Pigments, Inorganic

1. Introduction
1.1. General Aspects
1.2. General Chemical and Physical Properties
1.2.1. Fundamental Aspects
1.2.2. Methods of Determination
1.3. Color Properties
1.3.1. Fundamental Aspects
1.3.2. Color Measurement
1.3.3. Tinting Strength, Lightening Power, and Scattering Power
1.3.4. Hiding Power and Transparency
1.4. Stability Towards Light, Weather, Heat, and Chemicals
1.4.1. Fundamental Aspects
1.4.2. Test Methods
1.4.2.1. Light Stability
1.4.2.2. Weather Resistance
1.4.2.3. Heat Stability
1.4.2.4. Fastness to Chemicals
1.5. Behavior of Pigments in Binders
1.5.1. Fundamental Aspects ,
1.5.2. Test Methods
1.5.2.1. Pigment–Binder Interaction
1.5.2.2. Dispersing Behavior in Paint Systems
1.5.2.3. Miscellaneous Pigment–Binder Systems
2. White Pigments
2.1. Titanium Dioxide
2.1.1. Properties ,
2.1.2. Raw Materials ,
2.1.2.1. Natural Raw Materials
2.1.2.2. Synthetic Raw Materials
2.1.3. Production
2.1.3.1. Sulfate Method
2.1.3.2. The Chloride Process
2.1.3.3. Pigment Quality
2.1.3.4. Aftertreatment
2.1.3.5. Problems with Aqueous and Gaseous Waste
2.1.4. Economic Aspects
2.1.5. Pigment Properties
2.1.6. Analysis
2.1.7. Uses of Pigmentary TiO2
2.1.8. Uses of Nonpigmentary TiO2
2.1.9. Toxicology
2.2. Zinc Sulfide Pigments
2.2.1. Properties
2.2.2. Production
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2.2.3. Commercial Products
2.2.4. Uses
2.2.5. Economic Aspects
2.2.6. Toxicology
2.3. Zinc Oxide (Zinc White)
2.3.1. Introduction
2.3.2. Properties
2.3.3. Production
2.3.4. Quality Specifications
2.3.5. Uses
2.3.6. Economic Aspects
2.3.7. Toxicology and Occupational Health
3. Colored Pigments
3.1. Oxides and Hydroxides
3.1.1. Iron Oxide Pigments
3.1.1.1. Natural Iron Oxide Pigments
3.1.1.2. Synthetic Iron Oxide Pigments
3.1.1.3. Toxicology and Environmental Aspects
3.1.1.4. Quality
3.1.1.5. Uses
3.1.1.6. Economic Aspects
3.1.2. Chromium Oxide Pigments
3.1.2.1. Properties
3.1.2.2. Production
3.1.2.3. Quality Specifications and Analysis
3.1.2.4. Storage and Transportation
3.1.2.5. Uses
3.1.2.6. Economic Aspects
3.1.2.7. Toxicology and Occupational Health
3.1.3. Mixed Metal Oxide Pigments
3.1.3.1. Properties
3.1.3.2. Production
3.1.3.3. Quality Specifications and Analysis
3.1.3.4. Storage and Transportation
3.1.3.5. Legal Aspects
3.1.3.6. Uses
3.1.3.7. Economic Aspects
3.1.3.8. Toxicology and Occupational Health
3.2. Cadmium Pigments
3.2.1. Cadmium Sulfide
3.2.2. Cadmium Yellow
3.2.3. Cadmium Sulfoselenide (Cadmium Red)
3.2.4. Cadmium Mercury Sulfide (Cadmium Cinnabar)
3.2.5. Properties and Uses
3.2.6. Quality Specifications

