Chapter 7: Transmission Lines II: Load Reflection

Table of contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Complex Impedance of an RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3 Reflection and Transmission at the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3.1 Complex voltage reflection and transmission coefficients at a load circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Determining the form of the reflected voltage wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3 Reflectance at a load circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Resonant Frequency of Load Circuit Same as Frequency of Cable Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Total voltage in the transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4.1 Incident and reflected wave form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Standing wave and traveling wave form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Voltage amplitude in the transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Standing wave ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.5 Positions of the voltage amplitude minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.6 Slotted line probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Short and open load circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5.1 Short Circuited Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Open Circuited Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.1 Some Important Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2 Symbols, Names, and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3 Equation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7 Example Problems with Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Appendix A Transmission Line Source and Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

A.1 Input Impedance of a Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1 Introduction

In this chapter I address the reflection and transmission of voltage, current, and power at cables that terminate in
a circuit rather than in a second transmission line. For the case of terminations at a circuit, there is the possibility
of a general phase shift upon reflection. Recall that for terminations at a second transmission line there is either no
phase shift (V = 1) or a  phase shift (V = −1) Typically there are two types of terminations, source circuits from
which the voltage/current waves in the cable originate, and load circuits to which the power carried by the cable
is to be delivered. In this chapter I primarily address the load termination. The behavior at the source termination
is discussed in an appendix; that material is not part of the requirements for this course. Both of these termination
circuits can be modeled as RLC circuits. RLC circuits are characterized by complex impedances which are the ratio
of the complex voltage to current amplitude in the circuit. Consider the generic driven RLC circuit shown below,

1
2 Section 2

C
R L
Vac

Figure 1. Generic RLC circuit driven by an alternating current voltage source.

For the load, the wave carried by the cable is the alternating voltage source for the RLC circuit while the source
circuit has its own alternating voltage source. See Figure 2 below.

2 Complex Impedance of an RLC Circuit

I will write the charge on the capacitor as,

~ ) = Re(Q
Q = Re(Q ~ 0 ei!t) ) Q
~=Q
~ 0 ei!t = Q0 eiQ ei!t = Q0 cos(! t + 'Q) + i Q0 sin(! t + 'Q) (1)
So,

Q = Re(Q0 ei Q ei!t) = Q0 cos(! t + Q) (2)

Here, Q~ is the complex charge, Q0 is the real charge amplitude and Q

~ 0 is the complex charge amplitude. Similarly
the voltage of the alternating current source can be written as

V = Re(V~ ) = Re(V0 ei!t) ) V~ = V~0ei!t = V0 ei V ei!t (3)

where V~0 = V0 eiV is the complex voltage amplitude. So the real voltage is,

V = V0 cos(! t + V ) (4)

The real current is, as always,

!
dQ ~
dQ
I= = Re (5)
dt dt

So, the complex current is

~
dQ
I~ = ~ 0 ei!t = I~0 ei!t ) I~0 = i ! Q
=i!Q ~ 0 = i ! Q0 eiQ = ! Q0 ei(Q+/2) = I0 ei I (6)
dt

Note that I used ei/2 = cos( /2) + i sin( /2) = i. Thus,

I 0 = ! Q0 (7)

and

I = Q +  /2 (8)

The real current is

I = I0 cos(! t + I ) (9)
Reflection and Transmission at the Load 3

Applying Kirchoff's Voltage Loop Rule to the circuit of Figure 1 gives,

 
d I~ Q
~ 1
V~ = I~ R + L + ) V~0 ei!t = R I~0 ei!t + (i ! L) I~0 ei!t + I~0 ei!t
dt C i!C

The complex impedance is defined as the ratio of the complex voltage amplitude and the complex current amplitude.
That is,
 
~ V~0 1
Z =R+i !L− R+iX (10)
I~0 !C

Here I have defined the reactance X as,

1
X =!L−  XL + XC (11)
!C

Further, I have defined the inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance XC as,

XL = ! L (12)
and,
1
XC = − (13)
!C

3 Reflection and Transmission at the Load

3.1 Complex voltage reflection and transmission coefficients at a load circuit.

An archetypal source/transmission/line/load circuit is shown in Figure 2 below. The voltage/current wave initiates in
the source circuit at position z = −L and is carried by the transmission line for use in the load circuit located at z = 0.

Load Circuit
RS LS Transmission Line

RL
Source Circuit Z0, v or L0; C0 CL
CS

LL
VS
z = −L z =0

Figure 2. Source/Transmission Line/Load

The voltage reflection and transmission coefficients at the load take on the same formal values as those at a junction
between cables of differing impedances but with the impedance of the second line replaced by the complex impedance
of the load. That is at the load,

V~ − V~0−ei!t V~0− Z~L − Z0

~V  = = = = 0Vei 'R (14)
V~ + V~0+ ei!t V~0+ Z0 + Z~L

Here V~0− and V~0+ are the complex amplitudes of the voltages of the -z -going +z -going going cable waves. Similarly,
the voltage transmission coefficient at the load is

V~L V~ ei!t V~0L 2 Z~L

~V = = 0L = += = 0V ei 'T (15)
~
V + ~ +
V0 e i!t ~
V0 Z0 + Z~L
4 Section 3

   
 ~ − − ~ 
 V  V  V 0L  V0L
where V~0L is the complex voltage amplitude of the load. Here 0V =  0+  = 0+ and 0V =  +  = + are the real
 V~0  V0  V~0  V0
amplitudes of the complex voltage-reflection and voltage-transmission coefficients. The transmitted voltage acts as the
driving alternating voltage for the load circuit. It is important to note that these reflection and transmission
coefficients are in general complex which means that there is a change in phase upon reflection and
transmission. The important relations are repeated in outline form in the next section.

