The processes of nutrition

ingestion digestion absorption

egestion assimilation
 Ingestion

• a process by which food is taken in

through the mouth
• a reflex action which is involuntary
• it occurs when the food is put at the
posterior position of the tongue
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

enamel
crown
dentine
neck blood capillaries pulp cavity
nerve fibres (pulp tissues)
root
cement
gum
jaw bone
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

crown enamel
- outermost & hardest layer
covering the crown (97% Ca,
neck 3% organic matter)
- It is thickened and
root strengthened by food, saliva
and drink
- Fluoride ions increase its
resistance to decay.
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

crown dentine
- hard like bone but
neck
softer than enamel
,living tissue, thread of
root
cytoplasm are running
through it. It is
hardened by vitamin D
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

- supply food & oxygen for

crown growth & maintaining alive

neck blood capillaries pulp cavity

(living tissues)
nerve fibres
root
- produce sensation
of pain when
stimulated
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

crown

neck blood capillaries pulp cavity

(living tissues)
nerve fibres
root made up of connective tissues
which make up your dentine
and keep tooth alive.
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

crown
cement
neck - In cement are embedded
tuff fibers which pass into
root bone of jaw and anchor the
tooth in its position
- Bone covering the root
 Teeth Structures
external structure internal structure

crown gum
neck Periodontal membrane

root - fibres attaching

tooth to
jawbone
jaw bone
 Two sets of teeth
• milk teeth
– in young child before approximately six years
old
– without molar
– 20 teeth
• permanent teeth
– no replacement for lost
– 32 teeth (including wisdom teeth)
 Types of teeth
Types of
Shape Functions
Teeth
Chisel-like & Biting &
Incisor
sharp cutting food

Pointed, Killing prey &

Canine
curved & long tearing flesh

2 blunted
Premolar Crushing &
points of
& Molar grinding food
cusps
 Dentition
• dental formula
• e.g. Human (permanent set) = 2123
2123
• other dentitions :
 Tooth decay
Causes:
• bacteria together with food
remains,
– forming plaque
• bacteria produce acid which
dissolves the enamel of
tooth
• acid penetrates into dentine
• bacteria infect pulp cavity
• causing toothache
 Diseases

•Dental decay (dental

cavities)
•Gum disease
Effect of Acid on
a
 scraping probing
dilute hydrochloric acid
tooth covered with wax

What do you find on the covered and uncovered parts of

the tooth ?
Ans: The acid dissolves the exposed enamel and leaves a
small hole on the uncovered part, but holes do not
appear on the covered part.
scraping probing
dilute hydrochloric acid
tooth covered with wax

Does the acid take place in causing tooth decay ?

Ans: Actually the acid produced by bacteria in the mouth
is not very strong. Tooth decay is due to bad habits
over a long period of time.
 Prevention of Tooth Decay
• have a balanced diet (include Ca, P &
vitamin D)
• adding fluoride in water to
strengthen the enamel of our
teeth
(NOT chlorine which kills bacteria in water)
• avoid sugary food & drinks between meals
 Prevention of Tooth Decay
• use dental floss (to remove food
remain between teeth)
 Prevention of Tooth Decay
• form a good tooth-cleaning habit by
using dental disclosing agent
 Prevention of Tooth Decay
• brush our teeth at least twice a day
• replace your toothbrush when it wears out
• do not bite hard materials
• have a dental check-up at least once a year
 Movement of Food
Mouth:
Food chewed by teeth epiglottis
 mixed with saliva to form bonus
 swallowed down the oesophagus
through pharynx
trachea oesophagus
[Note: Epiglottis (a piece of cartilage) covers the
entrance to the trachea while swallowing to prevent
food going down into lungs.]
Movement of Food
Oesophagus:
muscle
Outer longitudinal & inner
contraction
circular muscles contract &
muscle
relax alternately (peristalsis)
relaxation
 Push food bolus to stomach
A process by which large food molecules
are broken down into smaller pieces
Why is digestion
needed?
Because:

food pieces and their molecules

(e.g. starch, protein & fat) are
usually too large to pass through
the wall of our body for absorption

