M13 Rev04 Unlocked PDF

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Module 13
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Aircraft aerodynamics, structures and systems
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Module 13 – Aircraft aerodynamics, structures and systems
c e Table of contents
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tr a 13.01 Theory of flight
13.02 Structure
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13.03 Autoflight
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13.04 Communication and navigation
13.05 Electrical power
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13.06 Equipment and furnishings
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13.07 Flight controls
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13.08 Instrument systems
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13.09 Lights
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13.10 On board maintenance systems
13.11 Air conditioning and cabin pressurization
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Table of contents
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13.12 Fire protection
13.13 Fuel system
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13.14 Hydraulic power
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13.15 Ice and rain protectiion
13.16 Landing gear
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13.17 Oxygen
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13.18 Pneumativ and vacuum
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13.19 Water and waste
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13.20 Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA)
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13.21 Cabin systems
13.22 Information system
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Chapter 13,1
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THEORY OF FLIGHT
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Aircraft movements and flight controls
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Each flight control provides movement or control around a specific axis:
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• The roll, or lateral control, is performed around the lateral y axis.
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• the pitch, or longitudinal control, is performed around the lateral y axis.
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• The directional control is active around the directional, or yaw axis. This is the airplane
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vertical z axis or normal axis.
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Ailerons
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• The primary control surfaces on the longitudinal axis are the ailerons.
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– They are moved by the lateral displacement of the control stick.
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– Ailerons act in opposite directions while one aileron goes up, the other aileron goes
down.
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• If the pilot turns the control bar to the right, the right aileron moves up, while the left
aileron moves down.
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– In this way the ailerons change the camber of the wings, creating a variation of the
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produced lift.
Inner aileron:
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• On many modern jets, the outer ailerons are locked during high speed cruises to avoid
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control reverse caused by the wings aero-elasticity.
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• A later check is performed by using:
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– Inner aileron.
– Spoilers.
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Operation and effect of pitch controls
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Stabilizer: stabilize the airplane attitude
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• Elevator: balance the airplane nose up/down habit. When the displacements
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of the center of gravity are very wide, the requested balancing moments
present a relevant intensity.
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•
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On aircraft with these operational characteristics, a variable incidence
stabilizer is employed. Its efficiency is greater than that of the traditional
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system.
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Vertical tailplane
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Fin: fixed surface, provides directional stability to the airplane around the yaw axis
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• Rudder: mobile surface, provides the yaw movement (ie. If the pilot push the left pedal the
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aircraft perform a yaw to the left)
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• Yaw is the primary effect of rudder deflection.
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• When a rotation is imposed, one wing speeds up while the other slows down. The change in
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speed causes a change also in the lift on the two wings generating a roll movement
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(secondary effect) called yaw roll coupling.
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High lift devices: slots, slats and flaps
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Flaps:
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• High lift devices are movable mechanism attached to the rear part wings.
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• Mainly used during take-off and landing decreasing the aircraft stalling speed.
• The flaps are bent into airflow producing extra life by reshaping the camber.
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There are different types of flaps:
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• Plain flap:
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– Rotates on a simple hinge.
• Split flap:
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– Gives a 60% increase in lift.
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– Operates like a plain flap.
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– Forms the trailing edge.
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• Fowler flap:
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– Gives a 90% increase in lift.
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– Slides backwards.
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Lift dump and speed brakes
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Spoilers:
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• The spoilers are adjustable surfaces, hinged on the upper part of the wing, act to interrupt
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the flow producing the lift.
• spoilers have three functions, but they always decrease lift and increase drag, installed over
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the portion of the wing.
• The main type of spoilers is the ground spoiler. The ground spoilers dump the lift when the
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aircraft is on ground during the landing phase
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There are different kinds of spoilers:
• Symmetrical spoilers:
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– Reduce lift/drag ratio.
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• Differential spoilers:
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– In conjunction with ailerons.
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• Ground effect spoilers.
• Gust alleviation spoilers:
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– Operate automatically, reduce structure fatigue, stable and comfort flight.
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Operation and effect of trim,servo and antibalance tabs
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Trim tabs:
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• An aircraft is in trim when it maintains a constant flight path, without continuous
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interventions by the pilot are not required.
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Balance tab:
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• Assists the pilot to move his/her controls on a non powered system.
• When control surface is moved by the pilot the tab is caused to move in the opposite
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direction.
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Antibalance tab:
• Makes the controls more effective and gives the pilot more feel.
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• Tab moves in the same direction as the control surface.
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Speed of sound Mach number and critical Mach number:
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Mach number is dimensionless ( M ) , it is defined as the ratio of the speed of a body (V) to
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the speed of sound (c) in that air mass as:
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𝑉 𝑉
𝑀= =
𝑐 𝛾𝑅𝑇
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• The value of the Mach number also influences the air compressibility
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• If the Mach number is less than 0,3incompressible fluid and constant density.
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• The critical Mach number of an aircraft is defined as the point where a portion of the
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airflow, passing over the wing, reaches the speed of sound; in this case M=1
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• Increasing the Mach number, on the aircraft the tuck-under phenomenon happens. It
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is an undesired phenomenon, in which aircraft nose tends to pitch down.
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A way to increase the critical Mach number of an aircraft is orienting backwards or
afterwards, this type of wings is called swept wing.
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Mach number and critical Mach number
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Variable geometry wings:
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• Variable geometry wings, have the possibility to change their swept, during the mission,
according to their flight speed maintaining stretched wings at low speeds, with a small
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swept angle, then to move them towards the fuselage, increasing the swept angle, at
transonic and supersonic flight regimes
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Superstall:
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• A wing with a positive swept tends to stall before at its tips which causes a spontaneous
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increase of the angle of attack makes that the wing stalled area extends more and more.
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In this way, the drag quickly increases and the lift suddenly decreases.
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•
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The tendency of a swept wing to present the superstall can be reduced by particular
devices, such as the vortex generators, that are installed on the wing area.
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The helicopter: Theory of flight
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A conventional helicopter is equipped with two rotors having different specific purposes.
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• The first rotor at vertical axis is the main one and has a big diameter, this rotor provides the
sustentation and permits the translated flight.
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• The tail rotor at horizontal axis is the second one and has a smaller diameter, this rotor allows
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to equilibrate the reaction torque of the main rotor and to directionally control the helicopter.
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The rotors are made of a shaft, a hub and some blades connected to it.
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• The hub is the central part and is generally composed of some ball bearings to permit the
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rotation of the element assembled on it.
– The hub is installed on the shaft.
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– The shaft is the element that transmits the rotational motion. It can freely spin or be
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actuated by an engine.
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One or more blades are attached on the hub: they are the lift surfaces of the helicopter
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According to the hub hinges number of the rotor blades there are :
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• Rigid rotors have only one hinge (pitch hinge the angle of attack ), which permits the