3.2 Determining the form of the reflected voltage wave

Consider a voltage wave of the form

V + = V0+ cos(! t − k z) = Re(V~ ) = Re(V0+ ei(!t−kz))

incident from a transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 onto a load circuit of impedance
 
1
Z~L = R + i ! L − (16)
!C

The reflected voltage wave has the generic form

V − = V0− cos(! t + k z + ' −) = Re(V~ −) = Re(V~0− ei(!t+kz)) = Re(V0− ei' ei(!t+kz))

−
(17)

The complex voltage amplitude reflection coefficient is

Z~L − Z0
~V = = 0V ei'R (18)
Z~L + Z0
V~ −(z = 0; t) V~0− ei(!t) V0− ei'
−

~V = 0V ei'R = + = =

V~ (z = 0; t) V0 ei(!t) V0+

V0−
So 0V = ) V0− = 0V V0+ (19)
V0+
'− = 'R (20)

Thus the reflected voltage amplitude is related to the incident voltage amplitude by the magnitude of the complex
voltage reflection coefficient and the phase of the reflected wave is the phase of the complex voltage reflection
coefficient. So if the incident wave has the form

V + = V0+ cos(! t − k z)

then the reflected wave will have the form

V − = 0V V0+ cos(! t + k z + 'R)

I will illustrate this with an example.

Example 1.
Consider a transmission line of characteristic impedance 100
connected to a load circuit with R = 150
, L = 10 −6 H,
and C = 10 −10 F. The incident voltage wave has the form, V + = (0.2 V) cos(! t − k z)
Find the form of the reflected voltage if
A) ! = 108 /s B) ! = 1.5  108 /s
   
1 1
Solution to A): Z~L = R + i ! L − = 150
+ i 108  10 −6 − 8
= 150

!C 10  10 −10

Z~L − Z0 150 − 100 1

~V = = = = 0.2 ei(0) 0V = 0.2, 'R = 0
Z0 + Z~L 100 + 150 5
V − = 0V V0+ cos(! t + k z + 'R) = (0.04 V) cos(! t + k z)
Reflection and Transmission at the Load 5

Solution toB):     
1 1 100
Z~L = R + i ! L − = 150
+ i 1.5  108  10 −6 −
= 150
+ i 150 −

!C 1.5  108  10 −10 1.5

Z~L − Z0 150 + i (83.33) − 100 50 + i (83.33) N
~V = = = 
Z0 + Z~L 100 + 150 + i (83.33) 250 + i (83.33) D
p −1
N = 502 + 83.332 eitan (83.33/50) = 97.2 ei1.030 D = 263.5 ei0.322
 
97.2
~V = ei(1.030−0.322) = 0.369 ei(0.708) 0V = 0.369, 'R = 0.708
263.5
V − = 0V V0+ cos(! t + k z + 'R) = (0.0738 V) cos(! t + k z + 0.708)

3.3 Reflectance at a load circuit

The reflectance at a load circuit is given by
1 (V0−)2  2
P V0−
R  ave;ref = 2 Z0
= = 20V (21)
Pave;inc 1 (V0+)2 V0+
2 Z0

Note that this R is not the resistance of the load circuit. Unfortunately it is common notation to use the symbnol R
for both the reflectance and the resistance of the load circuit.

Example 2. Find the power of the incident wave, the reflectance at the load circuitand the power of the reflected
wave for both parts of Example 1.
(V0+)2 0.22
A) Pave;I = = W=1.33  10 −4 W; R = 20V = 0.22 = 0.04
2 Z0 2 (150)
Pave;R = R Pave;I = (0.04) (1.33  10 −4 W) = 5.32  10 −6W
(V0+)2 0.22
B) Pave;I = = W=1.33  10 −4 W, R = 20V = 0.3692 = 0.136
2 Z0 2 (150)
Pave;R = R Pave;I = (0.136) (1.33  10 −4 W) = 1.81  10 −5 W

Problem 59.
A) Express each of the following complex numbers in r ei form:
5 − 10 i
1. 5 − 10 i. 2. −5 + 10 i 3. −3 − 5 i. 4. .
−3 − 5 i
B) Express 3 e0.6i − 2 ei/2 in a + i b form. Hint: first express each part in a + i b form and then add real parts
together and imaginary part together.

Problem 60. Find 0V and 'R for each of the following complex voltage reflection coefficients.
0.2 + 0.3 i
A) ~V = 1 B) ~V = −1 C) ~V = i D) ~V = 0.2 + 0.3 i E) ~V =
−0.4 + 0.8 i
Problem 61. A transmission line of characteristic impedance 93
carries a voltage wave of the form
V + = (0.2 V) cos(
t − k z). This wave is incident on a load circuit with the complex impedances given below.
Find the complex voltage reflection ~V and the reflectance R (see Equation (21)) for each of the following cases:
A) Z~L = 80
B) Z~L = 93
C) Z~L = 50
+ i 50
D) Z~L = 0
E) Z~L ! 1

Problem 62. For each of the cases of Problem 61, write down the form of the reflected voltage wave.