(Note: Simple sugars, water, vitamins &

minerals are small enough to be
absorbed immediately.)
So,

food pieces should be broken down

into smaller pieces and then into
substances with molecular size which
is small enough to be absorbed
 buccal cavity salivary
tongue glands
epiglottis
tooth
oesophagus
trachea diaphragm
liver cardiac sphincter
gall bladder stomach
pancreas spleen
pyloric sphincter
small duodenum
intestine ileum colon
caecum large
appendix intestine
rectum
anus
Human Digestive System
 Mechanical Digestion
Chewing : break down food into smaller
pieces by teeth to increase
the surface area for enzyme
action (physical digestion)
 Chemical Digestion
Enzymatic Reactions which digest
food into simpler chemical forms
 To show the Differential
Permeability of Dialysis Tubing
to Starch & Glucose
 thread

Starch-
glucose
mixture
Test for Test for
glucose starch

Why is it necessary to rinse the dialysis tubing with tap

water ?
Ans: In order to remove any starch and glucose that may
remain on the outside of the dialysis tubing.
 thread

Starch-
glucose
mixture
Test for Test for
glucose starch

Which food substance is present in water surrounding the

dialysis tubing 30 minutes after the beginning of the
experiment ? Explain your answer.
Ans: Glucose. As dialysis tubing is selectively permeable,
starch molecules are too large to pass through the
holes in the tubing...
 thread

Starch-
glucose
mixture
Test for Test for
glucose starch

Which food substance is present in water surrounding the

dialysis tubing 30 minutes after the beginning of the
experiment ? Explain your answer.
Ans: Only glucose molecules are small enough to pass
through the dialysis tubing in this experiment.
 thread

Starch-
glucose
mixture
Test for Test for
glucose starch

Which part of the body is presented by the dialysis

tubing and the water in the boiling tube respectively ?
Ans: Ileum and blood are represented by the dialysis
tubing and water respectively.
Where is food
digested?
 Sites where digestion occurs:
Alimentary canal (gut)

1. Buccal
cavity

2. Stomach
3. Small
intestine
How is food digested
in these sites?
 Digestion in Buccal Cavity
• There are 3 pairs of salivary glands
• Saliva contains water, mucus & enzyme
(amylase)
• Water: moistens dry food
• Mucus: lubricates food
• Amylase: digests about 5% of starch in
mouth
Action of Amylase
on Starch
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37 ℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

What are the results of the iodine test and Benedict’s test
for tube A ?
Ans: The result of iodine test is negative while the result
of the Benedict’s test is positive.
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37 ℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

What are the results of the iodine test and Benedict’s test
for tube B ?
Ans: The result of iodine test is positive while the result of
the Benedict’s test is negative.
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37 ℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

What are the results of the iodine test and Benedict’s test
for tube C ?
Ans: The result of iodine test is positive while the result of
the Benedict’s test is negative.
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

Why is the temperature of the water bath set at 37 ℃ ?

Ans: Because enzymes work best at 37 ℃.
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37 ℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

What is the action of amylase on starch ?

Ans: Amylase is an enzyme in saliva which helps to
digest starch into maltose.
 A B C
thermometer each test
tube
after 30 minutes
test with
Benedict’s
solution
water bath
at 37 ℃ test sample
with iodine
solution

What is the effect of boiling on amylase ?

Ans: Amylase denatured after boiling.
Chemical Digestion
break down of starch molecules into
maltose molecules by salivary amylase
(from salivary glands)

salivary glands

Starch

maltoses
Stomach
(Physical Digestion)
Stomach Entrance: Cardiac Sphincter

Stomach Exit: Pyloric Sphincter

Relaxation of cardiac sphincter & contraction of

pyloric sphincter enable storage of food in
stomach for a longer period of time
 Stomach (Physical Digestion)
Squeezing & churning
actions of stomach break
down the partly digested
food into smaller pieces
which forms a semi-fluid
called Chyme
Stomach (Chemical
Digestion)
• digestive juice : gastric juice (pH 2)
(by gastric glands)
• enzymes : protease
• break down of protein molecules into
polypeptides or dipeptides
Stomach (Chemical
Digestion)
•hydrochloric acid :
–to provide acidic medium for
maximum activity of enzyme
–to kill bacteria
–to stop the activity of salivary
amylase
(Stomach wall secretes a mucous layer to cover its inner
surface: prevents autodigestion by protease)
Small Intestine
(mainly chemical digestion)
Digestion of various food substances by
several kinds of digestive juices
Digestive juices found
in small intestine:
1. Bile
2. Pancreatic juice
3. Intestinal juice
 Bile
• with bile salts (not an
enzyme)
• produced in liver
• stored in gall bladder
liver
gall bladder
duodenum
 Bile
• transport to duodenum through bile duct
• take action in duodenum
• bile pigment (excretory waste from breaking
down of haemoglobin)

