CATENA-02903; No of Pages 10

Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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Catena

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Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from

maritime Antarctica
Ivan C.C. Almeida a,⁎, Carlos E.G.R. Schaefer b, Roberto F.M. Michel c, Raphael B.A. Fernandes b,
Thiago T.C. Pereira d, André M. de Andrade e, Marcio R. Francelino b,
Elpidio I. Fernandes Filho b, James G. Bockheim f
a
Instituto Federal do Norte de Minas Gerais, Rua Mocambi, 295, Viriato, Teófilo Otoni, MG, Brazil
b
INCT/Criosfera. Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Departamente de Solos, Av. PH Rolfs, Viçosa, MG, Brazil
c
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Dep. De Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
d
Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais, Dep. de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Av. Prof. Mário Palmério, 1001 Frutal, MG, Brazil
e
Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias, Av. Vereador João Narciso, 1380 Unaí, MG, Brazil
f
University of Wisconsin, 1525 Observatory Drive, Madison, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Knowledge on active-layer dynamics and permafrost distribution is of especial importance in Maritime Antarc-
Received 15 February 2016 tica, where dramatic climate warming occurred in the last decades. Few long-term studies of active-layer temper-
Received in revised form 19 July 2016 atures in this region, and no one focus on recently deglaciated areas under paraglacial conditions. This paper
Accepted 20 July 2016
analyses the long-term soil thermal regime of a warm-based glacial front site located at Low Head, King George
Available online xxxx
Island. The monitoring system consists of soil temperature probes connected to a datalogger that recorded data at
Keywords:
hourly intervals. We calculated the thawing days (TD), freezing days (FD), number of isothermal days (ID), num-
Soil thermal regime ber of freeze-thaw days (FTD), thawing degree days (TDD), freezing degree days (FDD), and the apparent ther-
Climate change mal diffusivity (ATD). The results indicate that active layer thermal regime at Low Head is similar to other
Cryosol periglacial environments from Maritime Antarctica, with differences associated with the influence from the near-
Permafrost by warm-based glacier. Surface temperatures show greater variations during the summer resulting in frequent
Periglacial regime freeze and thaw cycles, mainly (1 cm and 10 cm). The temperature profile during the studied period indicates
that the active layer thickness reached a maximum of 106 cm on February 7th 2015. Soil temperature buffering
was limited by the low snow cover, low soil moisture, and absence of vegetation. Based on the high interannual
variability detected during the five years monitoring run, we stress that longer monitoring periods are necessary
for a more detailed knowledge on how permafrost respond to climate changes in this rapidly warming zone.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
International attention to permafrost degradation has increased
since it has been recognized as a controller on landscape evolution
and ecosystem responses to climate change in a global scale (Moss et
al., 2010; IPCC, 2012; Bockheim et al., 2013; Mora et al., 2013). With ref-
erence to Antarctica, permafrost temperatures reported by an IPY ex-
tensive review by Vieira et al. (2010) were slightly below 0 °C in the
South Shetlands Islands near sea-level, showing that this area of
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ivancarreiro@yahoo.com.br (I.C.C. Almeida), carlos.schaefer@ufv.br
(C.E.G.R. Schaefer), roberto@michel.com (R.F.M. Michel), raphael@ufv.br
(R.B.A. Fernandes), thiago.pereira@uemg.br (T.T.C. Pereira), andre.medeiros@ufvjm.edu.br
(A.M. de Andrade), marcio.francelino@ufv.br (M.R. Francelino), elpidio@ufv.br
(E.I. Fernandes Filho), bockheim@wisc.edu (J.G. Bockheim).
Antarctica is near the climatic boundary of permafrost. Also this region
proved to have the highest sensitivity to climate change in this conti-
nent, according to a summary of active-layer and permafrost monitor-
ing stations provided by Vieira et al. (2010).
Permafrost is a sensitive indicator of climate change, and tempera-
tures ranges from −0.4 to −3.1 °C along the western Antarctic Peninsu-
la region, where the greatest degree of warming (ca. 2.4–3.4 °C) has
occurred over the past 50 years. A more detailed knowledge of the dis-
tribution and properties of Antarctic permafrost in this region is essen-
tial for the cryosphere and life sciences, since permafrost degradation
represent a major control on ecosystem alteration following climate-in-
duced changes (Vieira et al., 2010). The effects of climate warming on
permafrost stability and distribution in the Antarctic Peninsula were
discussed by Bockheim et al. (2013), highlighting a big gap in knowl-
edge in many parts of Maritime Antarctica.
In the last several decades, glacier front recession in the Maritime
Antarctic and Antarctic Peninsula region has accelerated with global

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
0341-8162/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
2 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Location of Low Head within Maritime Antarctica, South Shetlands Island and King George Island.

warming at unprecedent rates (Kozeretska et al., 2010; Rosa et al., 2011;
Bockheim et al., 2013; Oliva et al., 2016b (this issue) leading to warm-
based glaciers in most areas. Ferron et al. (2004) analyzing the monthly
temperature averages recorded at various stations of King George Island
detected an increase in the mean air temperature of 1.1 °C from 1956 to
2000, accompanied by a 12% frontal glacier retreat (Arigony-Neto,
2001). This process exposes new ice-free areas allowing plant coloniza-
tion and formation of simple ecosystem at the glacier front zone, as well
as frontal or lateral moraines. These new ice-free areas under paraglacial
conditions quickly develop an active layer of unknown thermal regime.
Changes in soil respiration rates, affecting the production or consump-
tion of greenhouse gases (GHG) at the glacier retreat zone, especially
CO2 and N2O, have been reported (Thomazini et al., 2015).
The regional climate exerts a first-order control on the active layer
thermal regime, whereas local microclimate and the thermal state of
the permafrost further affect ground surface temperatures at meso
and microscales. Permafrost and active layer temperatures and distribu-
tion depend on climatic and topographic factors, such as air tempera-
ture, solar radiation, and snow cover, as related to aspect, slope angle
and altitude (Luetschg et al., 2004). At a local scale, ground surface

Fig. 2. Landscape view of the monitoring site (A) and image of the soil profile (B).