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3.2.7. Economic Aspects
3.2.8. Toxicology and Environmental Protection
3.3. Bismuth Pigments
3.3.1. Properties
3.3.2. Production
3.3.3. Uses
3.3.4. Toxicology
3.4. Chromate Pigments
3.4.1. Chrome Yellow
3.4.2. Molybdate Red and Molybdate Orange
3.4.3. Chrome Orange
3.4.4. Chrome Green and Fast Chrome Green
3.4.5. Toxicology and Occupational Health
3.5. Ultramarine Pigments
3.5.1. Chemical Structure
3.5.2. Properties
3.5.3. Production
3.5.4. Uses
3.5.5. Toxicity and Environmental Aspects
3.5.6. Economic Aspects
3.6. Iron Blue Pigments
3.6.1. Structure
3.6.2. Production
3.6.3. Properties
3.6.4. Uses
3.6.5. Toxicology and Environmental Aspects
4. Specialty Pigments
4.1. Magnetic Pigments
4.1.1. Iron Oxide Pigments
4.1.2. Cobalt-Containing Iron Oxide Pigments
4.1.3. Chromium Dioxide
4.1.4. Metallic Iron Pigments
4.1.5. Barium Ferrite Pigments
4.2. Anticorrosive Pigments
4.2.1. Principles
4.2.2. Phosphate Pigments
4.2.2.1. Zinc Phosphate
4.2.2.2. Aluminum Phosphate
4.2.2.3. Chromium Phosphate ,
4.2.2.4. New Pigments Based on Metal Phosphates
4.2.2.5. Multiphase Phosphate Pigments
4.2.3. Other Phosphorus-Containing Pigments
4.2.4. Borosilicate Pigments
4.2.5. Borate Pigments
4.2.6. Chromate Pigments

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4.2.7. Molybdate Pigments
4.2.8. Lead and Zinc Cyanamides
4.2.9. Ion-Exchange Pigments
4.2.10. Metal Oxide Pigments
4.2.10.1. Red Lead
4.2.10.2. Calcium Plumbate
4.2.10.3. Zinc and Calcium Ferrites
4.2.10.4. Zinc Oxide
4.2.11. Powdered Metal Pigments
4.2.11.1. Zinc Dust
4.2.11.2. Lead Powder
4.2.12. Flake Pigments
4.2.13. Organic Pigments
4.2.14. Toxicology
4.3. Luster Pigments
4.3.1. Nacreous and Interference Pigments
4.3.1.1. Optical Principles
4.3.1.2. Natural Pearl Essence
4.3.1.3. Basic Lead Carbonate , ,
4.3.1.4. Bismuth Oxychloride ,
4.3.1.5. Metal Oxide–Mica Pigments
4.3.1.6. New Developments
4.3.1.7. Uses
4.3.2. Metal Effect Pigments
4.4. Transparent Pigments
4.4.1. Transparent Iron Oxides
4.4.2. Transparent Iron Blue
4.4.3. Transparent Cobalt Blue and Green
4.4.4. Transparent Titanium Dioxide
4.4.5. Transparent Zinc Oxide
5. References
Table 1 - Listing of standards for pigments
Table 2 - Classification of inorganic pigments
Table 3 - Classification of white and black pigments
Table 4 - Classification of inorganic colored pigments
Table 5 - Definitions of particles and associated terms (see also Fig. )
Table 6 - Particle size, particle size distribution, and characteristic quantities
Table 7 - Refractive indices and optimal particle sizes of some white pigments ...
Table 8 - Refractive indices of important colored inorganic pigments
Table 9 - World production of TiO2 pigment
Table 10 - Crystallographic data for TiO2 modifications
Table 11 - Production of titanium-containing raw materials (1994)
Table 12 - Titanium minerals
Table 13 - Composition of ilmenite deposits (wt%)
Table 14 - Composition of rutile deposits