Problem 63. (20 pts) A transmission line of characteristic impedance 93

carries a voltage wave of the form
V + = (0.2 V) cos(
t − k z). The load circuit has a resistance of 60
, an inductance of 2.5  10 −6 H, and a capacitance
of 10 −11 F.
A) What is the resonant frequency of this circuit?
B) Find the form of the reflected voltage wave and the reflectance if
= 2  108 /s.
C) Find the form of the reflected voltage wave the reflectance if
= 1.95  108 /s.
D) Find the form of the reflected voltage wave the reflectance if
= 4  108 /s.
6 Section 4

3.4 Resonant Frequency of Load Circuit Same as Frequency of Cable Wave

The cable wave transmitted into the load circuit acts as the driving voltage for the load circuit. If the cable wave
frequency is the resonant frequency of the RLC load circuit then the load impedance will be real and
only due to the load resistance. The resonant frequency of the load circuit is

1
!0 = p (22)
LL CL

Note that I have adopted a slightly different naming convention than the one I used for driven oscil-
lators in earlier chapters. Here ! is the driving frequency and !0 is the resonant frequency of the
circuit. If the cable wave has this resonant frequency of the circuit, the reactance of the load circuit will vanish:
r r
1 LL LL
XLoad = !0 LL − = − =0 (23)
!0 CL CL CL

In this case the impedance of the load circuit will be the resistance of the load circuit alone,

Z~L = RL + i XLoad = RL (24)

Z~L − Z0
Complete power transmission to the load (recall 
~V = ) can be accomplished by using a source
Z~L + Z0
circuit that oscillates at the resonant frequency of the load circuit and matching the impedance of the
transmission line to the resistance of the load circuit.

Problem 64.
A) Under what condition(s) will the reflection coefficient from a load have magnitude 0. (Under what condition(s)
will 0V = 0). Answer this as completely as you can.
B) Under what condition(s) will the reflection coefficient ~V at a load be real?

Problem 65. A load circuit has a resistance R = 80

an inductance L = 10 −6 H and a capacitance C = 10 −8 F. A
transmission line delivers a harmonic voltage/current signal to this circuit. There is complete power transmission
from the transmission line to the load circuit.
A) What is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line?
B) What is the frequency of the harmonic voltage/current wave?

4 Total voltage in the transmission line

4.1 Incident and reflected wave form

The example in the last section illustrates that, in general, the load will reflect a phase-shifted voltage wave. This
phase-shifted reflected wave adds to the incoming wave to form the total wave in the cable. That is, in general, the
wave in the cable will be of the form,

VT = V + + V − = V0+cos(! t − k z) + 0V V0+ cos(! t + k z + 'R) (25)

4.2 Standing wave and traveling wave form

Since the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is less than unity, this represents a combination of a standing
wave and a wave traveling towards +z . To show this I write,

VT = 0VV0+(cos(! t − k z) + cos(! t + k z + 'R)) + (1 − 0V ) cos(! t − k z) (26)

Recall that the load is located at z = 0. Trigonometric identities can be used to convert Equation (26) into the form,

VT = 2 0VV0+cos(k z + 'R /2) cos(! t + 'R /2) + (1 − 0V ) V0+ cos(! t − k z) (27)
Total voltage in the transmission line 7

This is the sum of a standing wave of amplitude 20VV0+ and a +z-going traveling wave of amplitude
(1 − 0V ) .

4.3 Voltage amplitude in the transmission line

I define the voltage amplitude Vamp (z) to be the maximum voltage reached at a given value of z along the transmission
line. At a given value of z the voltage oscillates between Vamp and −Vamp . In the extra credit Problem 66 below you
are asked to show that the total voltage in the line can be written in a third useful form

VT = Vamp cos(! t + T (z)) (28)

where
p
Vamp = V0+ 1 + 20V + 2 0V cos(2 k z + 'R) (29)

Note that the form given in Equation (28) is deceptive; it does not represent a pure harmonic oscillation because T
is an unspecified complicated function of z.

Problem 66. Extra Credit (20 pts)

A) Expand the forms in Equation (25) to show that the total voltage can be written as
VT = V0+ (cos(k z) + 0V cos(k z + 'R)) cos(! t) − V0+ (−sin(k z) + 0V sin(k z + 'R)) sin(! t)
B) Use the quadrature theorem and the target form VT = Vamp cos(! t + T ) to show that
V0+ (cos(k z) + 0V cos(k z + 'R)) =Vamp cos '
V0+ (sin(k z) − 0V sin(k z + 'R)) = Vamp sin '
C) Square and add the Equations in part B), then apply some trig identities to show that
p
Vamp = V0+ 1 + 20V + 2 0V cos(2 k z + 'R) (30)

Problem 67.
A) Show that the maximum and minimum values of the voltage amplitude are
max min
Vamp = V0+ (1 + 0V ) Vamp = V0+ (1 − 0V )
B) At what values of z does the maximum voltage amplitude occur?
C) At what values of z does the minimum voltage amplitude occur?

At a given place in the transmission line the voltage oscillates between Vamp . This behavior is illustrated in the plot
below. I encourage you to look at the load reflection applet that I wrote and put on the Isidore site. I will discuss
these plots in some detail in the next section.

