Table of Contents

Number Lab Title Page Skills

1 Diffusion of Hydrochloric Acid and Ammonia 2 ORR and AI
2 Separation Techniques 1 3 ORR and MM
3 Separation Techniques - Chromatography 4-5 ORR and MM
4 Solubility 6-7 ORR and AI
5 Trends in Group 2 8 ORR and AI
6 Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds 9 ORR and AI
7 Types of chemical Reactions 10 ORR and AI
8 Identifying different cations 11-12 ORR and AI
9 Identifying different anions 13 ORR and AI
10 Qualitative Analysis of A 14 ORR and AI
11 Qualitative Analysis of X 15 ORR and AI
12 Qualitative Analysis of N 16 ORR and AI
13 Preparation of a soluble salt (Copper (II) Sulphate) 17 ORR and MM
14 Volumetric Analysis I 18 MM and AI
15 Volumetric Analysis II 19 MM and AI
16 Volumetric Analysis III 20 MM and AI
17 Reactions of different oxidizing and reducing agents 21 ORR
18 Redox Titration 22 MM and AI
19 Saturated and unsaturated Hydrocarbons 23 ORR and AI
20 Rates of reactions 24 ORR and AI
21 Energetics 1 25-26 MM and ORR
22 Energetics 2 27 ORR and AI
23 Planning and design questions 28
24 Example of investigative Project 29-31
25 Appendices

1
Title: Diffusion of Ammonia and Hydrochloric Acid

Ai m: To compare the rates of diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride

Apparatus and Materials : Glass tubes , clamp and stand rubber bungs , timing device , cotton
wool , concentrated hydrochloric acid , concentrated aqueous ammonia .

Diagram :

Procedure :

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.

2. Soak piece of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution an place at one end of the glass
tube . Immediately plug with a rubber bung.

3. Soak piece of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution an place at the other end of the
glass tube . Seal that end of the glass tube with a rubber bung .

4. As soon as sealing is completed begin the timer and do not end timing until the white ring
appears in the glass tube.

5. Record your results and observations.

Treatment of Results

1. Use a ruler to measure the distance from the ammonia soaked cotton ball to the white ring and
form the hydrochloric acid cotton soaked ball to the white ring .

2. Use the distances and the time taken for the formation of the white ring to calculate the rate of
diffusion in ( cm/s)

3. Calculate the relative molecular masses of the compounds

Discussion : Using your results and observations , give a full , detailed descriptive account for
the formation of the white ring . You must include a balanced chemical equation in your
discussion .

Conclusion : Which gas diffused at a faster rate ?

Reflection :

2
Title : Separating Techniques

Aim : To Separate of salt , insoluble powder and iron filings

Apparatus and Materials : list all the apparatus and materials used

Procedure : Give a description of the steps you would follow to separate the above mixture into
the different components

Discussion : Provide a justification for use of each of the methods indicated

Conclusion :

Reflection :

3
Title : Paper Chromatography

Aim : To separate screened methyl orange into its components using paper chromatography

Apparatus and materials : Screened Methyl Orange indicator , Water, Filter Paper, 100 ml
beaker, Capillary tube.

Diagram : (labelled diagram required )

Procedure

1. With a pencil, draw a horizontal line 1.5 cm from the filter paper. This is the Base line.
2. Place a small dot with the pencil in the centre of the Base line. This is the Point of Origin.
3. Use a capillary tube to place or “spot” a drop of screened methyl orange on the Point of
Origin. Let the spot dry and repeat the process.
4. Use a measuring cylinder to measure 10 ml of the water. Pour water into 100 ml beaker
5. Place the filter paper vertically in a 100 ml beaker and fold the upper edge over the lip of
the beaker.
6. Allow the water to rise up the filter paper.
7. Once the water stops rising, remove the filter paper and carefully mark off the distance
travelled by the solvent, using a pencil.
8. Using a ruler, measure:
a. The distance travelled by the solvent
b. The distance travelled by each component of the dye
9. Observe and record the number and colour of dyes present and the order in which they
appeared on the filter paper from the Base line.
10. Draw a neat, clear and labelled diagram of the Apparatus set up below.