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

Table 1
Morphological and physical properties of studied profile from Low Head.

Depth (cm) Structurea Transition TFSA CSb FSc Siltd Claye Texture class

% g/kg

loamy−skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Typic Haplorthels

A 0–22 f/m w bl distinct wavy 84 46 22 24 8 Sand loam
Bi1 22–55 m w bl distinct irregular 79 48 21 27 4 Sand loam
C 55–96 md m l bl distinct smooth 22 58 22 17 3 Loam sand
Permafrost Hard material to scave with pedological tools filled with ice crystal
a
Structure classification: Development: w = weak. md = moderate. st = strong. Size: f = fine. m = medium, l = large. Type: ma = massive. gr = granular. bl = subangular blocky. sg =
single grain. cr = crumbs.
b
Coarse sand (2–0.2 mm). Soil physic was analyzed with texture procedure (EMBRAPA, 1997 modified by Ruiz, 2005).
c
Fine sand (0.2–0.05 mm).
d
Silt (0.05–0.002 mm).
e
Clay (b0.002 mm). f O.M. = organic matter (Walkley–Black method).

and active layer temperatures are affected by the snowpack, type and
height of vegetation, soil moisture content, topography and soil thermal
properties (Judge, 1973; Luetschg et al., 2004; Michel et al., 2012;
Almeida et al., 2014; Andrade et al., 2014; Michel et al., 2014; Poelking
et al., 2014; Vieira et al., 2014; Oliva et al., 2016a)
Maritime Antarctica has been increasingly recognized as a key re-
gion for monitoring climate change (Cannone et al., 2006; Vieira et al.,
2010; Bockheim et al., 2013). Few studies monitoring the soil tempera-
ture and moisture have been conducted at Maritime Antarctica and the
majority of published results involved short term monitoring (Vieira et
al., 2010; Guglielmin et al., 2012; Michel et al., 2012; De Pablo et al.,
2013; Almeida et al., 2014; De Pablo et al., 2014; Michel et al., 2014;
De Pablo et al., 2016 (this issue); Ferreira et al., 2016 (this issue);
Hrbáček et al., 2016 (this issue); Ramos et al., 2016 (this issue);
Schaefer et al., 2016 (this issue)).
Recently, a coordinated effort to monitor permafrost properties and
active − layer dynamics has been carried under the project ‘Antarctic
and sub-Antarctic Permafrost, Periglacial and Soil Environments’
(ANTPAS), which aims at addressing key issues of Antarctic permafrost
science. This paper described the results of a five-years monitoring and
analyses of the active layer (soil) thermal regime of a proglacial warm-
based glacier front, where active meltwater flow is observed at the bed.
It is located at Low Head, King George Island.
2. Regional setting
King George Island (KGI) is the largest island of the South Shetlands
Archipelago with an area of approximately 1400 km2. It is mostly glaci-
ated, with less 5% of its area free of ice during the summer (Simões et al.,
1999). The study was carried out at an ice-free proglacial zone (Ruiz-
Fernández and Oliva, 2016) along the recent glacier retreat area
experiencing paraglacial processes, at the White Eagle Glacier (Low
Head promontory, King George Bay). Low Head is a headland at the
west side of the entrance to King George Bay, on KGI (Fig. 1).
Low Head is part of Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPA) 140
and 145, and designated as Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) No
21. The area has a diverse geology and formed mainly of basalts from
the Polones Cove formation, and sedimentary rocks of glacigenic origin
(Birkenmajer, 1982). Soil at Low Head are similar to other ice-free areas
of KGI, mostly turbic, moderately developed, with podzolization and
phosphatization in former ornithogenic sites, while areas with poor
vegetation show typical features of cryogenic weathering. Nivation, so-
lifluction, cryoturbation, frost weathering, ablation and periglacial sur-
face erosion are widespread (Simas et al., 2008; Almeida et al., 2014;
Michel et al., 2014), and the White Eagle shows a warm-based nature
of the glacier bed.
The study site is located at the front of the White Eagle Glacier,
which has retreated ~500 m since 1988, exposing ice-free areas (Piotr
and Korczak, 2010). The glacier front is at an elevation of 100 m a.s.l
and has practically no vegetation and minimal pedogenetic develop-
ment (Almeida et al., 2014). The monitoring site at Low Head is located
in a gentle ondulating relief at the highest part of the landscape,
representing a paraglacial ice-free area on a lateral moraine situated at
White Eagle's northeast front side, just above the slope of the talus
ramp (Fig. 2). Vegetation is limited to scattered Usnea sp. and other li-
chens and mosses, specially Sanionia sp. and Andreae sp. The presence
of cryoclastic action and frost heave is marked, and severe erosion pro-
cesses are commonly observed at the moraines, notably solifluction and
mass wasting (Almeida et al., 2014), similar as reported by Rosa et al.
(2011) studying at the Wanda Glacier front.
The studied soil is a loamy sand texture soil classified as a Cambic
Cryosol (Eutric, Turbic, Skeletic) (UTM 21E 440719/3108308), accord-
ing to the WRB system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014), which corre-
sponds to a loamy-skeletal, mixed, subgelic, Typic Haplorthels,
according to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).
According to the Köppen climate classification, the South Shetlands
Islands have an ET climate, South Hemispheric Polar Oceanic (Köppen,
1936). There are no local meteorological data for Low Head. Climate

Fig. 3. Air temperature (hourly intervals) of Low Head, King George Island, South Shetlands, Maritime Antarctica (2011–2015). Sensor located at 1 m above soil surface.