liver

gall bladder
 Bile
- contain bile salts which emulsify lipids into
smaller droplets without chemical change
( ∴ NOT digest fats)
- provide alkaline medium for enzymes to work

oil

oil droplets
Effect of Bile Salt
on Fat
What happens to the 10 drops of bile
salt solution
mixtures in tubes A & B ?
Ans: In tube A, bile salt A
observe
emulsifies the shaking
vegetable oil to 1cm3 of
vegetative
droplets. In tube B, the oil
oil floats on top of water
since oil and water do B
observe
not mix well. shaking
 10 drops of bile
What is the action of bile salt solution
salt on oil ?
Ans: The bile salt reduces A
observe
the surface tension of shaking
1cm3 of
oil and emulsifies oil to vegetative
droplets. oil

B
observe
shaking
Pancreatic Juice

• produced in pancreas
• action in duodenum

Pancreas

Duodenum
 Pancreatic Juice
- contain enzymes of 3 categories:
1. Carbohydrase (Amylase)
2. Proteases
3. Lipases
- provide alkaline medium for
enzymes to work
 pancreatic amylase
starch maltose

starch maltose
 pancreatic
proteases Dipeptides/
protein polypeptides

protease

dipeptide
protein
 pancreatic lipases
lipid glycerol + 3 fatty acids
lipid

lipase

fatty acids

glycerol
Digestion in ileum
Intestinal Juice
• produced and take action in
small intestine (duodenum &
ileum) to complete the
digestion of food
duodenum
small
intestine ileum
 Intestinal Juice
- Contain enzymes of 2 categories:
1. Carbohydrase (eg. maltase)
2. Protease
 intestinal
disaccharides carbohydrase monosaccharides
(eg. maltose) (eg. glucose)

disaccharide
carbohydrase

monosaccharide
 intestinal
proteases
dipeptides amino acids

protease
amino acid
 Absorption
• stomach : absorbs alcohol &
drugs
• ileum : absorbs digested food
(with a large amount of water)
(∴ it absorbs the largest amount
of water)
• colon : absorbs water & mineral
salts
Absorption of food in
ileum
• It is long, with many finger-like villi
– to provide large surface area
for absorption of digested food
• It has thin wall
– to decrease the diffusion distance
for easy diffusion of food
• It has well developed transport
system (blood capillaries & lacteal)
– to maintain high concentration
gradient for the diffusion of food
 Structure of a Villus
blood
capaillaries
lacteal
villi
Epithelial
cell
venule

arteriole lymph
vessel
 nucleus
fatty acid
epithelial glycerol
cell
glucose

amino acid
Micro- fat
villus
capillary
lacteal

Transverse Section of a villus

showing food absorption
 Transportation of absorbed
food in villi
• blood capillaries : absorb glucose & amino
acids (which are smaller molecules)
• lacteal : absorb fatty acids & glycerol (which
are larger molecules)
– transport fats (glycerol & fatty acids
recombine together after being absorbed)
• involve both diffusion & active transport
 Large intestine
• caecum & appendix
– no function in human (∴ small colon
in size)
• colon
– absorbs water & mineral salts
– failure to reabsorb water:
Diarrhoea
• rectum caecum
appendix rectum
– stores faeces temporarily
– for egestion (defaecation)
 Caecum & Appendix in Rabbit
It is very large in size
 to store plant for long time
 for bacteria to secrete cellulase
 to digest cellulose to glucose
The rabbit should re-ingest faeces for absorption
of glucose
( ∵ absorption of food only proceeds in ileum)
Digestive System in Rabbit
Alimentary canal of a rat
 Egestion
(Defaecation)
 removal of undigested or unabsorbed food
substances
 faeces: semi-solid brown mass (includes
undigested food, dead & live bacteria)
 faeces is temporarily stored in rectum &
eventually be expelled through anus
 Assimilation
• a process which absorbs food
incorporated as a part of body cells
• digested food is transported to liver
by hepatic portal vein
• lacteal transports fat into lymph
vessels & then into the bloodstream
diabetes
• malfunction of pancreas to secrete
insulin: Diabetes
 Functions of Liver
• changes excess blood glucose to
glycogen & stores in liver to
regulate blood glucose level
• deaminates excess amino acids
– to urea which is excreted
by kidney
– to glycogen for energy storage
 Functions of Liver
• stores vitamins A, D, E, K (which are fat
soluble) iron & glycogen
• changes Carotene to Vitamin A
• secretes bile for fat emulsification
• Detoxification:
turns mild toxins into harmless substances
~ END ~