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
±Vamp /V0+

±Vamp /V0+

0.5 0.5
0 0
−0.5 −0.5
−1 −1
−1.5 −1.5
−2 −2
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0

z/λ z/λ

Figure 3. Voltage amplitude curves for different values of 0V and 'R. The uppermost curve in each plot corresponds
Vamp and the lower curves represent −Vamp .
8 Section 4

4.4 Standing wave ratio

The standing wave ratio SWR is defined to be the ratio of the maximum to minimum (real) voltage amplitude
along the cable. The maximum voltage amplitude occurs at the antinodes of the standing wave pattern and is the
sum of the standing wave amplitude and the running wave amplitude.
max
Vamp = 2 0V V0+ + (1 − 0V ) V0+ = (1 + 0V ) V0+

The minimum voltage amplitude occurs at the nodes of the standing wave pattern and is therefore simply the
amplitude of the running wave.
min
Vamp = (1 − 0V ) V0+

Note that the results given above agree with the results of Problem 67. The standing wave ratio is then,
max
Vamp 1 + 0V
SWR = min
= (31)
Vamp 1 − 0V

The standing wave ratio ranges between 1 (0V = 0) and infinity (0V =1). Larger SWR ratios result
from voltage reflection coefficients of larger magnitudes.

4.5 Positions of the voltage amplitude minima

The positions of the voltage amplitude minima occur at the nodes of the standing wave part of the total voltage.
The nodes of the standing wave part of the total voltage occur at positions zq given by,

cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0

k zq + 'R /2 = (2  /) zq + 'R /2 = q  +  /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2 q = 0; 1; 2; 3::::

zq = (2 q + 1) /4 − (/4) ('R /) (32)

The values of q must be chosen to give negative values (or zero) of z since we have chosen the load to be at position
z = 0. Note that adjacent nodes are separated by,
zq+1 − zq = /2 (33)

Example 3. SWR and Node Position

The standing wave ratio for the situation of Example ? above would be:
1 + 0.364
SWR = = 2.145
1 − 0.364
The standing wave node nearest the load would be positioned at (see the development leading to Equation 32):

z−1 = (2 ( − 1) + 1) /4 − (/4) (0.282 /) = −0.272 

The wavelength in the line of Example 1 is not known unless the speed of the wave is known. I'll presume that the
line of Example 1 is an air line so that v = c = 3
108 m/s. Then, the wavelength is

 = v / f = (3
108)/(106) m=300 m

The first node would be at a distance of 0.272  = 81.73 m before the load circuit: This node would not exist in the
transmission line unless the transmission line was more than 81.73 m long

4.6 Slotted line probe

A slotted line probe can be used to determine the impedance of a load circuit. A slotted line probe is a transmission
line designed so that the the voltage amplitude can be measured as a function of z along a transmission line. The
SWR ratio and positions of the standing wave nodes can thus be measured by a slotted line probe. The SWR ratio
can be used to determine the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient jV j = 0V through Equation 31. The
wavelength of the cable wave is twice the distance between standing wave nodes. The phase of the voltage reflection
coefficient 'R can then be found from noting the position of the node nearest the load and using Equation 32. Knowing
the voltage reflection coefficient allows one to determine the load impedance given the characteristic impedance of
the slotted line probe cable. (See Equation 14.)
Total voltage in the transmission line 9

Example 4. Consider the plot on the left in Figure 3.

A) Estimate the amplitude 0V of the complex voltage reflection coefficient. Solution: From the plot
max
Vamp 1.25
SWR =  = 5/3
min
Vamp 0.75
1 + 0V SWR − 1 5/3 − 1
SWR = ) 0V = = = 0.25
1 − 0V SWR + 1 5/3 + 1
B) Estimate the phase 'R of the complex voltage reflection coefficient. Solution: From the plot, the position of
the voltage amplitude minimum closest to the load is z  −0.25 . This is a node of the standing wave part of
the total voltage in the line. The nodes occur where

cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0

2
zq + 'R /2 = q  +  /2 Choose q = 0 and use z0 = −0.25 

2
(−0.25 ) + 'R /2 =  /2

'R = 2  or 0

This is consistent with the fact that the plot shows an antinode at the load.

Example 5. A slotted line cable has a characteristic impedance of 120

and carries a 100 MHz voltage/current
wave. When connected to a particular load it is found that the amplitude of the voltage amplitude maxima in the
cable is 5 V and the amplitude of the voltage amplitude minima in the cable is 2V. The positions of the voltage
amplitude maxima are separated by 1 m. The voltage amplitude minimum (standing wave node) closest to the load
is 0.4 m from the load.
A) What is the wavelength of the cable wave? Answer : The wavelength is twice the internodal distance. That is,
 = 2 m.
B) What is the speed of the cable wave? Answer : v = f  = (108 Hz) (2 m) = 2  108 m/s.
Vamp;max 5
C) What is the SWR in the cable? Answer : SWR = = = 2.5
Vamp;min 2
D) What is the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient (0V )? Solution:
1 + 0V SWR − 1 1.5
SWR = ) 0V = = = 3/7
1 − 0V SWR + 1 3.5
E) What is the phase of the voltage reflection coefficient ('R)? Solution:

cos(k z + 'R /2) = 0

2
zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2


zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
'R =  (2 q + 1 − 4 zq /) (take q = 0)
'R =  (1 − 4 ( − 0.4 m)/2 m) = 5.655 (or 5.655 − 2  = −0.628)