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rotation of the blade around its longitudinal axis.
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• Semi-rigid : two hinges: pitch hinge which permits the blade rotation in the vertical plane.
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• Articulated rotors 3 hinges are present: pitch hinge, flapping hinge and lead-lag hinge (or
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drag hinge) which permits the blade movement in the plane of rotor rotation.
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Rotors without hinges In order to operate employ the elastic properties of materials. In this
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case a flexible blade must be installed.
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Advancing blade: moves in the same direction as the movement of the helicopter.
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Anti-torque pedals: control the pitch of the tail rotor of a single rotor helicopter.
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Aspect ratio: the square of the blade span by its total area (b/c in case of squared rotors).
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Blade angle: The angle between the chord line and the plane of rotation.
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Blade damper: Diminsh/dampe blade oscillation around the drag hinge.
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Collective pitch control: controls the pitch of all rotor blades equally and simultaneously.
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Coning angle: the angle between the blade feathering axis and the plane of rotation
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Coriolis effect: The tendency of a mass to increase or decrease its angular velocity when its
radius of rotation is shortened or lengthened.
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Cyclic pitch control: changes the pitch angle of the rotor blades during a revolution to control the
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tilt of the rotor disc and therefore, the direction and velocity of horizontal flight.
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Dissymmetry of lift: unequal lift due the difference in the velocity of air over the advancing blade
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and retreating blade of the rotor.
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Flapping: Vertical movement of the blade on the plane of rotation.
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Freewheeling unit: the power transmission component which automatically disconnect the main
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rotor from the engine when the engine RPM drops.
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Swashplate: is composed of two rings with a ball in the middle and the lower ring doesn’t
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rotate.The upper ring can swing forward-backwards and sideways, it is pushed by the lower ring
and is in agreement (Crankshaft and Control of collective and cyclic pitch)
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Gyroscopic precession: According to this principle ‘’ a force applied to a rotating body acts at 90
after the application point of the same force in the direction of the rotor spin’’
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Other aspects related to the operation of helicopters
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Autorotation descent without engine power, converting the “altitude” kinetic energy into main
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rotor rotation power for safe landing.
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Ground effect: when the helicopter distance from the ground less than the diameter of the main
rotor.
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Vortex ring state: is a hazardous condition for a helicopter in flight which occurs when the
helicopter is descending is equal to the value of the speed induced by the rotor.
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Vibration: It’s a typical problem in helicopters, where many rotating parts are installed their
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rotation with different RPM causes some vibrations at different frequencies and magnitudes.
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Low frequency vibrations: until 500 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒(from the main rotor rotation)
High frequency vibrations: more than 2000 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 (from engine and tail rotor.
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Chapter 13,2
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STRUCTURE – GENERAL CONCEPTS
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Foundamentals of structural systems
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The design concepts of structures and components, can be classified in three categories:
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• The fail safe concept
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• The safe life concept
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• The damage tolerance concept
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Fail safe concept: the structure should have a certain residual strength, even if the failure of a
component happens (other structural members must support the load of the failed component)
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Safe life concept: used in critical systems which are designed to work for years without repairs.
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Damage tolerance concept: admits the possibility to have some cracks in structures, such as
fatigue cracks, without compromising the safety of an aircraft during its planned mission.
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The design concepts of structures and components, can be classified in three categories:
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• The fail safe concept
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• The safe life concept
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• The damage tolerance concept
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Fail safe concept: the structure should have a certain residual strength, even if the failure of a
component happens (other structural members must support the load of the failed component)
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Safe life concept: used in critical systems which are designed to work for years without repairs.
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Damage tolerance concept: admits the possibility to have some cracks in structures, such as
fatigue cracks, without compromising the safety of an aircraft during its planned mission.
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The relation between stresses and induced strains for linear elastic materials is
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expressed by the Hooke’s law
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σ=E*Ɛ
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• There are 5 kinds of stress to which all aircraft are subjected:
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- The tension - The torsion
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- The compression - The shear
- The bending
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Landing gears of airplanes and helicopters
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The landing gear of an airplane is made of a series of components, the element
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that absorbs the energy during the touch down is the shock absorber..
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• Regarding the landing gears with wheels, the most basic configuration is the
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tricycle landing gear; it can be fore try-cycle (the most common) and rear try-cycle
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The landing gear of an airplane is made of a series of components:
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• The shock absorber
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• The brake
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• The wheel
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• The tire
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• The torque link (is a typical element of landing gear with wheels)
• Some possible devices of extraction and retraction
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Fundamentals of structural systems: regulations
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Airworthiness
The airworthiness certifies the ability of an aircraft to fly. Airworthiness refers to
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the status of an aircraft, which is congruent with the approved standards,
modified according to specifications approved by the authority or which is in
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accordance with the mandatory maintenance and has no inadequate parts
installed. All these conditions are mandatory.
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The certificate of airworthiness attests that, in a specific moment, the aircraft has
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been checked and declared able to fly by an assigned subject. An aircraft with an
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expired certificate must not fly.
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Zonal and station identification systems
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• In the frame location system the main manufacturer’s reference system
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includes 3 principal coordinates:
1. Station line: reference point near the aircraft nose
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2. Buttock line or butt line: reference point on the longitudinal axis
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3. Water line: reference line near the lower part of the fuselage
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Electrical bonding
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• The bonding is the electrical connection of two or more conducting objects.
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The main aim of the bonding is that to eliminate the potential differences among
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different points of the structure, making it at the same potential
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• Moreover, all electrical systems, present on board of an aircraft, must be adequately
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ground connected, with the aims:
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1. To protect aircraft and personnel from hazards of lighting discharge
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2. To protect personnel from shock hazards
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3. To prevent the development of potential radio interferences
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Electrical bonding
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The primary bonding test results are taken considering the control surface and external
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metal components between the part of the primary structure as near as possible to the
aircraft nose reference point and the:
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• Structure of the engine (2 milliOhms)
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• Structure of the APU (2 milliOhms)
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• Radar antenna (5 milliOhms)
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Actuators and uplock assemblies of the landing gear (500 milliOhms)
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The primary bonding test results values are reported considering the fuel system between
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the adjacent structure and:
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• Internal equipment of the fuel tanks (10 milliOhms)
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• External equipment of the fuel tanks (50 milliOhms)
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• Stainless steel pipes (100 milliOhms)
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Lightning strike protection provision
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Generally, modern airliners are constructed with aluminum outer skin or with conductive
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paints, which conduct the electricity very well and it is dispersed in the atmosphere.
Moreover, for this scope on wings some discharges of electricity are installed.
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The functions of the protection system are to:
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• Prevent penetration of the exterior skin into fuel vapor and other critical safety areas.
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•
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Prevent puncturing of low conductivity composite structures .