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Table 15 - Classification of TiO2 pigments according to composition (DIN ...
Table 16 - World TiO2 pigment producers (1995)
Table 17 - World consumption of TiO2 pigments in 1996
Table 18 - Predicted percentage annual growth rates for use of TiO2 (1993–2000) ...
Table 19 - Properties of the components of zinc sulfide pigments
Table 20 - Technical data for red seal lithopone and Sachtolith
Table 21 - Uses of Sachtolith and lithopone (as percentage of total consumption)
Table 22 - Classification of commercially available grades of zinc oxide
Table 23 - Reaction equations for the production of iron oxide pigments
Table 24 - Main areas of use for natural and synthetic iron oxide pigments
Table 25 - Mixed-phase spinel pigments
Table 26 - Physical and chemical properties of iron blue pigments (Vossen Blau and Manox ...
Table 27 - Some quality requirements for iron oxide and metallic iron magnetic pigments
Table 28 - Typical properties of barium ferrite pigments
Table 29 - Possible uses of anticorrosive pigments in various primers
Table 30 - Composition and properties of zinc and chromium phosphate pigments
Table 31 - Composition and properties of aluminum phosphate anticorrosive pigments
Table 32 - New anticorrosive metal phosphate pigments
Table 33 - Multiphase anticorrosive phosphate pigments (commercial products)
Table 34 - Properties of metal borate pigments
Table 35 - Metallic anticorrosive chromate pigments
Table 36 - Properties of molybdenum-containing pigments
Table 37 - Properties of lead and zinc cyanamides
Table 38 - Properties of commercial zinc dust pigments
Table 39 - Anticorrosive flake pigments
Table 40 - Acute oral toxicity of anticorrosive pigments
Table 41 - Overview of effect pigments
Table 42 - Properties and application of pearlescent pigments
Table 43 - Technical data of pearlescent pigments
Table 44 - Examples for mica-based pearlescent pigments with special coloristic properties
Table 45 - Functional metal oxide–mica pigments
Figure 1 - Primary particles, agglomerates, and aggregates
Figure 2 - Standard deviation ellipses of a logarithmic normal distribution (yellow ...
Figure 3 - Spectral reflectance curves of some inorganic pigments in paints
Figure 4 - The relationships between the optical properties of pigments and their ...
Figure 5 - Absorption coefficient K for diffuse illumination as a function of the
Figure 6 - Scattering coefficients as a function of pigment volume concentration
Figure 7 - Scattering of white pigments as a function of particle size ...
Figure 8 - Absorption as a function of particle size
Figure 9 - CIELAB color differences between two yellow iron oxide pigments
Figure 10 - Undertone of two nearly white samples (TiO2 pigments)
Figure 11 - Determination of the hiding power of a yellow iron oxide pigment
Figure 12 - Spectral energy distribution of daylight phase D65 with permitted range of ...
Figure 13 - Change in tinting strength as a function of dispersing time
Figure 14 - The processing of heavy mineral sands

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Figure 15 - Production of TiO2 by the sulfate process
Figure 16 - Flow diagram of TiO2 production by the chloride process
Figure 17 - Weak acid recovery plant used by Sachtleben Chemie (based on know-how of ...
Figure 18 - Waste heat recovery and sulfuric acid recycling during weak acid treatment ...
Figure 19 - Spectral reflectance curves of barium sulfate and zinc sulfide
Figure 20 - Flow diagram for lithopone production
Figure 21 - Scanning electron micrograph of lithopone. The larger particles are barium ...
Figure 22 - Production of copperas red
Figure 23 - Production of yellow iron oxide by the precipitation (A) and Penniman (B) ...
Figure 24 - Production of iron oxide pigment by the Laux process
Figure 25 - Dependence of the reflectance of chromium oxide on the wavelength
Figure 26 - Structure of spinel showing two octants of the unit cell
Figure 27 - Crystal lattice of cadmium pigments (wurtzite structure)
Figure 28 - Reflectance curves of cadmium pigments (pigment volume concentration ...
Figure 29 - Reflectance curves of yellow pigments
Figure 30 - Particle size after precipitation (A) and subsequent heating (B) ...
Figure 31 - Flow diagram for the production of bismuth vanadate pigment
Figure 32 - Schematic drawing of the basic structure of standard ultramarine showing the
Figure 33 - Spectral reflectance distribution of blue ultramarine
Figure 34 - Spectral reflectance distribution of violet ultramarine
Figure 35 - Spectral reflectance distribution of pink ultramarine
Figure 36 - Electron micrograph of blue ultramarine with a mean particle size of ...
Figure 37 - Crystal structure of iron blue
Figure 38 - Electron micrograph of an iron blue pigment of small particle size (Manox ...
Figure 39 - Electron micrograph of an iron blue pigment of normal particle size (Vossen ...
Figure 40 - Cumulative particle size distribution curve of a normal (705) and a ...
Figure 41 - Residual gloss and E*ab values for isocyanate-cross-linked
Figure 42 - Color coordinates of black gravure inks with various toners
Figure 43 - Color coordinates of black offset printing inks with various toners
Figure 44 - Schematic representation of the physical anticorrosion effects of flake Figure 45 -
Passivation of iron by zinc phosphate
Figure 46 - Passivation of iron by chromate pigments ,
Figure 47 - Optical principles of conventional and luster pigments
Figure 48 - Simplified diagram showing nearly normal incidence of a beam of light (L1) from an
optical medium with refractive index ...
Figure 49 - Simplified scheme of light reflection at the phase boundaries of a metal ...
Figure 50 - Colorimetric determination of nacreous pigments
Figure 51 - Upper half of metal oxide–mica pigments
Figure 52 - Combination pigment consisting of TiO2–mica coated ...
Figure 53 - Electron micrograph of a transparent red iron oxide pigment (Sicotrans ...