F) What is the complex impedance of the load circuit? Solution :

So, ~V = (3/7) ei(5.655) = :347 − i(:252) and,

Z~L − Z0 1 + ~V
~V = ) Z~L = Z0
Z~L + Z0 1 − ~V
1.347 − i (0.252) 1.370 e −i(0.185)
Z~L = (120
) = (120
) = (235
) e−i(0.553)
0.653 + i (0.252) :700 ei(:368)
~
ZL = 200
− i (123
)

G) What is the resistance of the load circuit? Answer :

RL = Re(Z~L) = 200

10 Section 4

H) What is the reactance (X ) of the load circuit? Answer :

XL = Im(Z~L) = −123

I) Sketch the voltage amplitude and the negative of the voltage amplitude as a function of z (load at z = 0) for
the 6 m of cable closest to the load. Solution:

5
4
3
2

Vamp (V)
1
0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
z (m)

Figure 4. Note that the voltage minimum is 0.40 m before the load (z = 0). Also the voltage max is 5 V and
the voltage min is 2 V and the wavelength (double node to node distance) is 2 m.

Example 6. Load resistance and reactance from slotted line probe measurements

A slotted line probe of characteristic impedance 100

is connected to a load circuit. The probe measures the voltage
amplitude maximum to be 1 V and the voltage amplitude minimum to be 0.2 V. The voltage amplitude minima
are separated by 1 m and the voltage amplitude minimum closest to the load is 0.4 m from the load. (That is, at
z = −0.4 m.) The speed of a wave in the line is 2  108 m/s. Find the frequency of the signal, the resistance of the
load and the reactance of the load.
Solution: The separation of the voltage amplitude minima is the separation of the nodes of the standing wave part
of the signal. So,

= 1 m) = 2 m
2
v 2  108
f= = Hz = 108 Hz ) ! = 2   108 m/s
 2
Building ~V = 0V ei'R:
Vamp;max 1 1 + 0V
SWR = = =5=
Vamp;min 0.2 1 − 0V
SWR − 1 5 − 1 2
0V = = =
SWR + 1 5 + 1 3
 
 − 'R 
zq = q (/2) + Choose q = 0
2 2
4 z0 4 z0
=  − 'R ) 'R =  −
 
4  (−0.4)
'R =  − = 1.8 
2
2
~V = ei(1.8) = 0.539 − i (0.392)
3
Forming Z~L:
Z~L − Z0 1 + ~V
~V = ) Z~L = Z0
Z~L + Z0 1 − ~V
1 + 0.539 − 0.392 i
Z~L = (100
) = (152 − 214: i)

1 − 0.539 + 0.392 i
R = 152
X = −214

Short and open load circuits 11

Problem 68. Consider the plot on the right in Figure 3.

A) Estimate the amplitude 0V of the complex voltage reflection coefficient.
B) Estimate the phase 'R of the complex voltage reflection coefficient.

Problem 69. Consider a lossless cable of characteristic impedance Z0 = 50

. Take the wave speed in the cable
to be c = 2
108 m/s. Let the cable be terminated at a load circuit at z = 0. Let a voltage wave of the form
V = (2  10 −4 V) cos(! t − k z) be incident on the load circuit. Take ! = 2   108 /s. Find the standing wave ratio
and position of the voltage amplitude minimum closest to the load when
A) Z~L = 0 (Short-circuited load) B) Z~L = 1 (Open-circuited load) C) Z~L = 50
.

Problem 70. A transmission line of characteristic impedance 80

carries a voltage wave of the form
V + = (0.01 V) cos(
t − k z). The load circuit has a resistance of 100
, an inductance of 5  10 −6 H and a capac-
itance of 2  10 −11 F. Take
= 0.85  108 /s. Take the speed of the wave to be 2  108 m/s. Find,
A) the form for the total voltage in the line. Use the form that is the sum of a standing wave part and a traveling
wave part.
B) the standing wave ratio.
C) the location of the voltage amplitude minimum closest to the load.

Problem 71. (20 pts) A slotted line cable has a characteristic impedance of 100
and carries a 100 MHz
voltage/current wave. When connected to a particular load it is found that the amplitude of the voltage ampli-
tude maxima in the cable is 4 V and the amplitude of the voltage amplitude minima in the cable is 1 V. The
positions of the voltage amplitude maxima are separated by 1 m. The voltage amplitude minimum (standing
wave node) closest to the load is 0.4 m from the load (i.e. at z = −0.4 m).
A) What is the wavelength of the cable wave?
B) What is the speed of the cable wave?
C) What is the SWR in the cable?
D) What is the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient (0V )?
E) What is the phase of the voltage reflection coefficient ('R)?
F) What is the complex impedance of the load circuit?
G) What is the resistance of the load circuit?
H) What is the reactance (X ) of the load circuit?
I) Sketch the voltage-amplitude as a function of z (load at z = 0) for the 5 m of cable closest to the load.

5 Short and open load circuits

5.1 Short Circuited Load .

A short circuited load has zero impedance and so the voltage reflection coefficient is V = −1 so that 0V =
1 and 'R = . This means that the voltage wave has a node at the short circuited line and the wave in the cable is a
standing wave . These follow from direct logic as well as from Equations 32 (with m =0) and 31 above.