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• Prevent arcing and sparking or limit the movement of electrical charges to the
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exterior surfaces of the aircraft.
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Chapter 13,3
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AUTOFLIGHT
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Autoflight
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Introduction:
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• Automatic Flight Control (AFCS) is a system designed to automatically lead a flight.
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• Maintian the aircraft on a predetermined path without the need for continuous pilot actions
on controls. This system is called autopilot.
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The main purposes of a modern autopilot are:
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• An increase in the aircraft stability control.
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It follows a more precise flight path than the pilot at constant attitude.
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• A safe flight conduct (consistent response and fast reaction time in 0,16 sec VS pilot 0,8 sec )
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The possibility for the pilot to concentrate on other flight functions.
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Autoflight
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The autopilot system can be divided into sections.
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• First section provides data, Attitude Reference System (AHRS).
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• Second section processing and analysis of data. FCC Flight Control
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Computer that controls the aircraft.
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• Third section are the actuators, they convert electrical energy into
mechanical one.
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Autoflight
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• The autopilot system is composed of:
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• Sensors able to detect the aircraft movements.
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• Comparators and amplifiers for the generated signal.
• Control units.
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• Servo-actuators connected to control surfaces.
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• Control panel, through which the pilot manually inserts data in the system
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• The autopilot system is usually connected with different system, such as AHRS (Attitude
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Heading Reference System), ADC (Air data Computer), CDU (Control Display Unit) of the
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FMS (Flight Management System), FADEC(Full Authority Digital Engine) and all navigation
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systems
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Autoflight
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Servomechanism and control theory principles
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In general, the control logic can be:
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Open-loop control Closed-loop control
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Servomechanism an automatic control system is classified as “servomechanism”, when it:
• Closed-loop control
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• Error actuation
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• Continuous operation properties
• Power amplification
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Autoflight- Servomechanism and control theory principles
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Servomechanism used in automatic flight control systems Servos are important elements in
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AFCS. Servomotors drive the control surface or the selection of hydraulic units and can be of
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different types:
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• Basic displacement systems: these servos have a position feedback only. They are the simplest
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type of servos and their disadvantage is represented by the stability of the response.
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• Rate/rate systems: if the aircraft is subjected to a disturbance, this will be detected by the rate
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gyro, which output is proportional to the rate of disturbance. The signal will be applied to the
amplifier and then to the servomotor.
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• Displacement/rate systems: they are combinations of basic displacement systems and rate/rate
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systems.
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Fundamentals of automatic flight control
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Flight Director
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A fundamental component generally connected to the Flight Control Computer (FCC). It
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processes command signals for the capture and the conservation, in automatic or manual way,
of the radio navigation path, the conservation of the horizontal and vertical flight and the
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conservation of the altitude. In other words, the flight director ensure the running of a safe
flight.
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The Flight Director is usually made of 4 components:
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• Flight Director Computer (FDC): It processes all information flowing in it and sent to the
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cockpit displays and to the AFCS (Automatic Flight Control System).
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• A signal amplifier : converts of the computer outputs into commands of position.
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• A MSU (Mode Selector Unit). Through this device the pilot can select the mode of functioning
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• Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA): provides a visual reminder of the FD on EFIS screen.
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Autoflight - Actuators
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Actuators can be:
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• Electro-hydraulic : converting the electrical control signal coming from the autopilot
computer unit into a hydraulic one The follow-up signal is provided to the autopilot
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computer by the autopilot actuator position sensor, called Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
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• Electro-mechanical (servomotors) :) may be powered either by direct current (DC) or
alternate current (AC).
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• Electro-pneumatic: pneumatic power takenfrom a source, such as an engine driven by
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pump or a compressor connected to the turbine engine.
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Autoflight : AHRS and CDU
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• The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) is made of a series of 3-axis sensors
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that provide information about the heading, the attitude and the yaw of the
aircraft, measuring the attitude, the angular and linear movements
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• A modern AHRS is a strap-down system that exploits solid state gyros and
accelerometers. A strap down system is a system in which the sensors are in
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agreement with the aircraft axes without the presence of hinges
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• Other input data to the autopilot system can be inserted in a manual way directly
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by the pilot, through the Control Display Unit (CDU).
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Autoflight – ADC,FADEC,PSEU
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The air data computer (ADC): is an essential avionic component installed in modern glass
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cockpits. The ADC is mainly constituted by a calculator, which takes care of the processing
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of various air parameters (from Pitot tube or other)
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The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) is a system consisting of a calculator and
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many sensors, which control all aspects of aircraft engine performance during their
operation. Its connection with autopilot is very important to guarantee the efficient
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response of the engine in any flight condition.
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The Proximity Switch Electronic Unit (PSEU) is a system that communicates the position or
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the state of different aircraft system components (such as for example flaps, gear, doors,
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etc) to control and management systems, such as the autopilot.
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Autoflight – classification
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A first classification of modern autopilot systems is based on the number of controlled axis:
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• 1 axis (roll axis).
• 2 axis (roll and pitch axis).
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• 3 axis (roll, pitch and yaw axis).
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• A system is called fail-passive (or fail-soft), when it is able to withstand a
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malfunctioning, without endangering passenger safety and without producing
excessive deviations from the flight path.
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• A system is called fail-active (or fail-operational), if its malfunctioning doesn’t reduce
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the total functionality of the system. In a fail-active system a failure can occur, but it
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leaves the entire system still working, without degrading its performances.
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Autoflight – Auto throttle systems
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The auto throttle system is an electronic circuit that controls the engine thrust within
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engine design parameters (i.e RPM EPR and consumption)
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• The auto throttle system is independent to the autopilot system, but it is typically coupled
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with it
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THRUST mode:
• Engine is maintained at a fixed power set according to the different flight phases.
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SPEED mode:
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• The throttle is positioned in order to reach a given speed.
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Automatic landing systems
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• The modern autopilot systems are also able to manage fully the landing procedure, in
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completely automatic way. To do this, they utilize the signals of the Instrument Landing
System (ILS).
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• In the case in which the system isn’t able to couple the ILS signal, the pilot will see the
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warning “Autoland fault”.
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• If the auto-land system notices some data inconsistencies, an indicator will signal to pilot
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the writing “Approach only”, informing him about the impossibility to do the auto-land.
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Helicopter autopilot
a c s _
r s
The autopilot systems for the helicopters are different from those of the
t i
airplanes, because the commands, that permit the flight conduct, are different
According to the number of commands, which the system is able to control and
o w
to manage, it can have:
s
- Tri-channel systems, with 3 control channels (channel of lateral cyclic, channel
e
of longitudinal cyclic and channel of the rudder bar)
c
- Quadri-channel systems, with 4 control channels (channel of lateral cyclic,
a s
channel of longitudinal cyclic, channel of the rudder bar and collective pitch
r is
channel).
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 42 w