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
4 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

data acquired (1944–2013) from the Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Sta- Table 2
tion (Brazil), located 14 km distance from the research site, show mean Monthly mean temperature at air and moisture in different soil depths 1, 10, 30 and 50 cm
of studied profile from Low Head.
monthly air temperature ranging from −6.9 °C in July to +1.9 °C in Jan-
uary, with mean annual air temperature of −2.1 °C and the mean annu- Month Temperature (°C) Water content (%)
al precipitation of 400 mm (CPTEC, 2015). The climate has a high Depth (cm) Depth (cm)
interannual variability, resulting from sea proximity, changing sea ice
Air temp. 1 10 30 50 100 10 30 50 100
and the atmosphere; between 1948 and 2011 a statistically significant
Mar/11 −0.3 1.2 1.3 1.3 0.9 0.0 20.5 12.6 13.4 10.0
increase of air temperature occurred, reaching 1.2 °C, 0.19 °C/10 years
Apr/11 −5.8 −1.8 −1.3 −0.6 −0.1 −0.1 14.8 10.7 12.3 8.6
(Kejna et al., 2013). May/11 −3.1 −1.9 −1.8 −1.3 −0.5 −0.1 16.0 9.9 10.9 8.2
Jun/11 −8.5 −4.4 −4.0 −3.1 −2.1 −1.0 14.0 9.0 9.4 6.4
3. Materials and methods Jul/11 −10.6 −7.0 −7.0 −5.6 −4.4 −2.8 12.8 8.1 8.4 5.4
Aug/11 −7.8 −7.2 −7.5 −6.6 −5.7 −4.3 12.5 7.8 7.9 5.0
Sep/11 −7.1 −4.8 −4.9 −4.6 −4.3 −3.8 13.5 8.3 8.2 5.1
Soil surveying and sampling of Low Head were performed during Oct/11 −1.2 −0.8 −1.2 −1.8 −2.3 −2.9 20.3 9.5 9.0 5.3
the austral summer of 2011 (Jan–Feb), selecting one representative Nov/11 −0.5 1.9 1.2 0.1 −0.5 −1.2 25.1 12.5 10.1 5.7
site to install an active layer thermal monitoring system. The profile is Dec/11 1.8 5.2 4.2 2.5 0.5 −0.6 24.5 13.5 13.2 6.0
located at 94 m a.s.l. and was dug until the permafrost table was reached Jan/12 1.2 4.8 4.1 3.2 1.7 −0.1 24.5 13.4 14.0 7.8
Feb/12 0.4 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.3 0.0 22.7 13.1 14.1 8.6
at 100 cm. The monitoring system is composed by soil temperature
Mar/12 0.6 1.6 1.6 1.5 0.9 0.0 21.4 13.1 14.1 8.3
probes (Campbell L107E thermocouple, accuracy of ±0.2 °C) arranged Apr/12 −4.9 −2.5 −2.4 −1.2 −0.3 −0.1 16.7 10.2 11.8 7.2
in a vertical array at depths of 1, 10, 30, 50, and 100 cm). Soil moisture May/12 −3.3 −1.7 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 −0.2 17.2 9.8 10.3 6.1
probes (CS616 water content reflectometer, accuracy of ±2.5%) were Jun/12 −8.1 −6.8 −6.6 −5.6 −4.1 −2.0 13.4 8.0 8.3 5.0
placed at 10, 30, 50 and 100 cm. An air temperature thermistor (accura- Jul/12 −5.9 −5.2 −5.3 −4.9 −4.3 −3.2 13.9 8.1 8.1 4.7
Aug/12 −5.3 −4.1 −4.3 −4.1 −3.8 −3.2 14.7 8.4 8.2 4.7
cy of ±0.1 °C) was located in a ventilated radiation shield 100 cm above
Sep/12 −5.9 −4.0 −4.2 −3.9 −3.6 −3.0 15.4 8.5 8.3 4.7
the soil surface (Fig. 2) in order to allow comparison to other sites Oct/12 −3.9 −2.4 −2.4 −2.3 −2.3 −2.3 16.2 9.2 8.9 4.8
installed at KGI. All probes were connected to a Campbell Scientific CR Nov/12 −2.0 −0.8 −1.2 −1.8 −2.1 −2.3 22.3 9.6 9.0 4.9
1000 datalogger and data were recorded at hourly intervals from Dec/12 −1.3 3.7 2.9 1.4 −0.1 −1.0 24.9 14.1 11.9 5.2
Jan/13 0.6 3.2 2.8 2.1 1.0 −0.3 26.0 14.3 14.9 7.0
March 2011 to November 2015. The main characteristics of the soil pro-
Feb/13 1.3 3.7 3.3 2.6 1.5 0.0 25.6 14.2 14.9 8.5
file at the site are presented in Table 1. Mar/13 0.9 1.7 1.7 1.5 1.0 0.0 23.8 13.7 14.6 8.2
We calculated the following thermal regime parameters using the Apr/13 1.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.0 24.3 14.0 14.9 8.6
criteria and approach proposed by Guglielmin et al. (2008): (1) thawing May/13 −4.7 −3.7 −3.1 −1.6 −0.5 −0.1 14.2 10.9 12.6 7.8