Pigments, Organic
1. Introduction
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2. Physical and Technical Properties
2.1. General Aspects
2.2. Dispersibility
2.2.1. Pigment Powders
2.2.2. Pigment Preparations
2.3. Crystal Modifications
3. Uses
3.1. Printing Inks
3.2. Paints and Coatings
3.3. Plastics
3.4. Other Uses
4. Azo Pigments
4.1. Production
4.1.1. Diazotization
4.1.2. Coupling
4.1.3. Special Features of Azo Pigment Synthesis
4.2. Yellow and Orange Monoazo Pigments
4.2.1. Yellow Monoazo Pigments (Hansa Yellow Pigments)
4.2.2. Monoazopyrazolone Pigments
4.3. Disazo Pigments
4.3.1. Diarylide Pigments
4.3.2. Bis(N-acetoacetarylide) Pigments
4.4. -Naphthol Pigments
4.5. Azo Pigment Lakes
4.5.1. -Naphthol Pigment Lakes
4.5.2. 2-Hydroxy-3-naphthoic Acid Pigment Lakes (BON Pigments)
4.5.3. Other Pigment Lakes
4.6. Naphtol AS Pigments
4.7. Benzimidazolone Pigments,
4.8. Disazo Condensation Pigments
4.8.1. Yellow Pigments
4.8.2. Orange, Red, and Brown Pigments
4.8.3. Properties
5. Metal-Complex Pigments
5.1. Azo Metal-Complex Pigments
5.2. Azomethine Metal-Complex Pigments
5.3. Miscellaneous Metal-Complex Pigments
6. Isoindolinone and Isoindoline Pigments ,
6.1. Azomethine Type: Tetrachloroisoindolinone Pigments
6.2. Methine Type: Isoindoline Pigments
7. Phthalocyanine Pigments
8. Quinacridone Pigments,
8.1. Production
8.1.1. Synthesis
8.1.2. Aftertreatment
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8.2. Properties
9. Perinone Pigments
10. Perylene Pigments
11. Anthraquinone Pigments
11.1. Hydroxyanthraquinone Pigments
11.2. Aminoanthraquinone Pigments
11.3. Heterocyclic Anthraquinone Pigments
11.3.1. Anthrapyrimidine Pigments
11.3.2. Indanthrone and Flavanthrone
11.4. Polycarbocyclic Anthraquinone Pigments
11.4.1. Pyranthrone Pigments
11.4.2. Anthanthrone Pigments
12. Diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) Pigments
13. Thioindigo Pigments
14. Dioxazine Pigments
15. Triphenylmethane Pigments
15.1. Free Sulfonic Acids ("Alkali Blue" Types)
15.2. Dye Salts with Complex Anions
16. Quinophthalone Pigments,
17. Fluorescent Pigments
18. Environmental Aspects
18.1. Toxicology
18.2. Ecology
18.3. Impurities
19. References
Table 1 - Producers and trade names of organic pigments
Table 2 - Commercially available perylene pigments
Figure 1 - Basic structures of yellow disazo condensation pigments
Figure 2 - Examples of yellow disazo condensation pigments