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Stability augmentation system in helicopters
a c s _
The Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs) can operate in coupling with the Flight Director
r is
system.
o t
•
w
The SASs increase the stability and the maneuverability of the helicopter in presence of
wind and turbulence and maintain constant the helicopter attitude.
s
• The stabilization is obtained through some electro-mechanical actuators, positioned in
e
series of the cyclic pitch and the control of the tail rotor.
c s
• If the Flight Director is a 4-channel system, the autopilots have the possibility to carry out
a
at constant speed some precision maneuvers.
tr is
• The Flight Director can only operate on the cyclic pitch by slowing or accelerating the
o
helicopter in order to loose or to gather attitude, it is therefore impossible to conduct a
i w
precision approach in an automatic way.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 43

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tr a is s
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ce
a s
Chapter 13,4
tr is
COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 44 w

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Comunication and navigation frequencies
a c s
tr is
According to the mode of propagation employ waves are
classified in:
o w
Ground waves: (VLF and LF waves) leave the transmitter and
s
travel close to the ground, following the curvature of the
Earth and using the property of the diffraction.
e
Sky waves: (MF and HF bands) return to Earth through the
c
refraction that interests different layers of theionosphere.
r a is s
Direct waves: (VHF and UFH) the direct waves follow a path
t
similar to the line of sight, and so their range is limited by the
curvature of the Earth.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 45 w

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Antennas
a
•
c
Antennas are devices made of conductor materials. They have the purpose to
s _
r s
irradiate or to pick up the electromagnetic waves. The antennas are able to convert
t i
the electromagnetic field into an electrical signal or vice versa in order to irradiate
the electrical signal they are powered with.
o w
The main characteristics of an antenna are:
s
• The directivity
e
• The gain
• The polarization
c
• The opening and the polarization diagram
a s
• The efficiency
r is
• The characteristic impedance
t
• The length of the antenna.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 46 w

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Antennas
a
•
c s _
The directivity of an aerial is the capacity of an antenna to irradiate or to pick up signals
r is
in a specific direction. The directivity of an aerial, in a particular direction, is defined as
t
the ratio between the intensity of the radiation, sent in this direction, and the total
o
power, irradiated in all directions
s w
• The gain of an antenna provides information about the capacity of transmission and
receipt of the analyzed antenna, comparing it with an omni-directional aerial. The gain is
e
expressed in dB (is a logarithmic scale)
c
• The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio between the irradiated power and the
a s
input power accepted by the feeding cable of the antenna
tr is
• Type of antennas: many types , the simplest kind of the antenna used for the radio
o
communications is called dipole or dipole antenna. It is made of two arms of equal
i w
opening realized with an electrical linear conductor
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 47