days (TD − days with all hourly measurement positive with at least one Jun/13 −4.6 −3.9 −3.9 −2.9 −2.0 −0.7 13.4 9.4 9.7 5.7
Jul/13 −7.1 −6.0 −5.9 −4.9 −3.9 −2.3 12.5 8.7 8.9 5.1
reading warmer than + 0.5 °C); (2) freezing days (FD - days with all
Aug/13 −8.4 −7.5 −7.4 −6.7 −5.7 −4.0 12.0 8.1 8.2 4.8
hourly measurements negative with at least one reading colder than Sep/13 −4.6 −4.5 −4.7 −4.8 −4.6 −4.0 13.6 8.7 8.5 4.8
−0.5 °C); (3) the number of isothermal days (ID - days with all hourly Oct/13 −2.5 −0.4 −0.8 −0.8 −1.1 −1.8 22.6 11.0 10.1 7.5
measurements range only between ±0.5 °C); (4) the number of freeze– Nov/13 −1.7 1.2 0.6 −0.2 −0.7 −1.3 25.1 12.8 10.5 7.9
Dec/13 −1.3 3.0 2.2 1.2 −0.1 −0.7 24.1 14.4 13.7 8.1
thaw days (FTD - days with both negative and positive temperatures
Jan/14 0.1 4.2 3.6 2.7 1.1 −0.3 25.4 14.6 15.3 8.6
with at least one value greater than ± 0.5 °C); (4) thawing degree Feb/14 −0.2 1.7 1.5 1.2 0.6 −0.1 23.8 14.3 15.1 9.8
days (TDD - cumulative sum of the mean daily temperatures above 0 ° Mar/14 −1.4 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 −0.1 21.8 13.9 14.9 10.1
C); and (5) freezing degree days (FDD − cumulative sum of the mean Apr/14 −1.0 −1.2 −1.0 −0.4 −0.1 −0.1 18.9 12.2 13.3 9.6
daily temperatures below 0 °C). May/14 −3.2 −2.5 −2.2 −1.6 −0.7 −0.2 16.7 10.7 11.8 9.0
Jun/14 −5.2 −3.2 −3.2 −2.7 −2.1 −1.1 15.1 9.7 10.0 7.7
Additional parameters linked to active layer dynamic were evaluat-
Jul/14 −3.2 −4.3 −4.2 −3.7 −2.9 −1.8 14.7 9.4 9.5 7.5
ed. The active layer thickness was calculated as the depth coincident Aug/14 −6.1 −5.3 −5.1 −4.7 −3.9 −2.8 14.1 9.0 9.1 7.2
with 0 °C, using the maximum depth of the 0 °C isotherm extrapolating Sep/14 −4.8 −4.1 −4.1 −4.0 −3.7 −3.0 14.6 9.2 9.1 7.1
linearly the thermal gradient from the two deepest temperature mea- Oct/14 −2.8 −1.6 −1.7 −1.9 −2.1 −2.3 16.3 10.1 9.7 7.3
Nov/14 −2.6 −0.2 −0.6 −0.5 −0.3 −0.8 22.6 11.0 11.2 9.4
surements (Guglielmin, 2006). The apparent thermal diffusivity (ATD)
Dec/14 −0.6 2.9 2.1 0.8 −0.1 −0.6 33.1 17.3 14.9 9.1
was estimated for each season according to McGaw et al. (1978): Jan/15 0.9 4.4 3.6 2.5 0.7 −0.2 30.4 16.3 16.7 9.4
2 ðT ijþ1 −T ij−1 Þ Feb/15 1.3 3.3 2.9 2.4 1.2 −0.1 28.9 15.7 16.0 10.1
α ¼ ½ΔZ
2Δt   ½ ,where: α = apparent thermal diffusivity
T −1 1 iþ1
ji −2T j þT j Mar/15 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.3 −0.1 28.1 15.7 16.1 10.6
2 −1
(m s ), Δt = time increments (s), ΔZ = space increments (m), Apr/15 −0.3 −0.5 −0.3 0.0 0.0 −0.1 20.8 14.3 15.0 10.2
May/15 −3.0 −2.5 −2.1 −1.2 −0.4 −0.1 19.4 11.7 12.8 9.8
T = temperature, j = temporal position and i = depth position. Hourly
Jun/15 −8.5 −7.5 −7.2 −5.9 −4.1 −1.8 14.7 8.9 8.5 7.9
estimates of ATD were calculated for intermediate depths, and mean Jul/15 −8.0 −9.1 −8.9 −8.0 −6.5 −4.2 14.0 8.2 7.7 7.2
values were calculated for each day. Aug/15 −6.1 −5.7 −5.8 −5.4 −5.1 −4.3 15.2 8.8 7.9 7.2
The histogram of the soil temperature at different depths and Sep/15 −8.1 −7.0 −7.0 −6.4 −5.8 −4.8 14.6 8.5 7.8 7.1
the time series was decomposed into its seasonal and trend components Oct/15 −2.2 −1.5 −1.8 −2.4 −3.0 −3.5 19.7 10.0 8.7 7.3
Nov/15 −1.6 0.8 0.1 −0.5 −1.1 −1.9 26.0 11.6 9.7 7.7
by locally weighted smoothing, using the R® software (R Development
Dec/15 −0.3 1.2 1.3 1.3 0.9 0.0 20.5 12.6 13.4 10.0
Core Team, 2008). The n-factor was not calculated, as we believe that
the air temperature probe was covered by snow during a long period, Mean −3.1 −1.5 −1.6 −1.6 −1.6 −1.5 19.4 11.2 11.3 7.3
Min −10.6 −9.1 −8.9 −8.0 −6.5 −4.8 12.0 7.8 7.7 4.7
compromising the snow thickness estimation.
Max 1.8 5.2 4.2 3.2 1.7 0.0 33.1 17.3 16.7 10.6
St dv 3.3 3.7 3.5 2.9 2.2 1.5 5.4 2.6 2.7 1.7
4. Results