4
 Observations
 Number of colours observed
 Distance travelled by spots.
 Any change in texture of paper
( Your chromatography paper should be saved and allowed to dry so it can be placed in the
observation section of your lab manual )

Calculations
Rf of each component ( distance travelled by spot / solvent front)

Discussion Questions
1. Give a definition for chromatography.
2. What are some of the uses of chromatography outside of your school laboratory ?
3. Is screened methyl orange pure? How do you know this?
4. What are the components of screened methyl orange?
5. Which component moves faster and why?
6. Which component moves slower and why?

Conclusion : What were the components of the screened methyl orange

Reflection :

5
Title : Solubility

Aim : To investigate the effect of temperature on the solubility of potassium nitrate

Apparatus : Test tubes , beakers , Bunsen burner, stirring rod, test tube holder, tripod stand,
thermometer

Materials : Potassium nitrate , distilled water , tap water

Method/Procedure:

1. Use measuring cylinder to add 10cm3 (this volume is V1) of distilled water to a test tube .

2. Add 15g of potassium nitrate crystals to the water and het in a water bath . Gently stir the
contents of the test tube with a stirring rod until the crystals dissolve .

3. Cool the solution in a beaker with water until the crystals begin to form , recording the
temperature as the crystals just begin to form ( this is T 1)

4. Add 2cm3 of water to the above mixture . Heat again , while stirring to dissolve the crystals.
Cool the resulting solution until crystallization begins and again record the temperature just as
crystallization begins . ( the new temperature and volumes are T 2 and V2 respectively )
temperatures T3 ,T4 ,T5 etc. Continue until the corresponding total volume of the solution is 24
cm3.

5. Use the following relationship to determine the solubility at each temperature :

Solubility in grams of solute per 100g of water

= 15 x 100
Vs where V5is the volume of solvent

Results :
Complete a table for the solubility of KNO3 at the corresponding temperatures . Show all
calculations .

Treatment of Results :
1. Plot a graph o solubility versus temperature .
2. Use your graph to

 predict the solubility of potassium nitrate at 55 oC and 28oC.

 determine the mass of crystals which would precipitate out if the temperature decreased
from 60OC to 40oC

6
3. What deductions can be made from the graph about the effect of temperature on the solubility
of potassium nitrate .

Sources of Error : any error that might have affected your results .

Conclusion:

Reflection :

7
Title: Physical properties of Ionic and Covalent Substances

Aim: To determine whether the unknown substance A & B are ionic or covalent

Apparatus: Bunsen burner, beakers, test, tubes, test-tube holder

Materials: alcohol, distilled water,

Title: Table showing the physical properties of Solid A and Solid B.

TESTS OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Solid A Solid B Solid A Solid B

1. Describe the
appearance of
solid A and B

2. Add water to
solid A and B,
Shake and
observe.

3. Heat a solid
sample of
substance A and
then B , observe,
allow it to cool.

4. Then add
alcohol to solid
A and B shake
and observe

8
Title: Trends

Aim : To compare the reactions of calcium and magnesium metals with water and dilute acid.

Apparatus and materials : test tubes, test tube rack , magnesium ribbon , calcium metal ,
hydrochloric acid , distilled water , phenolphthalein indicator , splint , matches .

Method:

1. Add 2cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into two test tubes .

2. Add a piece of magnesium ribbon to one test tube and calcium to the other , observe the
strength of the effervescence in each .

3 Use your thump to trap the gas that is being evolved and test with a lighted splint .

4. Record all observations

5. Repeat the above steps using distilled water to replace the hydrochloric acid.

6. To each test tube add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator and observe .

Treatment of results

 Record results in a table with the headings TEST, OBSERVATION and INFERENCE
(in the inference an explanation must be given for each observation noted)
TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

 Chemical reactions for the reactions observed must be provided .

 The colour of the mixture in each instance must be noted .

Discussion

1. Based on your observation , which element is more reactive ? Explain .

2. If Beryllium and Barium were also used in the reactions how would they compare to
magnesium and calcium ? Provide an explanation for your answer .

Reflection :

9
Title : Types of Chemical Reactions

Aim : To determine the type of reaction that describes what was observed .

Apparatus: test tubes, test tube racks, matches , Bunsen burner , splints , tongs

Materials : zinc , copper(II) sulphate , magnesium ribbon , dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute
sulphuric acid , barium chloride , sodium hydrogen carbonate , calcium hydroxide

Table Showing _________________________________________________________________

Test Observation Inference

Place a piece of magnesium into

a test tube containing 2cm3 of
copper (II) sulphate solution

Burn a strip of magnesium in air

Add a strip of magnesium

ribbon to 2cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid. The gas
produced must be tested with a
lighted splint.