5.2 Open Circuited Line

An open circuit has (essentially) infinite impedance since the open circuit has (essentially) infinite resistance. In
this case the voltage reflection coefficient is V = +1; 0V =1; 'R = 0. The wave in the cable is a standing wave and
the voltage node closest to the load occurs at a position /4) before the load position. This latter fact can be seen by
using for q = −1 in Equation 32. That is,

z−1 = (2 ( − 1) + 1) /4 − /4(0/) = −/4

The distance between adjacent nodes and antinodes is one-quarter of a wavelength so the open- circuited end of the
cable is a voltage antinode.
12 Section 7

6 Summary

6.1 Some Important Statements

 The load reflection and transmission coefficients are in general complex which means that there
is a change in phase upon reflection and transmission.
 The standing wave ratio SWR is defined to be the ratio of the maximum to minimum (real) voltage
amplitude along the cable.
 A slotted line probe can be used to determine the impedance of a load circuit. A slotted line probe is
a transmission line designed so that the the voltage amplitude can be measured as a function of z along a
transmission line.
 If the cable wave frequency is the resonant frequency of the RLC load circuit then the load
impedance will be real and only due to the load resistance.
 Complete power transmission to the load can be accomplished by using a source circuit that oscillates at the
resonant frequency of the load circuit and matching the impedance of the transmission line to the resistance
of the load circuit.

6.2 Symbols, Names, and Units

Name Symbol Value/Units
Complex Impedance ~
Z

Reactance X

Complex Load Voltage Reflection Coefficient ~V = 0V ei 'R -

Standing Wave Ratio SWR -
Load Impedance Z~L

6.3 Equation Summary

Name Equation Comment
 
~
Complex Impedance ~  V0 = R + i ! L − 1
Z R+iX
I~0 !C

V~ − V~0−ei!t V~0− Z~L − Z0

Load Reflection Coefficient ~V  = = = = 0Vei'R
V~ + V~ + ei!t V~ + Z0 + Z
0 0
~L

V~ V~ ei!t V~0L 2 Z~L

Load Transmission Coefficient ~V = L = 0L = += = 0V ei'T
V~ + ~ +
V0 e i!t ~
V Z0 + Z~L
0

max
Vamp 1 + 0V
Standing Wave Ratio SWR = min
=
Vamp 1 − 0V

1
Resonant Frequency of Load Circuit !0 = p
LL CL

Total Voltage in Line VT = 2 0VV0+cos(k z + 'R /2) cos(! t + 'R / 2) + (1 − 0V ) V0+ cos(! t − k z)

7 Example Problems with Solutions

Example 7. A certain cable terminates in a load with a voltage reflection coefficient at the load of ~V = 1. What is the
standing wave ratio in the cable and where is the node closest to the load? Assume that the wavelength in the line is 2 m.

~V = 0V ei'R ) 0V = 1; 'R = 0

1 + 0V 1 + 1
SWR = = =1
1 − 0V 0
Example Problems with Solutions 13

Nodes are located where

cos(k z + 'R/2) = 0
cos(k z) = 0
 
  
k zq = (2 q + 1)) /2 ) z−1 = − = − = −0.5 m
2 2 4

The nearest node is 0.5 m before the load. There is an antinode at the load.

Example 8. A transmission line of characteristic impedance 100

terminates in a load of impedance (120 − i 30)
: Take the
speed of the wave in the transmission line to be 2  108 m/s and the frequency of the wave in the transmission line to be 100
MHz. Take the voltage amplitude of the incoming wave to be 0.5 V.

A) Find the voltage reflection coefficient at the load. Solution:

Z~L − Z0 20 − i 30 36.1 ei(−0.983)

~V = = = = 0.163 ei(−0.847)
Z~L + Z0 220 − i 30 222.0 ei(−0.136)

B) Find the standing wave ratio in the transmission line. Solution:

1 + 0V 1 + 0.163
SWR = = = 1.39
1 − 0V 1 − 0.163

C) Find the position of the minimum voltage amplitude closest to the load. Solution: Note

v 2  108
= = m=2 m
f 108

cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0

k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2
   
  ' 2m 
z−1 = − − R = − + 0.847/2 = −0.365 m
2 2 2 2 2

D) Find the voltage amplitude of the wave reflected from the load.

V~0R = ~V V~0I = 0.163 ei(−0.847) (0.5 V) = 0.0815 ei(−0.847) V

V0R = 0.0815 V

E) Find the average power carried by the reflected wave.

2
1 V0R 1 (0.0815)2
hPR i = = W=3.32  10−5 W
2 Z0 2 100

Example 9. Consider a lossless cable of characteristic impedance Z0 = 80

. Take the wave speed in the cable to be c =
2
108 m/s. Let the cable carry a wave of frequency 100 MHz and be terminated at a load at z = 0. Find (i) the voltage reflection
coefficient, (ii) the SWR, and (iii) the position of the voltage standing wave node nearest the load for the following load circuits:

a) Short-circuited load.

b) Open-circuited load.

c) RL = 100
, LL = 0, CL = 1

1
d) RL = 100
; LL = 1 H ; CL = 100 pF
4 2

1
e) RL = 80
; LL = 1 H ; CL = 100 pF
4 2

1
f) RL = 100
; LL = 1.1 H ; CL = 100 pF
4 2

1
g) RL = 80
; LL = 1.1 H ; CL = 100 pF
4 2

Solution:
14 Section 7

2  108
In all parts,  = v / f = m=2 m and the node positions are determined as
108
cos(k z + 'R/2) = 0
cos(k z) = 0

k zq = (2 q + 1)) /2 ) zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
a) For the short circuited line, ZL = 0. This means that,
ZL − Z0
~V = = −1
ZL + Z0
0V =1; 'R = 
1 + 0V
SWR = =1
1 − 0V
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
z0 = 0 (node at load)

