia
sp.) lichens (mainly Himantormia sp. and Usnea sp.) and a mixed
cover with occasional grasses (Deschampsia antarctica).
Acknowledgments
This study was supported technically and logistically by the
Brazilian Navy, MMA, UFV and FEAM-MG; grants received from
FAPEMIG and CNPq. We also thank the Chilean Antarctic Institute
(INACH) for technical and logistical support during field activities.
This is a contribution of the Terrantar Laboratory, part of the
Brazilian National Institute of Cryospheric Science and Technology.
It is also a contribution of the project CTM2011-26372 of the Spanish
R&D National Plan and has received support by the Spanish Antarctic
Program.
85
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