Add 2cm3 dilute sulphuric acid

to a test-tube containing 2cm3
barium chloride

Heat a sample of copper (II)

carbonate

Add 2cm3 dilute potassium

iodide to a test-tube containing
2cm3 of lead nitrate

Reflection :

10
Title : Test for cations

Aim : To carry out test for the following cations Ca2+, Al3+ , Pb2+, Zn2+ ,Cu2+ , Fe2+ , Fe3+.

Apparatus : test tubes , test tube racks .

Materials : aqueous ammonia , sodium hydroxide , calcium ions in solution , aluminium ion in
solution , lead(II) ions in solution , zinc in solution , copper(II) ions in solution , iron (II) in
solution and iron (III) in solution

Method : To each sample- add a few drops of sodium hydroxide , observe and record changes
then add more sodium ore drops of sodium hydroxide until no more changes can be observed .

2. Repeat this procedure using aqueous ammonia .

Cations Observations Inference

being tested
using sodium
hydroxide

11
Cations being Observations Inference
tested using
aqueous
ammonia

Further confirmatory Tests

Lead solution + KI

Aluminum solution + KI

Lead solution + HCl

Aluminum solution + HCl

12
Title : Test for Anions

Aim : To carry out test for the following anions SO42-, SO32-, CO32-,NO3-

Apparatus and materials : test tubes , Barium chloride , Barium nitrate , HCl , nitric acid ,
copper filings anions

TESTS OBSERVATION INFERENCEE

SO32-

A) Add some BaCl2 or

Ba(NO3)2 solution followed
by dilute HCl or dilute HNO3
solution .

B) add some Pb(NO3)2

solution followed by dilute
HNO3 solution.
SO42-

A) Add some BaCl2 or

Ba(NO3)2 solution followed
by dilute HCl or dilute HNO3
solution .

B) add some Pb(NO3)2

solution followed by dilute
HNO3 solution.
CO32-

A) Add some BaCl2 or

Ba(NO3)2 solution followed
by dilute HCl or dilute HNO3
solution .

B) add some Pb(NO3)2

solution followed by dilute
HNO3 solution.
NO3-

Add some concentrated

sulphuric acid and copper
filings and heat it .

Reflection :

13
Title: Qualitative analysis : Identifying Unknown Ions

Aim: To determine ions in A

Apparatus: beakers , wash bottle , test tubes , test tube racks , test tube holder , Bunsen burner ,
measuring cylinder

Materials : potassium iodide , aqueous ammonia , sodium hydroxide solution , barium chloride ,
hydrochloric acid , Unknown A, nitric acid , silver nitrate , barium chloride, sulphuric acid,
copper fillings, distilled water .

TEST OBSERVATIONS INNFERENCE

1.
a) To a small sample of A add
a few drops of NaOH

b) add NaOH in excess

2. To a small sample of A add
KI

3. (i) (i)
To another small sample of
the solution , add aqueous
ammonia solution (i) a little at (ii) (ii)
a time (ii) then in excess

4. (i) (i)
a)To another small sample add
HNO3 followed by AgNO3.

b)To this add aqueous (ii) (ii)

ammonia and record
observations
5. (i) (i)
To a small sample (i) add
aqueous barium nitrate OR
barium chloride , followed by (ii) (ii)
(ii) dilute hydrochloric acid.

6.
Add some concentrated
sulphuric acid and copper
filings and heat it
Summary of Results:

The ions present in N are _______________ ________________ ___________________

14
Title: Qualitative analysis : Identifying Unknown Ions

Aim: To determine ions in X

Apparatus: beakers , wash bottle , test tubes , test tube racks , test tube holder , Bunsen burner ,
measuring cylinder

Materials : aqueous ammonia , sodium hydroxide solution , barium chloride , hydrochloric acid ,
Unknown A, nitric acid , silver nitrate , barium chloride, sulphuric acid, distilled water .