The wave is a pure standing wave with a node at the load.

b) In this case the load impedance approaches infinity.
Z~L − Z0 
~V = −
1
Z~L + Z0
j~V j =1; 'R = 0
1 + 0V
SWR = =1
1 − 0V
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
z−1 = (1/2 m) (−1) = −(1/2) m (antinode at load)

The wave is a pure standing wave with an antinode at the load.

c) In this case the load is purely resistive and has the value,
~L = 100

Z
so,
~L − Z0
Z 20 1
~V = = =
~L + Z0 180 9
Z
0V = 1/9; 'R = 0
1 + 0V 1 + 1/9 5
SWR = = =
1 − 0V 1 − 1/9 4
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
z−1 = (1/2 m) (−1) = −(1/2) m (antinode at load)

d) Z~L = RL + i (! LL − 1/(! CL) = 100

+ i (2 
108
10−6 − 1/(2 
108
10−10 /(4 2)))

~L = 100
+ i 0
= 100

Z
Z~ − Z0 20 1
~V = L = =
Z~L + Z0 180 9
1
0V = ; 'R = 0
9
1 + 0V 1 + 1/9
SWR = = = 5/4
1 − 0V 1 − 1/9
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
4
z−1 = (1/2 m) (−1) = −(1/2) m (antinode at load)
Transmission Line Source and Input Impedance 15

e) Z~L = RL + i (! LL − 1/(! CL) = 80

+ i (2 
108
10−6 − 1/(2 
108
10−10 /(4 2)))

Z~L = 80

~
Z − Z0
~V = L = 0; 0V = 0
Z~L + Z0
1 + 0V
SWR = =1
1 − 0V
This is a pure traveling wave, there are no nodes

f) Z~L = RL + i (! LL − 1/(! CL)) = 100

+ i (2 
108
1.1
10−6 − 1/(2 
108
10−10 /(4 2)))
.

Z~L = 100
+ i 62.83

Z~L − Z0 20 + i 62.83 65.94 ei(1.263)

~V = = = = :346 ei(:927)
Z~L + Z0 180 + i 62.83 190.7 ei(0.3358)

1 + 0V 1 + 0.346
SWR = = = 2.058
1 − 0V 1 − 0.346
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
 4
1
z−1 = m (−1 − 0.927/) = −0.648 m
2
~L = RL + i (! LL − 1/(! CL)) = 80
+ i (62.83)
.
g) In this case Z
~L − Z0
Z i 62.83 62.83 ei/2
~V = = = = :3655 ei(1.197)
~L + Z0 160 + i 62.83 171.9 ei(:374)
Z

1 + 0V 1 + 0.3655
SWR = = = 2.15
1 − 0V 1 − 0.3655
cos(k zq + 'R /2) = 0
k zq + 'R /2 = (2 q + 1)  /2

zq = (2 q + 1 − 'R /)
 4
1
z−1 = m (−1 − 1.197/) = −:691 m
2

Example 10.
A) Find the length of a coaxial cable that is short circuited at one end and open-circuited at the other end that will operate
as an antenna for a radio wave of frequency 91.3 MHz. Assume that the cable has air between the conductors. Solution:
The voltage wave will have a node at the short-circuited end and an antinode at the open-circuited end. The fundamental
v v v 3  108
mode will have  /4 = L )  = 4 L. So, f = = )L= = m=:822 m
 4L 4 f 4  91.3  106

B) Find the length of a coaxial cable that is open-circuited at both ends that will operate as an antenna for a radio wave
of frequency 91.3 MHz. Assume that the cable has air between the conductors. Solution: The voltage wave will have
v v v
antinodes at both ends. In the fundamental mode L = /2, so f = = )L= = 1.642 m
 2L 2f

Appendix A Transmission Line Source and Input Impedance

A.1 Input Impedance of a Lossless Line

The characteristic impedance Z0 of a lossless line is the ratio of the voltage and current amplitude for a traveling
wave moving in the positive coordinate direction. The characteristic impedance is a characteristic of the line alone.
That is,
V+
Z0 = 0+
I0
16 Appendix A

An important characteristic of the line/load system is the input impedance Z~in of the line. The input impedance
is the ratio of the total (complex) voltage in the line to the total complex current in the line. The total complex
voltage (current) is the sum of complex voltages (currents) associated with the + and - going waves in the line. That is,
V~ V~ + + V~ − V~ + + ~VV~ + V0+ ei(!t−kz) + ~V V0+ ei(!t+kz)
Z~in = T = + = + = + i(!t−kz)
I~T I~ + I~− I~ + ~I I~+ I0 e − ~V I0+ ei(!t+kz)
V + e−ikz + ~V eikz
Z~in = 0+ −ikz
I0 e − ~V eikz

1 + ~V e2ikz
Z~in = Z0 (34)
1 − ~V e2iikz
Note that I used the fact that ~I = −~V . The input impedance depends on the nature of the line and load both since
it includes the reflection coefficient at the load. Further, the input impedance depends on the position in the line, z .
Of particular interest is the input impedance at the source of the cable wave. Recall that I placed the load at z = 0
and the source at z = −L. (See Figure 2). The input impedance at the source is,

1 + ~V e−2ikL
Z~in(z = −L) = Z0 (35)
1 − ~V e−2iikL
The input impedance at the source is the total impedance of the line and load seen by the source circuit. This is
illustrated in Figure 5 below.