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Radome
a c s _
r s
• The radome is a structure used to protect the antennas from the
t i
atmospheric phenomena, such as the wind, the rain, the ice, etc.
o s w
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 48 w
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Fundamentals of transmission lines
a c
The transmission line is a circuit that permits the energy transfer between the
s _
r is
generator and the antenna.
o t w
There are many different types of transmission lines:
• Bifilar
s
• Coaxial
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 49 w
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Modulation
a c
The most common types of modulation, used in the aeronautical field, are:
s _
tr is
• AM (Amplitude Modulation)
• FM (Frequency Modulation)
o w
• Pulse modulation
s
The AM modulates the amplitude of the carrier wave, in a proportional way to the amplitude
e
of the modulating signal. The frequency of the carrier wave is the same of that of the
modulated signal.
a c s
The FM modulates the frequency of the carrier wave, in a proportional way to the amplitude
r
of the modulating signal.
t is
The main types of pulse modulation are PAM, PWM and PCM.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 50 w

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Modulation
a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o
PAM technique
Rev.04 Pag. 51
PWM technique
w
PCM technique
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Transmitter
c s _
• The fundamental components of a transmitter are: oscillator, modulator, amplifier and antenna.
tr a is
• The oscillator: generate the carrier wave on which the real signal will travel. It is an electronic
circuit that generates numerous wave shapes. There are two categories of oscillators:
o w
- Harmonic oscillator, also called sinusoidal
- Oscillator at relaxation
e s
• In the radio transmitters the generated wave has a sinusoidal shape and a frequency generally
included between 100 KHz and 10 GHz.
a c s
• The modulator is used to modulate the carrier wave, in order to permit the signal transmission.
r is
The type of modulation depends on the characteristics of the signal to send (a voice analogue
t
signal or a digital one).
i o w
• The amplifier is the device able to perform this process and it must have characteristics
adequate to the frequency of the carrier wave. The amplification is essential in order to avoid
the attenuation of the useful signal.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 52

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Receiver
a
•
c s
The receiver is composed of an antenna, a filter, which permits the passage of the
_
r s
desired signal only and stops interferences, an amplifier and a device able to execute
t i
the demodulation.
o w
• The demodulation is the re-establishment of the original characteristics on the
s
modulating wave.
e
• The sensitivity of a radio receiver is represented by its ability to amplify weak signals. It
c
is defined in terms of the voltage that must be applied to the receiver input terminals in
order to obtain a standard output power, measured at the output terminals. Sensitivity
a s
is normally expressed in microvolts or in decibels below 1V.
tr is
• The selectivity of a receiver allows to differentiate between the desired signal and all
unwanted adjacent channel signals.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 53 w

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HF communication system
a c s _
In the aeronautical field, the HF communications between 3 to 30 MHz are used for long
r s
range communications, such as the oceanic communications.
o t i
• The HF radio waves guarantee a long range of the signal, which is caused by the signal
w
refraction of the high layers of the ionosphere
s
• This radio can operate in 3 different modes, selectable through a specific knob: AM, USB, e
e
LSB
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 54 w
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Working principles of ELT
c s _
•
a
The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency
r
self-contained and self-powered radio transmitter, designed
t is
to transmit a signal on the international emergency
frequency. It is automatically activated in case of aircraft
o
impact or by a remote switch in the cockpit.
s w
• The batteries must be able to supply power, necessary for
the signal transmission, for at least 48 hours.
ce
• There are two transmission methods: digital and analogue.
s
The digital transmission at 406 MHz in UHF has usually a
a
longer range, while the analogue one at 121.5 MHz is more
r is
reliable.
o t
• The devices working at 406 MHz transmit sequences of
i w
digital information to orbiting satellites, and they can also
contain a small integrated analogue 121.5 MHz beacon.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 55

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Flight Deck Information System
a c s _
r
On aircraft some recording devices are installed with the scope to study the happened accidents
t is
and to prevent their repeated occurrence.
o
The recording devices are divided into:
s w
• FDR (Flight Data Recorder)
• CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder)
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 56 w
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FDR
c s _
•
a
In accordance with JAR-OPS 1, a commercial transport airplane must carry a FDR,
which uses a digital method of recording and storing flight data.
tr is
• The parameters, vary according to the maximum certificated take-off mass and to the
o
age of the aircraft.
w
•
s
All parameters of all aircraft system must be recorded with a common reference time
scale.
e
• The data must be obtained from the various airplane sources, which will have accurate
c
correlation with the information displayed to the flight crew.
a s
• FDR is contained in a shockproof box that is able to sustain extremely high impact
r is
forces and high temperatures.
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 57 w

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CVR
a
•
c s _
In accordance with EU-OPS 1, a commercial transport aircraft must carry a CVR that must
r s
be able to record 4 channels of audio data:
o t i
All radio voice communications transmitted from or received by the flight crew members
s w
• The audio environment of the cockpit, including the cockpit conversation.
e
• Voice communications, done through the airplane interphone system between the
cockpit and the cabin.
c s
•
a
All voice signals or other audio signals related to the identification of navigation or
approach aids.
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 58 w
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NDB and ADF
a c
Non Directional Frequency (NDB):
s _
r s
• It is a ground-based transmitter that transmitter that transmits radio waves at low
t i
frequencies equally in all directions.
o
• In order to operate it must be coupled with an airborne system.
w
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF):
s
• The ADF receiver receives and processes the signal from the selected radio station (NDB)
• The ADF measures the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the line that
e
connects the aircraft and the NDB station. This angle is called relative bearing
c
• The transmission of waves is subjected to the variation of the height of the ionosphere
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 59 w
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Working principles of VOR and DME
a c
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR): used as radio-aid in short and medium range.
s _
r s
• Operates in the VHF band on frequencies ranging between 108𝑀𝐻𝑧 and 117,95𝑀𝐻𝑧.
o t i
• Transmits two signals:
w
– First signal, modulated in amplitude at 30𝐻𝑧.
s
– Second signal, modulated in frequency at 30𝐻𝑧.
e
The frequencies between 108 and 111.95 MHz are primarily used for the localizers of
c
the Instrument Landing System (ILS) and for the short-range VORs. The localizers use
s
only the frequencies with odd numbers at the first decimal digit, while the short range
a
VORs use only those with even numbers.
r is
• The frequencies ranging from 112.00 and 117.95 are solely used by medium-range
t
VOR, both on odd and even decimals.
o
• The signals transmitted by the VOR provide radials. The radials are tracks
i w
originating from the ground transmitter and numbered from 1 to 360.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 60