TEST OBSERVATIONS INNFERENCE

To a small portion of X in a test
tube add a small amount of
dilute HNO3. Test the gas evolve
with moist blue litmus

Heat the solution containing X

and HNO3 and test by passing
trough lime water

To another small sample of the (i) (i)

solution , add sodium hydroxide
solution (i) a little at a time (ii)
then in excess (ii) (ii)

. (i) (i)
To another small sample of the
solution , add aqueous ammonia
solution (i) a little at a time (ii)
then in excess (ii) (ii)

To a third portion add aqueous (i) (i)

silver nitrate the aqueous
ammonia solution .
(ii) (ii)

Summary of Results:

The ions present in N are _______________ ________________ ___________________

15
Title: Qualitative analysis : Identifying Unknown Ions

Aim: To determine ions in N

Apparatus: beakers , wash bottle , test tubes , test tube racks , test tube holder , Bunsen burner ,
measuring cylinder

Materials : potassium iodide , aqueous ammonia , sodium hydroxide solution , barium chloride ,
hydrochloric acid , Unknown N, distilled water .

TEST OBSERVATIONS INNFERENCE

a) Heat a small portion of N in

a dry test tube and keep the
remainder for (b) below
b) Dissolve the remainder of N
in approximately 10cm3 of
distilled water and divide the
solution into FOUR portions

(i) (i)
c) To ONE portion of the
solution , add sodium
hydroxide solution (i) a little at (ii) (ii)
a time (ii) then in excess

(i) (i)
d) To the second portion , add
aqueous ammonia (i) a little at (ii) (ii)
a time (ii) then in excess.

e) To the third portion add a

few drops of potassium iodide
solution

(i) (i)
f) To the fourth portion (i) add
aqueous barium nitrate OR
barium chloride , followed by (ii) (ii)
(ii) dilute hydrochloric acid.

Summary of Results:

The ions present in N are _______________ ________________ ___________________

16
Title: Preparation of salts

Skills Assessed: MM and AI

Aim: to prepare a soluble sample of copper II sulphate -5 water from copper II oxide and
sulphuric acid.

Apparatus: petri dish, filter paper, filter funnel, wire gauze, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, glass
rod, beakers, crucible

Materials: 2M sulphuric acid, copper II oxide and water

Procedure :

1. Measure 10 cm3 of sulphuric acid using a measuring cylinder and place it in a crucible.
2. Add the copper II oxide until in excess
3. Filter the resulting mixture and use a water bath to concentrate the filtrate.
4. Cool the resulting mixture slowly to obtain crystals.
5. Filter the cooled mixture
6. Wash the residue with a little distilled water then place the crystals between two sheets of
filter paper and allow them to dry.

Observation

 Describe what was observed after every step of the method was carried out.
 Include a small sample of the copper sulphate crystals you created.

Discussion :

1. Write the balanced molecular equation for the reaction between copper II oxide and
sulphuric acid.
2. Write the complete formula for hydrated copper II sulphate.
3. Why was the copper II oxide added in excess?
4. Name two other substances which may be combined with sulphuric acid to produce
copper II sulphate
5. Write the balanced molecular equation which describes what happens when each
substance is combined with sulphuric acid.
6. If the copper sulphate was heated to dryness what physical changes would be observed?
Write a balanced chemical equation to show this what happens to hydrated copper
sulphate when heated to dryness.
7. Why were the copper II sulphate crystals washed with little distilled water ?

Reflection :

17
Volumetric Analysis ; Practical Exercise 1

Aim : To determine the concentration ethanoic acid by titration with sodium hydroxide

Theory : in this experiment you will determine the concentration of ethanoic acid . You will obtain a
standard solution of 0.1M sodium hydroxide and then titrate it against ethanoic acid using
phenolphthalein indicator. The results will then be used to determine the molar concentration of the acid.

Apparatus : 100cm3 beakers , conical flasks , balance , 10cm3 pipette , white tile , 250cm3 , retort stand,
50 cm3 burette, filter funnel. pipette fillers.

Materials : distilled water , phenolphthalein, 0.1moldm-3 NaOH , Ethanoic acid

Procedure :

1. Pipette 10c m3 of the ethanoic acid into a conical flask

2. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator

3. Fill the burette with NaOH , record the initial reading of the burette .

4 Add the NaOH slowly to the conical flask with the ethanoic acid until the colour changes .

5. Note the final reading of the burette in a table

6. Repeat the above steps until 2 values which are within 0.1cm3 of each other are obtained .

7. Calculate the average volume of sodium hydroxide used in the reaction .

Results

Run Rough 1 2

Final volume / cm3

Initial volume / cm3

Volume Used / cm3

Calculations :

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction .

2. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH used in the reaction .

3. Calculate the number of moles of Ethanoic acid that reacted with the NaOH.

4. Calculate the molar concentration of the Ethanoic acid.

18
Volumetric Analysis : Practical Exercise 2

Aim : To determine the concentration Hydrochloric acid by titration with sodium hydroxide

Apparatus : 100cm3 beakers , conical flasks , balance , 25cm3 pipette , white tile, retort stand,
50 cm3 burette, filter funnel, pipette fillers

Materials : distilled water , Screened methyl orange indicator, 0.05moldm -3 NaOH ,

hydrochloric acid

Procedure :

1. Pipette 25cm3 of the Sodium hydroxide into a conical flask

2. Add a few drops of screened methyl orange indicator

3. Fill the burette with HCl , record the initial reading of the burette .

4 Add the HCl slowly to the conical flask with the NaOH until the colour changes .

5. Note the final reading of the burette in a table

6. Repeat the above steps until 2 values which are within 0.1cm 3 of each other are obtained .

7. Calculate the average volume of HCl used in the reaction .

Results

Run Rough 1 2

Final volume / cm3

Initial volume / cm3

Volume Used / cm3

Calculations :

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction .

2. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH used in the reaction .

3. Calculate the number of moles of HCl that reacted with the NaOH.

4. Calculate the molar concentration of the Hydrochloric acid.

19
Volumetric Analysis ; Practical Exercise 3

Aim : To determine the concentration sodium hydroxide by titration with sulphuric acid.

Apparatus : 100cm3 beakers , conical flasks , balance , 10cm3 pipette , white tile , 250cm3 , retort stand,
50 cm3 burette, filter funnel. pipette fillers.

Materials : distilled water , phenolphthalein, 0.5 moldm-3 sulphuric acid , NaOH.

Procedure :

1. Pipette 25 c m3 of the sulphuric acid into a conical flask

2. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the solution in the conical flask.

3. Fill the burette with NaOH, record the initial reading of the burette .

4 Add the NaOH slowly to the conical flask with the H2SO4, until the colour changes .

5. Note the final reading of the burette in a table

6. Repeat the above steps until 2 values which are within 0.1cm3 of each other are obtained .

7. Calculate the average volume of sodium hydroxide used in the reaction .

Results

Run Rough 1 2

Final volume / cm3

Initial volume / cm3

Volume Used / cm3

Calculations :

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction .

2. Calculate the number of moles of H2SO4 used in the reaction .

3. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH that reacted with the H2SO4.

4. Calculate the molar concentration of the NaOH.

Reflection

20
 Title: Redox

Aim: To identify reducing and oxidizing agents.

Apparatus: 12 Test tube, test tube rack, 10 o2 20mL measuring cylinder, 4 small beakers,
markers/ label tapes.

Material: Sulphuric acid, distilled water, aqueous acidified potassium dichromate, aqueous
acidified potassium permanganate, aqueous potassium iodide, aqueous potassium bromide,
hydrogen peroxide, aqueous iron (ii) sulphate.

Procedure:

Test Observation Inference

3
Pour 2 cm of Kl(aq)
into a test tube, add 2
cm3 of bromine water
(Br2(aq)) to the
solution of Kl(aq) in
your test tube.
Place 2 cm3 of Kl(aq), KI + KMnO4

KBr(aq), H2O2(1) and

Fe2+(aq), into four (4)
separate test tubes, KBr + KMnO4
Ensure your test tubes
are properly labeled.
Add 2 cm3 of
acidified KMnO4(aq) H2O2 + KMnO4

solution to each of the

test tubes containing
the solutions: Kl(aq), Fe2+ + KMnO4
KBr(aq), H2O2(I) and
Fe2+(aq)

Place 2cm3 of Kl(aq), KI + K2Cr2O7

H2O2(I) and Fe2+(aq),

into three (3)separate
test tubes. Add 2 cm3
H2O2 +K2Cr2O7
of acidified
K2Cr2O7(aq) solution
to each of the test
tubes containing the Fe2+ + K2Cr2O7
solutions: Kl(aq),
H2O2(I) and Fe2+(aq)