ZS
VS Zin (z = −L)

Figure 5. The entire line/load portion of the circuit is seen by the source as the input impedance at z = −L.

The source impedance is just the impedance of the RLC components of the source,
 
1
Z~S = RS + i ! LS − (36)
! CS

Analysis of Figure 5 allows for a determination of the voltage amplitude of the + going wave in the transmission line
given the characteristics of the line and the source and load circuits. The (complex) voltage loop rule applied to the
circuit of Figure 5 gives,

V~S = I~S (Z~S + Z~in) = V~0Sei!t = I~0S ei!t(Z~S + Z~in ) ) V~0S = I~0S (Z~S + Z~in ) (37)

Here, V~0S and I~0S are the complex voltage and current amplitudes at the source. The current at the source is the
current in the transmission line evaluated at z = −L. This means that,

V~0(z = −L) V~0 + (eikL + ~V e−ikL)

I~0S = =
Z~in Z~in
Using this in Equation 37 gives,
V~ + (eikL + ~V e−ikL) ~
V~0S = 0 (ZS + Z~in)
Z~in
so that,
Z~in 1
V~0+ = V~0S (38)
Zin + Z~S eikL + ~V e−ikL
~

The real amplitude of the + going wave in the cable is V0+ = jV~0+j. Thus our entire analysis of the source/lossless
line/load is complete. Given the characteristics of the source, line, and load circuits the wave in the cable and the
voltage and current at the load can be determined. In particular note that the average power delivered to the load
is the difference of the average powers carried by the incoming cable wave and the reflected cable wave,

1 (jV~0+j)2 1 (jV~0−j)2 1 (jV~0+j)2

Pload = P + − P − = − = (1 − 20V ) (39)
2 Z0 2 Z0 2 Z0
Transmission Line Source and Input Impedance 17

Everything in this relation can be determined given the impedance of the line, load, and source circuits and the
voltage of the source circuit. See the example problem below.

Example 11. Consider a source/transmission line/ load system with the following parameters:

Source Voltage Amplitude 10 V

Source ZS = 10

Load RL = 100
; LL = 10−6 H; CL = 10−10 F
Line Length L = 50 m
Characteristic Line Impedance Z0 = 100

Speed of Wave in Transmission Line v = 2
108 m/s

1
A) Find the resonant frequency of the load circuit. Solution: !0 = p = 108 /s
LC

B) If the source frequency is equal to the resonant frequency of the load circuit, find the input impedance at the source
(z = −L). I used the maxima code below to find:

! = 1.0  10+8 /s k = 0.5/m

~L = 100

Z ~V = 0 ~I = Z0 = 100

C) If the source frequency is equal to the resonant frequency of the load circuit, find the power delivered to the load. Using
the maxima code: V0 = (9.01 + i 1.203) V, jV0j = 9.09 V, PL = 0.413 W

D) If the source frequency is equal to the 1.5 times the resonant frequency of the load circuit, find the input impedance at
the source (z = −L). Using the maxima code:

! = 1.5  108 /s k = 0.75 m

~V = 0.148 + i 0.355
Z~I = 138.59
+ i 51.1
= 147.7 ei0.353

E) If the source frequency is equal to the 1.5 times the resonant frequency of the load circuit, find the power delivered to
the load. Using the maxima code: V0 = (8.69 − 1.282 i) V, jV0j = 8.784 V, PL = 0.329 W

Using Maxima: (This code can be adapted to do all of the parts.)

(%i5) kill(all)$
(%i1) (VS : 10; ZS: 10; RL: 100; LL: 1e − 6; CL: 1e − 10)$
(%i2) (l: 50; v: 2e8; !0: 1/sqrt(LL CL); Z0: 100)$
(%i3) (!: 1.5 !0; k: ! /v)$display(!; k)

! = 1.5  10+8

k = 0.75
(%i5) ZL: RL + i (! LL − 1/! /CL)$display(ZL)
ZL = 83.33333333333333 i + 100
(%i7) V : rectform((ZL − Z0) /(ZL + Z0))$display(V )
V = 0.35502958579882 i + 0.14792899408284

1 + V exp(−2 i k l)
(%i9) ZI : rectform(Z0 )$display(ZI )
1 − V exp(−2 i k l)
ZI = 51.18416689911904 i + 138.5897050587666
ZI 1
(%i11) (V0: rectform(VS ))$display(V0)
ZI + ZS exp(i k l) + V exp(−i k l)
V0 = 8.690147625132083 − 1.281907010700936 i
(%i13) abs(V0)
(%o13) 8.784187573741409
abs(V0) abs(V0)
(%i14) PL: (1/2) (1 − abs(V ) abs(V ))$display(PL);
Z0
PL = 0.32873730744429
18 Section

Index

capacitive reactance, XC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 open circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

complex impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Reactance, X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
complex impedance, Z ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 resonant frequency, !0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
inductive reactance, XL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 RLC circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
input impedance, Z~in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 short-circuited load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
load circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 slotted line probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
node position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 source circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
standing wave ratio, SWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8