The mean annual air temperature (MAAT) recorded at 1 m above
ground ranged between − 4.3 °C (2011) and − 2.5 °C (2013) (Fig. 3
and Table 2). The highest hourly air temperature was 11.1 °C recorded
in March 24th 2015 (Table 2), and the highest mean daily air tempera-
ture was 6.25 °C in March 2nd 2012. The lowest hourly air temperature
record (−23.1 °C) and daily average (−22.2 °C) occurred in September
23th 2011. Soil freezing seasons starts in late March, between 18th and
31st (2011, 2012 and 2015), in 2013 it started abnormally late, on April
30th and came early in 2014 on march 12th. The freezing front spreads
rapidly reaching 50 cm in less than a week. The thawing season starts
gradually at the surface (1 cm and 10 cm) in mid-October, reaching
the intermediate part of the active layer in December (30 cm and

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 5

Table 3 The maximum soil water content was 0,46 m3/m3 (46%) at 1 cm,
Average Apparent Thermal Diffusivity (ATD) for the five years of soil temperature with the highest mean values between November until March due to
monitoring.
the active layer thawing and the snow melting.
Seasons Average ATD (m2 s−1) Moisture peaks were found in every summer, particularly after
ATD_10 cm ATD_30 cm ATD_50 cm thawing events. Soil water content does not vary much with depth; var-
iations are small and limited to the spring season (Fig. 4 and Table 2).
Summer_11 1.0E + 00 3.5E − 09 8.2E − 10
Fall_11 −5.7E − 01 2.1E − 09 −2.3E − 08 High values at the end of the freezing period are coincident with the ob-
Winter_11 −4.6E + 00 2.4E − 10 −3.1E − 10 servation of the existence of zero curtain periods. These occurred at dis-
Spring_11 −1.4E + 00 2.4E − 08 −1.4E − 08 tinct moments in different depths, notably deeper than from 30 cm. The
Summer_12 1.4E + 00 3.2E − 09 1.5E − 09 beginning of the freezing period is coincident with a drop in soil water
Fall_12 −1.2E + 00 −4.6E − 09 2.3E − 08
Winter_12 −3.9E + 00 1.3E − 09 9.9E − 10
content; during this period, we also observed the existence of zero cur-
Spring_12 −1.9E + 00 1.6E − 08 8.2E − 09 tain periods, which can last longer, as observed for the 30 cm depth. The
Summer_13 1.0E + 00 6.2E − 09 1.0E − 09 soil water content of the profile is able to buffer sudden temperature
Fall_13 −3.4E − 01 −9.0E − 09 7.1E − 09 changes and to maintain a strong zero curtain effect despite its coarse
Winter_13 −4.7E + 00 − 1.3E − 09 4.0E − 10
texture (Table 1).
Spring_13 −9.8E − 01 −3.0E − 09 −5.0E − 08
Summer_14 7.0E − 01 6.1E − 09 5.9E − 09 The soil temperature frequencies show records concentrated around
Fall_14 −7.3E − 01 −2.0E − 09 −2.9E − 08 0 °C for all depths (Fig. 5), thermal amplitude decreases rapidly in depth
Winter_14 −3.3E + 00 9.8E − 10 2.8E − 10 considering all data (40 °C, 29 °C, 19 °C, 11 °C and 5 °C for the consecu-
Spring_14 −1.3E + 00 2.7E − 09 3.5E − 09 tive depths). The decomposition of the time series shows a strong daily
Summer_15 7.7E − 01 2.3E − 08 2.9E − 9
Fall_15 −9.1E − 01 −2.6E − 09 −6.9E − 08
seasonal component concentrated in the warmer months, values vary
Winter_15 −5.7E + 00 4.7E − 10 3.0E − 10 up to 9 °C in surface and 4 °C at 10 cm; from 30 cm deeper variations
Spring_15 −2.5E + 00 5.5E − 09 −4.3E − 09 are buffered (Fig. 7). There is also a considerable noise component of
similar magnitude, which is attenuated with depth. At the 50 cm and
100 cm depths the raw data and the trend component are very similar,
50 cm) and finally reaches down the 100 cm depth for a few days in with very weak seasonal component and noise (Fig. 5 and Fig.7).
early February (Fig. 6 and Table 4). The thermal regime of the 100 cm depth indicates that the perma-
The mean soil temperature between 2011 and 2015 was − 1.5 °C frost is very close, with maximum temperatures higher than 0.0 °C in
(±4.6) at 1 cm depth, with a maximum temperature record of 21.9 °C rare events along the entire studied period. The estimated active layer
in January 17th 2014, and a minimum of − 18.2 °C in July 5th 2015; thickness (ALT) was 103 cm (2011), 102 cm (2012), 102.5 (2013) cm,
the surface also presented the highest thermal amplitude (Table 3). 98 cm (2014) and 106 cm reached in March 24th 2015. The winters of
The mean annual temperatures of the deeper layers (10, 30, 50 and 2012 and 2014 were a notably warmer, whereas average August tem-
100 cm depth) were similar (around −1.3 °C), but the thermal ampli- peratures at 100 cm were −3.1 °C and −2.7 °C against −4.0 °C in the
tude was higher closer to the surface (Fig. 4 and Table 2). other years.

Fig. 4. Soil temperature (°C) and water content (% v/v) of the study site at Low Head, King George Island, South Shetlands, Maritime Antarctica.

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
6 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Fig. 5. Histogram of the soil temperature at different depths of studied site at Low Head, King George Island, South Shetlands, Maritime Antarctica.

Fig. 6. Thawing days, freezing days, isothermal days and freeze−thaw days (°C) at different depths of studied site at Low Head, King George Island, South Shetlands, Maritime Antarctica.