21
Redox : Redox Titration

Aim: To determine the number of moles of water of crystallization in ferrous ammonium

sulphate by titration with potassium manganate (VII)

Apparatus : 100cm3 beakers , conical flasks , balance , 25cm3 pipette , white tile, retort stand,
50 cm3 burette, filter funnel, pipette fillers, measuring cylinder

Materials : distilled water , Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.nH2O (39.2gdm-3) , KMnO4(3.32gdm-2) , dilute

H2SO4

Procedure :

1. Pipette 25cm3 of the ferrous ammonium sulphate into a conical flask

2. Using a measuring cylinder add 10cm3 of dilute H2SO4 to the conical flask .

3. Fill the burette with KMnO4 , record the initial reading of the burette .

4 Add the KMnO4 slowly to the conical flask with the ferrous ammonium sulphate until a
permanent pale pink colour was obtained .

5. Note the final reading of the burette in a table

6. Repeat the above steps until 2 values which are within 0.1cm 3 of each other are obtained .

Calculations

1. Determine the volume of KMnO4 that reacted with 25cm3 of ferrous ammonium sulphate .

2. Determine the number of moles of KMnO4 in 1 dm3.

3. Determine the number of moles of KMnO4 used in titration

4. Balance the following ionic equation for the reaction .

MnO4-(aq) + Fe2+(aq) + H+(aq) ---------> Mn2+(aq) + Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O.

5. Determine the number of moles of Fe2+ used in the reaction.

6. Calculate the molar concentration of Fe2+.

7. Determine the molar mass of Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.nH2O.

8. Determine the value of n in Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.nH2O.

Reflection :

22
Title: Organic chemistry

Aim : to determine which of two liquids is cyclohexane and which is cyclohexene

Apparatus & materials : beakers , droppers , test tubes, test tube racks , unknown liquids ,
acidified potassium permanganate , bromine water .

Procedure :

Bromine water

1. Add five drops of each unknown liquid to labelled test tubes ( A and B )

2. To each test add five drops of bromine water .

3. Note all observations and record in a suitable table

Acidified Potassium permanganate

1. Add five drops of each unknown liquid to labelled test tubes ( A and B )

2. To each test tube add five drops of acidified potassium permanganate .

3. Note all observations and record in a suitable table.

Discussion

1. Explain the differences observed in each case ( for each set of reaction and each liquid).

2. Write an equation for the reaction of bromine with ethene .

3. State the type of reaction that occurred between potassium permanganate and the alkene .

Conclusion :

Reflection :

23
Title: Rates of Reactions

Aim : To determine the effect of concentration on the rate of a reaction

Apparatus and Materials: measuring cylinders , conical flask , paper , pencil , beakers ,
distilled water , sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) , sulphuric acid, stopwatch

Method:
1 Using a measuring cylinder , place 10cm3 of 0.1 moldm-3 sodium thiosulphate into a conical
flask.
2. Using a blank piece of paper with a width wider than that of the base of the conical flask, draw
a X in the center of the paper . The x should be clear and visible .
3. Place the conical flask over the cross created on the paper.
4. Add 25cm3 of 0.5moldm-3 sulphuric acid to this solution and start the stopwatch as the acid is
added.
5. Not and record the time that it takes for the cross to no longer be visible . Discard this mixture
and wash the conical flask .
6. Repeat the above procedures using the volumes of sodium thiosulphate and water as shown in
the table below.

Title :
_____________________________________________________________________________

Run Volume of Volume of Volume of Time (t) 1/t

H2SO4 cm3
1 25
2 25
3 25
4 25
5 25
6 25
Na2S2O3 cm3 H2O cm3 s 1/s
10 0
9 1
8 2
7 3
6 4
5 5

Treatment of results :

1. 1/t is a measure of the rate of reaction . Plot a graph of 1/t against volume of sodium
thiosulphate used.

2. Volume of sodium thiosulphate is directly related to its concentration under the conditions of
the experiment . How does the rate of this reaction depend on the concentration of the sodium
thiosulphate ?

24
3. State the variables controlled, responding and the manipulated variable in this experiment .