Classification of inorganic pigments

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Term
White pigments
Colored pigments
Black pigments
Luster pigments
Metal effect pigments
Nacreous pigments
Interference pigments
Luminescent pigments
Fluorescent pigments
Phosphorescent pigments
Definition
the optical effect is caused by nonselective light scattering (examples: titanium
dioxide and zinc sulfide pigments, lithopone, zinc white)
the optical effect is caused by selective light absorption and also to a large extent
by selective light scattering (examples: iron oxide red and yellow, cadmium
pigments, ultramarine pigments, chrome yellow, cobalt blue)
the optical effect is caused by nonselective light absorption (examples: carbon
black pigment, iron oxide black)
the optical effect is caused by regular reflection or interference
regular reflection takes place on mainly flat and parallel metallic pigment
particles (example: aluminum flakes)
regular reflection takes place on highly refractive parallel pigment platelets
(example: titanium dioxide on mica)
the optical effect of colored luster pigments is caused wholly or mainly by the
phenomenon of interference (example: iron oxide on mica)
the optical effect is caused by the capacity to absorb radiation and to emit it as
light of a longer wavelength
the light of longer wavelength is emitted after excitation without a delay
(example: silver-doped zinc sulfide)
the light of longer wavelength is emitted within several hours after excitation
(example: copper-doped zinc sulfide)

Classification of white and black pigments

Chemical class White pigments Black pigments

Oxides titanium dioxide iron oxide black
zinc white, zinc iron–manganese
oxide black
spinel black
Sulfides zinc sulfide
lithopone
Carbon and carbonates white lead carbon black

Chemical class Green Blue- Blue Violet Red Orange Yellow Brown
green

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Oxides and oxide–hydroxides
Iron oxide pigments iron iron oxide iron oxide iron oxide
oxi orange yellow brown
de
red
Chromium oxide pigments chromium chromiu
oxide m
oxide
hydra
te
green
Mixed metal oxide pigments cobalt green and blue chromium nickel rutile zinc iron
rutile yellow, spinel,
orange chromium Mn–Fe
rutile brown
yellow

Sulfide and sulfoselenide cadmium cadmium

pigments sulfoselenide sulfide,
(Cd, Zn)S

Chromate pigments chrome green molyb chrome chrome

dat orange yellow,
e zinc
red yellow

Ultramarine pigments ultramarine green, blue, violet, and red

Iron blue pigments iron

blu
e

Others mang cobalt naples

ane mang yellow,
se anese bismuth
blu violet vanadate
e
Classification of inorganic colored pigments

Producers and trade names of organic pigments

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Producer Trade name

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BASF Azalean, Fanal, Heliogen, Lithol, Macatawa, Paliogen, Paliotol, Saugatuck,
Segnale, Sico, Sico Echt, Termosolido
Bayer Bayplast, Fanchon, Helio, Indofast, Perrindo, Quindo, Thio Fast
Cappelle Acetanil, Bonitol, Diacetanil
CDF-Chimie Langdocyal
Ciba-Geigy Cinquasia, Cromophtal, Horna, Irgalite, Irgazin
Cookson Dalamar, Heucophthal, Monastral, Naphtanil
Dainichi Seika Chromofine, Seika Fast
Dainippon Ink Fastogen, Symuler, Symuler Fast
European Colour plc Eljon
Hoechst Hansa, Hostaperm, Novoperm, Permanent, PV, PV-Echt, Reflex, Vulcan,
Vulcan-Echt
ICI Lutetia, Monastral, Monolite, Polymon, Vynamon
Køge Isol
Sandoz Graphtol
Sansui Colour Suimei
Sanyo Sanyo, Sanyo Fast
Sudarshan Sudarperm
Sumitomo Sumicacoat, Sumitone, Sumitone Fast
SUN Chemical Hancock, Montclair, Muskegon, Radiant, Rangoon
Tosoh Corp. Rubicron
Toyo Ink Lionogen, Lionol

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