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 7

Our records show differences in the number of thawed days be-
tween the different depths, with a maximum number in January 2012
(30 for the first four layers). During the summer TD are predominant
at all depths, except at 100 cm. Considering all monitoring period the
10 cm layer had the highest count of TD, summing up 379 of the
1736 days.
Freeze-thaw days are dominant only at the surface (1 cm)
disappearing with depth, and are mainly concentrated between October
and March. They summed up 253 days at the surface, 66 days at 10 cm
and around 10 days in deeper layers. The number of isothermal days in-
creases with depth, peaking at 100 cm, where 581 days were classified
as isothermal. Each year, during winter, freeze days dominate during
four months at 1 cm, 5 months at 10 cm, 30 cm and 50 cm and 6 months
at 100 cm. They are mainly concentrated between April and October,
being far more numerous with greater depth, reaching 820 days at
100 cm. The thawing process is attained much sooner at the surface
than deep in the profile (Fig. 6).
The duration and magnitude of cold, and the net energy input, are
traditionally related to the freezing degree day and the thawing degree
day indices. The TDD is very different between depths; total values
summed up 1765 °Cday at the surface decreasing to 927 °Cday at
50 cm, and only 1.3 °Cday at 100 cm for the whole monitoring period
(Table 4). Annual values were 400 °Cday in 2012 and 2013, and 300 °
Cday days in 2014 and 2015 at the surface, reaching close to 100 °
Cday days at 50 cm and 0 °Cday at 100 cm (Table 4).
The overall sum of the FDD in the period of the five years was
− 4375 °Cday, − 4234 °Cday, − 3660 °Cday, − 3118 °Cday and
− 2554 °Cday for the successive depths; the sum for the different
years was rather similar, around − 800 °Cday in surface and − 500 °
Cday in depth, except for 2014 and 2015 (Table 5). The first was an ab-
normally warm year, whereas 2015 had a colder winter than usual. At
the surface, total FDD were − 715 °Cday and − 1068 °Cday; and
−400 °Cday and −640 °Cday at 100 cm for 2014 and 2015, respectively
(Table 5).

Fig. 7. Additional decomposition (°C) of different depths of the time series of studied site.

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
8 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 4 Table 5
Thawing degree days (°Cday) of the studied site at Low Head during a period of five years. Freezing degree days (°Cday) of the studied site at Low Head during a period of five years.