4 What steps could have been taken to keep the temperature constant?

5. List two sources of error for the experiment.

Conclusion :

Reflection :

25
Title : Energetics

Aim : Finding the end point of a neutralization reaction my measuring temperature changes

Apparatus and materials : 2M sodium hydroxide solution , 2M hydrochloric acid solution ,

thermometer , Styrofoam cup, measuring cylinders

Procedure

1. Using the measuring cylinder , put 20cm3 of the sodium hydroxide into the Styrofoam cup ,
measure and record the temperature of this solution .
2. Fill the measuring cylinder with acid up to the 5cm-3 mark. Transfer the acid into the alkali all
at once . Stir with the thermometer and record the highest temperature reached. WITHOUT
DELAY , add a second 5cm-3 of the acid , stir and record the highest temperature reached.
Repeat the procedure until a total of 40 cm-3 of acid has been added.
3. Record your readings in a table below.

Treatment of Results :
1. Plot a graph of total volume of acid added against temperature .
2. Account for the shape of your graph. _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3. Use your graph to determine the total volume of acid needed to neutralize exactly 20cm 3 of
alkali.___________
4. Determine two likely sources of error in this procedure for determining the end point of
neutralisation . _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

26
Title : Energetics

Aim : To determine the heat of neutralization of the reaction between sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid .

Apparatus : beaker , measuring cylinder , thermometer Styrofoam cups

Materials : 2M NaOH , 2M HCl

Procedure :

1. Using a measuring cylinder measure 25cm3 of NaOH .

2 . Allow the solution to stand for 5 minutes then record the temperature of the NaOH>

3. Measure 25cm3 of HCl and add it to the solution in the Styrofoam cup.

4. Stir the mixture and record the highest temperature of the mixture .

Treatment of Results

1. Calculate the heat change for the reaction

2. Determine the heat of neutralization for this reaction

3. Draw the energy profile diagram for this reaction

4. Write two sources of errors and two assumptions for this experiment .

5. Write the ionic equation for this reaction .

Conclusion :

Reflection :

27
Planning and Design Questions

1. Sarah states that the black ink in all markers contain the same components . Plan and design an
experiment to test Sarah's statement .

2. A new substance was found on Mars and taken back to earth . It is discovered to be a
compound. Outline a plan and design how this solid can be tested to determine the type of
bonding present .

3. A new drink company needs to develop a new can for their tomato juice. The juice is slightly
acidic and you are provided with two types of material , copper metal and magnesium metal .
Plan and design an experiment to determine which metal would be best for making the cans for
the new juice .

4. Plan and design an experiment to determine which vinegar, Grace or Eves vinegar is best for
cleaning fish .

5. In the labs store room you come across four unlabelled bottles with the labels dilute
hydrochloric acid , sodium hydroxide , sodium carbonate and distilled water on the ground
before them . Using only red and blue litmus , a dropper and test tubes plan and design an
experiment to determine which bottles contain which solutions .

6. Johns car won't start , he determines that it's an issue with his battery , his cousins start
debating about whether vinegar , water or kerosene would be best to replace the liquid in his car
battery . Plan and design an experiment to determine which liquid would be the best to replace
the liquid in his car battery.

7. Plan and design an experiment to determine whether the addition of the following nitrates of
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2 + and Fe2+ to water has the effect of making the water hard or soft.

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EXAMPLAR OF INVESTIGATIVE PRACTICAL

Part A THE PROPOSAL

Observation

Whenever an uncovered carbonated beverage is left exposed at room temperature the beverage
goes ‘flat’ (that is, loses its fizz) within a few hours but when an uncovered carbonated beverage
is stored in a refrigerator it remains fizzy for much longer.

Hypothesis: The higher the temperature of an uncovered carbonated drink the faster the drink
will lose carbon dioxide gas.

Aim: To determine if increasing the temperature causes an uncovered carbonated beverage to

lose carbon dioxide gas at a higher rate.

Materials/Apparatus: A sealed bottle of a carbonated beverage, cold water, 3 boiling tubes, 3

delivery tubes with rubber bungs, three test tube racks, a 60 ˚C water bath, an ice- bath, 3
thermometers, three measuring cylinder, three retort stands with clamps, 3 graduated syringes
and a timing device.

Method

1. All apparatus will be cleaned and dried before beginning the experiment.

2. Label each boiling tube as follows: R- for room temperature, C- for cold and H- for hot.
Measure 20 cm3 of the carbonated beverage and pour slowly into each boiling tube.