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Working principles of VOR and DME
a c s _
r s
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME):
o t i
• A navigational radio-aid that provides the aircraft slant distance from a ground station.
s w
• Usually, the DME is used in conjunction with a radio-aid that gives bearing information.
In civil aviation the DME ground station has been designed to be co-located with a VOR.
ce
• Operates from 960𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 1215𝑀𝐻𝑧.
a s
• It is based on the direct wave propagation. The maximum real range of the DME is about
r is
200𝑁𝑀 − 300𝑁𝑀. The accuracy of the DME decreases with increase of range
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 61 w

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ILS
c s _
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
a
• ILS system comprises three different elements.
tr is
• Localizer: provides lateral steering signals for front course
approaches to the runway. Transmits in VHF band, between
o w
108,1MHz and 111,95MHz, odd frequencies.
• Glide slope: provides vertical steering signals for landing in one
s
direction on the runway. It transmits in the UHF band from
329,15MHz to 335𝑀𝐻𝑧.
ce
• Two or three radio markers beacons with a vertical transmission:
s
 Outer marker.
a
 Inner marker.
tr is
 Middle marker.
 Markers provides spot checks of position at predetermined
i o w
distances from the threshold of the runway.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 62

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Working principles of ILS
a c s _
The glide slope receiver is essentially a UHF receiver in the frequency band 328.6𝑀𝐻𝑧 to
r
335.4𝑀𝐻𝑧 with 150𝑘𝐻𝑧 spacing between channels.
t is
The signal of the glide slope is composed by two signals:
o w
• One signal modulated at 90𝐻𝑧
• One signal modulated at 150𝐻𝑧.
s
• The localizer and the glide slope signals can be divided into two ideal lobes, one modulated at
e
150𝐻𝑧 and the other modulated at 90𝐻𝑧.
• The course signal is obtained when two signals are received with equal intensity.
c
• The 150𝐻𝑧 modulated signal prevails on one side of the runway centerline (blue area), while the
a s
90𝐻𝑧 modulated signal prevails on the other side (yellow area).
tr is
ILS cockpit indicator:
• The operational frequency of the system is selected through the same selector that is used for
i o w
the VOR.
• When it tunes the localizer frequency, the system automatically sets the corresponding glide
slope frequency.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 63

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ILS: critical and sensitive areas
a c
Critical and the sensitive areas
s _
r s
• The ILS critical area is an area of defined dimensions, identified around the localizer and the
t i
glide slope antennas.
– This area protects the functioning of the ILS from unacceptable disturbances caused by
o w
the presence of vehicle and aircraft.
• The ILS sensitive area extends beyond the critical one. In this sector the movements or the
s
parking of aircraft are controlled, in order to prevent that they interfere with the system
e
operation.
c
Markers:
a s
• The purpose of the markers is to provide distance
r is
information, while the aircraft is doing the approach
t
procedure.
• All markers emits a signal at the operative frequency of
o
75 𝑀ℎ𝑧. The signals of the each marker differ each other
i w
due to the different modulation
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 64

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ILS: categories
a c s _
With reference to the degree of reliability of the ILS, the systems can be divided into 3
r s
categories: cat I, cat II e cat III. The parameters, which characterize every category, are
t i
the values of the decision height (DH) and of the runway visual range (RVR).
o w
• A system of CAT I provides information below a decision height of 200 ft (about 60
m), when the RVR is greater than 550 m.
e s
• A system of CAT II can be used until a decision height of 100 ft (30 m) is reached,
when the RVR is greater than 300 m.
a c s
• The category III of the ILS can be divided in 3 sub-categories: III A, III B, III C. The
r is
system of CAT III A can be used when the decision height is less than 100 ft and when
t
the RVR is greater than 200 m. The system of CAT III B provides guide information
until a decision height of 50 ft (about 15 m), when the RVR is less than 200 m, but
o w
not less than 75 m. The system of CAT III C operates without limitations regarding the
i
decision height and the RVR.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 65

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Working principles of VL frequency and hyperbolic navigation
c _
systems
r a s s
Hyperbolic systems:
t i
• Of radio-navigation are all navigational systems that use the geometric proprieties of the
hyperbole in order to calculate the aircraft position.
o w
•
s
In order to guarantee a correct calculation of the aircraft position, the main characteristic
of all hyperbolic navigational system is the synchronization of the different ground station.
ce
The main hyperbolic navigation systems are:
– The Loran: Transmits signals in LF band, at a frequency of 100𝐾𝐻𝑧.
a s
– The Omega.
r is
– The Decca.
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 66 w

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Loran
a
Loran C:
c s _
r s
• Based on a series of chains of ground stations that emit a signal which is then processed
t i
by the airborne equipment of aircraft
• Uses 27 chains of stations.
o w
• Each chain is made of a main station, called master, and of a variable number of
s
secondary stations, called slave.
• The minimum number of the slave for each chain is two, while the maximum number is
e
four.
Decca:
c
• The Decca was a hyperbolic radio-navigational system, initially used in the Northern
a s
Europe during the Second World War. This system transmitted continuous radio waves at
r is
low frequencies (LF).
t
• In order to determine the aircraft position, the Decca used a comparison of the received
signals’ phases, similarly to the OMEGA system
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 67 w