Date Air 1 cm 10 cm 30 cm 50 cm 100 cm Date AIR 1 cm 10 cm 30 cm 50 cm 100 cm

Thawing degree days (°Cday) Freezing degree days

Mar-11 37.9 47.3 45.8 40.8 26.7 0.3 Mar-11 −47.3 −9.2 −4.2 −0.3 −0.2 −0.7
Apr-11 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Apr-11 −173.7 −53.9 −39.5 −19.0 −4.1 −3.2
May-11 22.1 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 May-11 −118.0 −59.1 −55.4 −39.2 −16.4 −3.4
Jun-11 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jun-11 −257.3 −133.5 −120.8 −92.2 −62.3 −29.3
Jul-11 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jul-11 −330.1 −216.0 −216.2 −173.3 −135.9 −85.4
Aug-11 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Aug-11 −243.2 −223.0 −232.0 −204.0 −177.5 −133.9
Sep-11 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sep-11 −214.3 −144.8 −148.0 −138.2 −129.9 −114.6
Oct-11 14.2 13.5 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 Oct-11 −51.8 −37.9 −39.1 −55.4 −72.7 −89.8
Nov-11 17.2 59.2 36.6 4.6 0.0 0.0 Nov-11 −31.8 −2.3 −1.0 −2.9 −15.8 −37.2
Dec-11 57.7 160.9 130.0 78.7 15.7 0.0 Dec-11 −1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −1.4 −17.3
Total 156.7 282.4 213.9 124.1 42.4 0.3 Total −1468.4 −879.7 −856.2 −724.5 −616.1 −514.7
Jan-12 37.4 147.8 128.5 100.7 52.1 0.0
Feb-12 30.6 83.4 70.3 60.9 38.6 0.2 Jan-12 −0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −3.1
Mar-12 47.3 61.2 54.3 45.4 28.5 0.4 Feb-12 −19.0 −2.7 −0.4 0.0 0.0 −0.3
Apr-12 14.1 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mar-12 −28.5 −12.9 −4.8 −0.3 −0.1 −0.6
May-12 8.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Apr-12 −161.1 −76.4 −72.6 −34.8 −9.6 −3.3
Jun-12 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 May-12 −111.2 −51.3 −47.0 −32.4 −16.7 −6.1
Jul-12 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jun-12 −244.0 −205.1 −196.9 −167.3 −122.3 −58.8
Aug-12 10.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jul-12 −184.5 −162.0 −164.7 −151.9 −134.3 −98.7
Sep-12 6.2 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Aug-12 −172.9 −127.5 −131.9 −125.7 −118.0 −98.7
Oct-12 2.6 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sep-12 −182.7 −120.1 −126.5 −116.2 −107.2 −90.3
Nov-12 8.8 20.1 9.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 Oct-12 −122.8 −75.0 −73.9 −70.2 −70.1 −72.7
Dec-12 1.3 116.6 89.6 42.3 4.5 0.0 Nov-12 −68.7 −43.9 −45.4 −53.6 −62.7 −67.9
Total 156.7 282.4 213.9 124.1 42.4 0.3 Dec-12 −41.8 −1.1 −0.2 −0.4 −7.8 −30.7
Total −1337.8 −878.1 −864.4 −752.8 −649.0 −531.2
Jan-13 28.9 98.2 88.3 65.3 29.6 0.0
Feb-13 45.1 102.5 91.9 72.7 42.2 0.1 Jan-13 −10.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −7.9
Mar-13 48.9 58.1 52.3 46.4 30.3 0.3 Feb-13 −8.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −0.9
Apr-13 47.1 16.5 9.1 7.2 4.7 0.1 Mar-13 −19.8 −4.6 −0.2 0.0 0.0 −0.5
May-13 9.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Apr-13 −7.2 −5.8 −0.3 0.0 0.0 −0.6
Jun-13 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 May-13 −156.0 −115.5 −96.0 −50.2 −15.3 −3.3
Jul-13 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jun-13 −136.8 −117.0 −115.8 −87.4 −59.5 −21.5
Aug-13 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jul-13 −221.7 −187.3 −184.4 −152.3 −120.1 −72.8
Sep-13 9.1 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Aug-13 −260.1 −231.6 −229.1 −206.5 −177.3 −123.4
Oct-13 10.6 17.2 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sep-13 −146.3 −138.2 −140.8 −142.7 −139.0 −120.9
Nov-13 12.1 45.4 25.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 Oct-13 −86.8 −29.6 −28.6 −25.7 −33.7 −56.0
Dec-13 2.3 96.6 69.8 37.1 1.2 0.0 Nov-13 −62.7 −8.8 −7.3 −7.9 −19.8 −37.5
Total 214.6 438.0 341.4 229.9 108.0 0.4 Dec-13 −43.4 −2.8 −0.5 −0.1 −4.3 −21.8
Total −1159.3 −841.1 −802.9 −672.9 −569.1 −466.9
Jan-14 24.7 130.6 113.1 84.7 33.6 0.0
Feb-14 26.4 51.5 42.3 33.7 17.8 0.0 Jan-14 −21.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −8.1
Mar-14 16.3 20.2 19.8 17.8 11.0 0.0 Feb-14 −33.1 −3.6 −0.9 0.0 0.0 −2.6
Apr-14 20.7 5.4 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mar-14 −59.4 −11.8 −8.2 −0.6 −0.5 −2.4
May-14 12.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Apr-14 −51.0 −41.1 −30.8 −11.0 −2.7 −2.8
Jun-14 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 May-14 −110.8 −77.0 −69.3 −48.5 −21.5 −4.9
Jul-14 4.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jun-14 −159.1 −94.9 −95.7 −81.6 −62.7 −33.4
Aug-14 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jul-14 −102.1 −134.1 −128.7 −114.5 −90.4 −55.4
Sep-14 2.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Aug-14 −187.6 −163.4 −157.5 −145.0 −121.6 −86.3
Oct-14 7.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sep-14 −145.3 −124.2 −122.4 −120.2 −110.6 −89.7
Nov-14 4.2 9.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Oct-14 −92.5 −49.7 −53.5 −60.3 −66.6 −72.1
Dec-14 5.4 88.9 64.4 25.0 0.0 0.0 Nov-14 −81.4 −15.2 −18.3 −15.3 −10.1 −24.5
Total 125.8 305.6 241.5 161.3 62.4 0.0 Dec-14 −24.2 −0.1 0.0 −0.3 −3.7 −18.7
Total −1068.3 −715.1 −685.4 −597.3 −490.5 −401.0
Jan-15 43.0 137.3 111.8 77.2 21.0 0.0
Feb-15 46.6 93.2 81.8 66.2 34.0 0.0 Jan-15 −14.7 −0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 −6.7
Mar-15 32.3 27.0 23.2 18.6 10.1 0.0 Feb-15 −10.3 −0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 −2.7
Apr-15 29.1 8.5 1.7 0.4 0.4 0.0 Mar-15 −13.4 −1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 −2.2
May-15 9.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Apr-15 −36.9 −22.5 −10.9 −1.1 −0.9 −2.3
Jun-15 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 May-15 −101.1 −78.8 −66.5 −37.4 −12.1 −3.7
Jul-15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jun-15 −254.3 −226.0 −216.1 −176.8 −124.0 −52.6
Aug-15 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Jul-15 −246.5 −283.3 −276.5 −248.4 −202.0 −129.3
Sep-15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Aug-15 −191.5 −177.2 −180.2 −168.6 −157.2 −133.6
Oct-15 7.0 7.7 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sep-15 −243.4 −208.6 −209.9 −192.2 −173.3 −142.5
Nov-15 5.3 32.1 12.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Oct-15 −75.4 −53.0 −55.9 −73.1 −91.9 −108.8
Total 125.8 305.6 241.5 161.3 62.4 0.0 Nov-15 −52.7 −9.4 −9.7 −15.1 −32.1 −56.3
Total −1240.2 −1061.2 −1025.7 −912.7 −793.3 −640.7
11–15 839.9 1765.2 1380.9 927.1 401.9 1.3
11–15 −6274.0 −4375.2 −4234.7 −3660.3 −3118.0 −2554.5

Thermal diffusivity can be considered the principal variable
describing the thermal properties of the active layer. Values were simi-
lar at different depths and seasons, and matched by reports from else-
where in the region (De Pablo et al., 2013; Michel et al., 2014).
Compared with data reported from these studies, Low Head figures
presents lower conductivity during spring, autumn, and winter, with
consistent negative values (− 5.7E − 01 m2 s− 1, − 4.6E + 00 m2 s− 1,
−1.4E+00 m2 s−1, values for 2011). In contrast, it has higher conduc-
tivity during the summer, with positive values (1.0E+00 m2 s−1, 2011)
(Table 3).

Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
 I.C.C. Almeida et al. / Catena xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
5. Discussion
This paper presents the first near − glacier monitoring of active
layer, and the second long−term (≥5 years) study of active-layer dy-
namics in Shetlands, since Michel et al. (2014) explored five years of
monitoring of a Turbic Cryosol (Eutric) at Fildes Peninsula. According
to Vieira et al. (2010) the number of boreholes for permafrost and ac-
tive-layer monitoring in Antarctica has increased from 21 to 73 during
the IPY, while CALM-S sites to monitor the active layer were increased
from 18 to 28. The monitoring site at Low Head offers the opportunity
to compare contrasting conditions, close to a glacial front, at a recently
exposed site under paraglacial conditions.
The soil thermal regime at Low Head is comparable to other Mari-
time Antarctica periglacial environments, with extreme variation in sur-
face temperature during the summer resulting in frequent freeze and
thaw cycles. The main difference in Low Head is the intensity and
depth reached by these cycles, reaching a maximum of 106 cm. Com-
pared with other areas of King George Island, the site is influenced by
the warm-based glacial front. This results in a gradual thawing season
in the profile, taking until late February for the positive temperatures
to reach the 100 cm layer. Also fewer thaw and freeze thaw days,
lower average and minimum temperatures and greater sum of negative
freeze degree days (Table 5) are recorded compared to Fildes Peninsula
(Michel et al., 2014), Potter Peninsula (Michel et al., 2012) and Lions
Rump, near by the study area (Almeida et al., 2014). Michel et al.
(2014) showed a sum of FDD − 382 °Cday in 2012 at 83.5 cm depth
under of moss/lichen cover (65 m a.s.l). In the same depth, average
soil temperature was −1.1 °C at Fildes. In Potter Peninsula, the 90 cm
depth had FDD, of − 314.5 °Cday in 2008 under a lichen cover of
(70 m a.s.l), with mean soil temperature − 0.9 °C. Almeida et al.
(2014) reported FDD summing −531 °Cday at 100 cm depth, and aver-
age soil temperature of −1.4 °C over a 22−month period (2009–2011)
under a moss cover (88 m a.s.l), at Lions Rump.
Due to its location at a warm-based glacier front of recent retreat
(500 m in b25 years), where melting water supply is greater and
permafrost development favoured, the soil retains high moisture con-
tents despite its coarse texture. The upper layers are able to keep mois-
ture even in the winter season. The existence of zero curtain periods
was observed, and is apparently related with soil moisture peaks. Due
to accelerated melting, water percolates easily through the soil profile,
and rising soil water contents are observed at the beginning of the
thawing period at 100 cm, during which temperature changes
are more strongly buffered. The greater silt content of the surface hori-
zons also favors the zero curtain effect. Guglielmin et al. (2008) and
Almeida et al. (2014) observed similar results down to 90 cm for
Signy Island (S. Orkney) and Lions Rump (S. Shetlands); penetration
of the freezing front promoted by the atmospheric air is inhibited by
the release of the latent heat of fusion, and thermal fluctuations occur-
ring are strongly attenuated. Upon completion of the phase change,
the continual removal of heat results in quick temperature reduction
(Hinkel et al., 2001).
The energy flow in the profile is effective only during summer, as
shown by ATD values in which negative ATD indicate a resistance in
temperature change. Temperature changes in spring, autumn, and win-
ter are gradual, as evidenced by the insignificance of the seasonal com-
ponent and remainder of the time series during these periods. An early
and rapid beginning of the freezing season due to the proximity of the
glacial front may account for negative ATD values.
Mean monthly ground surface temperature was always warmer
than air temperature, consistently with the nearby site Lions Rump
(Almeida et al., 2014), Deception Island (Goyanes et al., 2014), and
Fildes Peninsula (Michel et al., 2014), except for April months of 2013,
2014 and 2015, when the air was warmer than the soil surface, associ-
ated with the beginning of the snow season. This is very contrasting to
Weddell Sea zone (James Ross Island), under colder conditions
(Hrbáček et al., 2016, this issue).
Please cite this article as: Almeida, I.C.C., et al., Long term active layer monitoring at a warm-based glacier front from maritime Antarctica, Catena
(2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.031
9
At the bottommost layer (100 cm) the soil remained frozen for the
majority of the studied period, ALT varied between 98 cm and 106 cm.
Soil temperature remains close to 0 °C from October until June, after it
drops to almost − 5 °C. The behavior in the thawing season differs
from year to year, with the occurrence of sudden temperature changes
in 2013 and 2014 (warmest years).
Although frequent daily freeze and thaw cycles were observed near
surface, these are rarely observed from 30 cm down to deeper layers,
and active layer remains predominantly unfrozen until the end of
March down to this depth. In the beginning of the thermal autumn,
temperature decreases to nearly 0 °C, influenced by the zero curtain ef-
fect (Fig. 3); it remains buffered until the upper portion of the profile is
completely frozen in mid-June.
6. Conclusions
The active layer thermal regime at the warm-based glacier front at
Low Head is comparable to periglacial environments from elsewhere
in Maritime Antarctica. However, the influence of the nearby glacier re-
sults in a gradual thawing season, fewer thaw and freeze thaw days,
lower average and minimum temperatures and greater sum of negative
freeze degree days, compared to other sites at KGI.
Surface temperatures show greater variations during the summer
resulting in frequent freeze and thaw cycles, at the surface, mainly
(1 cm and 10 cm).
The temperature profile during the studied period indicates that the
active layer thickness reached a maximum of 106 cm on March 24th
2015. Despite the low ATD values and existence of zero curtain periods
lasting longer than 30 days, the ALT responded to variations in air
temperature.
Based on the high interannual variability detected during the five
years monitoring run, longer monitoring periods are necessary for a
more detailed knowledge on how permafrost respond to climate chang-
es in this rapidly warming zone of warm-based glaciers, and resulting
active layer dynamics.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported technically and logistically by the Brazilian
Navy, Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (MMA), and Universidade
Federal de Viçosa. The authors are grateful to the CNPq for the grant
(556546/2009-1). This paper is a contribution of the TERRANTAR
group (INCT Cryosphere).
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