3. Leave the uncovered boiling tube labeled R on the counter at room temperature. Place the
uncovered tube labeled C into an ice-bath and the uncovered tube labeled H into a 60˚C water
bath. Record the temperature of each beverage in a table and leave each tube undisturbed for 30
minutes.

4. After the 30 minutes has passed for each beverage, securely fit the tube with a rubber bung
and delivery tube. Keep the shaking of the tube to a minimum during this set-up process. The
open end of the delivery tube will be attached to a graduated syringe and the boiling tube shaken
for two minutes. Record the volume reached by the gas in a suitable table. Repeat the same
procedure for each tube.

Precaution: Carbonated beverage was poured slowly down the sides of the boiling tube to
minimise loss of gas.

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Expected Results

It is expected that the carbonated beverage labeled H will produce the least volume of gas,
beverage R will produce more gas than H but less than C and beverage C will produce the
highest volume of gas.

PART B- THE IMPLEMENTATION

Introduction

Whenever an uncovered carbonated beverage is left exposed at room temperature the beverage
goes ‘flat’ (that is, loses its fizz) within a few hours but when an uncovered carbonated beverage
is stored in a refrigerator it remains fizzy for much longer.

The gas responsible for the fizz of a carbonated drink is carbon dioxide and the lower the carbon
dioxide content of a drink the ‘flatter’ the drink will be.

In this experiment the relationship between the temperature and the carbon dioxide content of a
carbonated drink will be explored so as to offer an explanation to the observation made.

Method

1. All apparatus was cleaned and dried before beginning the experiment.

2. Each boiling tube was labeled as follows: R- for room temperature, C- for cold and H- for hot.

3. 20 cm3 of the carbonated beverage was measured and poured slowly into each boiling tube.

4. The uncovered boiling tube labeled R was left on the counter at room temperature, the
uncovered tube labeled C was placed into an ice-bath and the uncovered tube labeled H was
placed into a 60˚C water bath. The temperature of each beverage was recorded in a table and
each tube was left undisturbed for 30 minutes.

5. After 30 minutes had passed for each beverage, the tube was securely fitted with a rubber
bung and delivery tube. Shaking of the tube was kept to a minimum during this set-up process.
The open end of the delivery tube was attached to a graduated syringe and the boiling tube was
shaken for two minutes. The volume reached by the gas was recorded in a suitable table. The
same procedure was repeated for each tube.

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TABLE SHOWING THE VOLUME OF CARBON DIOXIDE GAS COLLECTED AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

Boiling Tube Temperature (˚C) Volume of CO2 gas cm3

R 60
H 30
C 2

Discussion
From this experiment, it was determined that as the temperature increased the carbon dioxide
content of the drink decreased. The drink which was kept at the highest temperature lost the most
gas in the allotted time period.
When a carbonated drink is left uncovered, the decrease in pressure causes the gas particles to
leave the solution at the surface faster. Also, increasing the temperature gives the gas particle
more kinetic energy and increases the rate at which these particles leave the drink’s surface.
Particles possess more kinetic energy at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Hence,
more gaseous particles will leave the surface of a drink at room temperature than at a lower
temperature.
Therefore it is clear that when the carbonated drink was left at room temperature the loss of CO2
would have occurred more readily than if the same drink was kept in a refrigerator and as a result
the drink at room temperature would become flat much sooner than one stored at colder
temperatures.

Limitations
Every effort was made to reduce experimental error as much as possible. Shaking of the
beverage during measuring was minimized and the temperatures were monitored strictly.
However, the following situations may have contributed to experimental error:
1. Loss of gas as an undetermined amount of gas was lost during the pouring of the beverage into
the measuring cylinder.
2. Loss of gas occurred during the assembling of the delivery tube to the graduated syringe.

Reflections
Whenever an uncovered carbonated beverage is left exposed at room temperature, the beverage
goes flat (it loses its fizz) within a few hours but when an uncovered carbonated beverage is
stored in a refrigerator it remains fizzy for much longer.
From the experiment, I have learnt that the reason carbonated drinks go flat faster at room
temperature is because of the higher temperature which gives the gas particles enough energy to
leave the drink’s surface faster.

Therefore, based on scientific fact it is better to store a carbonated drink at low temperatures as
this will preserve its CO2 content for much longer.
This experiment was carried out as designed in the plan.

Conclusion
Increasing the temperature of an uncovered carbonated drink causes the drink to lose carbon
dioxide faster.

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