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Decca
a c s _
r s
• The Decca was a hyperbolic radio-navigational system, initially used in the
t i
Northern Europe during the Second World War. This system transmitted
o
continuous radio waves at low frequencies (LF).
s w
• In order to determine the aircraft position, the Decca used a comparison of
the received signals’ phases, similarly to the OMEGA system
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 68 w
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Doppler effect
a c s _
r
The Doppler effects is an apparent variation of the frequency of the radio waves, due to the
t is
relative motion of the source of the waves in relation to an observer
• Apparent increase in frequency: when the transmitter moves towards the receiver
o w
• Apparent decrease in frequency: when the transmitter moves away from the receiver
e s
a c s
tr is
• Doppler navigation: operation The Doppler navigation is a navigational self-contained method
o
independent from the ground radio-aids. The Doppler navigational system uses the Doppler
i w
effect to calculate the position of the aircraft in the space.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 69

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FMS
a c s _
The main task of the FMS is that to assist the pilot in the flight management, doing, in an
r s
automatic and optimal way, many activities, which otherwise he must do manually:
o t i
• To integrate and to manage the information provided by all used navigational systems in all
w
flight phases
s
• To calculate in real time the aircraft performances, in terms of ground speed, fuel
e
consumption, endurance. So it permits to reduce the operative costs of the flight mission
c s
• To manage in an interactive way the flight plan, according to the information provided by the
a
airborne systems and ATC
tr is
• To manage the autopilot system, in coupling with the data of the flight plan, in order to
o
follow the calculated and planned route in a fully automatic way
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 70 w

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GPS
a c s _
The GPS (Global Positioning System) is a global navigational satellite system, which provides
r s
the aircraft position in every point of the Earth
t i
• The dialogue between the satellites and the ground stations happens on 2 UHF frequencies:
1. The 2227.5 MHz, used to send the signals from ground towards satellites
o w
2. The 1783.74 MHz, used to receive in the stations the signals transmitted by the satellites
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 71 w
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LAAS
a c s _
r
•
s
The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an augmentation system of the GPS,
t i
based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal
o w
• The information provided by the LAAS system is used during the approach and landing
phases, because the precision reached by the LAAS systems is about 1 m.
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 72 w
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GNSS
a c s _
tr is
• The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a project in via of realization
that should join the operation of all the navigation satellite systems, such as
o w
the American system (GPS), the Russian GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite
System), and the European system (Galileo), in order to permit the true
s
global navigation.
e
• This big system should permit the navigation in any point of the Earth, and
c
in any flight phase, through a unique system
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 73 w
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PSR
a
•
c s
The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) is the first instrument for the exercise
_
r s
of the Air Traffic Control (ATC).
t i
• The PSR operates receiving the signal reflected by the aircraft.
•
o
The PSR has the advantage to detect and to determine the position of every
w
not cooperative target that reflects the radio signals.
•
s
The PSR isn’t able to identify any aircraft.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 74 w
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SSR
c s _
• The Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the main instrument for the exercise of the Air
a
Traffic Control (ATC).
tr is
• Unlike the PSR, the SSR requests the active collaboration of the aircraft, which must
o
receive the signal and respond with another one.
s w
• The SSR interrogations are sent in the form of a group of 3 pulses, called P1, P2 and P3.
The spacing between the P1 and P2 is constant and it measures 2 microseconds.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 75 w
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SSR and transponder
a c s _
• The transponder emits 3 pulses: P1; P2; P3
r s
• The spacing between P1 and P2 is 2 micro seconds.
t i
• The spacing between P1 and P3 pulses, transmitted by the radar antenna, is set at a
value of response of the transponder:
o w
1. The mode A with a spacing of 8 microseconds
s
2. The mode C with a spacing of 21 microseconds
All radar interrogations are transmitted at a frequency of 1030 MHz, while all transponder
e
responses are transmitted at a frequency of 1090 MHz.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 76 w
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TCAS
a c s _
r
•
s
The TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) is a system that operates in connection with a
t i
normal transponder, informing the flight crew about the presence of other aircraft in the
surrounding airspace only if it is equipped with a transponder, and regarding time and
o w
distance of possible collision
s
• The TCAS transceiver of an aircraft periodically interrogates the transponder of the other
aircraft, in order to identify the presence of the airplane and to recognize the characteristics.
e
This aircraft, in situation of possible collision, is called intruder.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 77 w
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TCAS
a c s _
r s
• In case of possible collision, the TCAS emits two different signals:
o t i
1. The TA alarm, generated by all TCAS generations, provides to pilots the direction of arrival
w
and the relative distance of the intruder. This type of alarm will be generated on cockpit
displays, in the case in which the estimated collision point is between 20 e 48 seconds, in
s
accordance to the speed and altitude of the aircraft.
e
2. The RA alarm is generated when the intruder is at about 15-35 seconds form the
c
hypothetical collision point, according to the altitude of the aircraft
r a is s
3. TCAS II: it can provide the Resolution Advisory (RA) for the horizontal and vertical plane
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Weather radar
a c s _
A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, to calculate its motion,
tr is
to estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.)
• Check the aircraft position in relation to the ground
o
•
w
The weather radar of the aircraft sends some directional pulses in the band of
microwaves. The frequency commonly used is the 9375 𝑀𝐻𝑧
s
• It is important to remember that the Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), that is very dangerous
for the flight safety, cannot be detected by the weather radar, because it isn’t
e
associated with any meteorological phenomena.
c
• It mainly identifies the cumulonimbus
s
• Another function of this instrument is ground mapping
a
• The pencil-shaped beam is used for weather scope
tr is
• It doesn’t measure the height of the elements of the underneath ground
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 79 w

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Weather radar
a c s _
r
•
s
The weather radar antenna can move up or down from its neutral position of about 10°
t i
• The precipitations are represented with colours, for example high intensity are RED
colour, heavy in MAGENTA and black if the intensity of precipitation is less than 0.7
o w
mm/h .
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 80 w
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Radio altimeter
a c s _
r s
• The radio altimeter measures the vertical distance between the aircraft and the ground,
t i
with the scope to provide to the pilot an information about the underneath terrain. The
radio altimeter is used in the approach phase
o w
• The radio altimeter compares the frequency of the received signal with the frequency of
s
the transmitted signal, because this difference is proportional to the time and the
e
distance travelled by the emitted signal with the frequency between 4200 and 4400 Mhz.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 81 w
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tr a is s
o s w
ce
a s
Chapter 13,5
tr is
ELECTRICAL POWER
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 82 w

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Battery installation and operation
a
Battery:
c s _
r s
• A battery (better a “battery pack”) is made of:
t i
– A group of electrochemical cells, utilized to transform the stocked chemical energy
o
into electrical one.
w
– These are connected in series, so that the voltage of the single elements is added.
s
The batteries provide Direct Current (DC).
The most significant parameters are:
e
• The capacity, expressed in Ampere-hour [𝐴ℎ], indicates the quantity of stored electrical
c
energy that the battery can deliver from its state of complete charge to its discharged
state
a s
• The produced energy, expressed in Watt-hour [𝑊ℎ], indicates the product between the
r is
capacity of a cell and its voltage
t
• The energy density, expressed in Watt-hour per Kilogram [𝑊ℎ/𝑘𝑔], indicates how much
o
energy is produced by a single cell of battery for each its kilogram.
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 83 w

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a c
Nickel-Cadmium batteries
s _
r s
• The Nickel-Cadmium batteries consist of a steel case containing some cells connected in series.
t i
• The positive electrode is made of nickel hydroxide and the negative one is made of cadmium
o
hydroxide.
w
• The electrolyte is a water solution of potassium hydroxide.
s
• Each cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force of about 1.2𝑉.
• Constant charging current is used, battery cells are kept in a balanced condition. No excessive
e
gassing.
c
Silver-Zinc batteries
• The silver-zinc batteries are very expensive and for this reason they are used on aircraft only in
a s
the emergency condition.
r is
• The two electrodes (one electrode made of silver dust and one made of zinc) are drowned in
t
the electrolyte, which is a water solution of potassium hydroxide.
o
• Each cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force of about 1.7 V
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 84 w

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c s _
The specific gravity of electrolyte decrease is affected by temperature increase.
r a
A battery cell is considered fully discharged when:
t is
• The voltage falls to 1,8𝑉.
• The specific gravity is reduced to its minimum value, which is established by the manufacturer.
o w
Instead a battery cell is considered fully charged when:
• The voltage reaches 2,7𝑉.
s
• The specifica gravity increases until its maximum value.
e
• The presence of gassing phenomenon (stream of bubbles from the cell).
c
Battery room tests:
The main tests performed on lead-acid and Nickel-Cadmium batteries are:
•
•
tr
Capacity test.
a
Cell balance test (only for Nickel-Cadmium
•
•
Intallation test.
Cell vent pressure test.
is s
o w
batteries).
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 85

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DC power generation
a c
Starter generator:
s _
tr is
• The dynamo has the main advantage of being reversible:
• It can also be used in opposite way. In fact, the dynamo is able to produce
o w
mechanical work starting form electrical energy
• Connecting the heads of the wires to the commutator through some wiggling
s
brushes, it is possible to obtain as output a constant current.
ce
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 86 w
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AC power generation
a c s _
r s
AC generator structure and functioning:
t i
• On civil aircrafts of big and medium dimensions the primary system is designed in AC.
• The AC, generated on aircraft, has usually a voltage of 115𝑉 − 200𝑉 and a frequency of
o w
400𝐻𝑧.
• They are connected in parallel.
s
• The variable magnetic field is generated by a permanent magnet that rotates. In this way its
e
magnetic field cuts the stationary wires, so producing an alternating voltage output
• Generator Control Unit (GCU) is a component of the A/C generators.
c
• The GCU regulates the output of the generator.
a s
• These alternators present considerable advantages in terms of wear and sparking: Less
r is
maintenance costs, High performance stability, Better performances at high altitude
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AC power generation
a c s _
r s
Constant frequency system :the output at constant frequency can be obtained in two different
t i
ways
o w
1- CSD (Constant Speed Drive) and IDG (Integrated Drive Generator) that drive the generator at
a constant RPM independently from the engine RPM.
e s
2-Using a VSCF generator: it is able to produce a constant frequency output thanks the presence
of a double conversion state solid system.
a c s
In some cases the CSD is integrated to the brushless generator in a single unit. This device is
r
called Integrated Drive Generator (IDG).
t is
It is important to note that the VSCF generators are designed to replace the IDGs, and
i o w
consequently they don’t required any changes in the aircraft wiring and plumbing
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Emergency power generation
a c s _
r s
In case the AC generators fail, alternative devices must be installed on aircraft:
t i
• APU (Auxiliary Power Unit).
• HMS (Hydraulic Motor Generator).
o w
• RAT (Ram Air Turbine).
s
• EPU (Emergency Power Unit).
• Back-up generators.
ce
APU (Auxiliary Power Unit):
• A small gas turbine engine able to provide pneumatic output and electrical power.
a s
• The characteristics of the APU depend on the type/size of aircraft and they are detailed in
r is
the aircraft manuals.
t
• A dedicated battery connected to battery charger activates the APU.
o
• Used to provide energy when the aircraft is on ground during servicing and maintenance
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operations.
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Emergency power generation
a c s _
r s
Ram Air Turbine (RAM):
t i
• The RAT (Ram Air Turbine) is a small turbine that in case of the loss
of both primary and auxiliary power sources will power the vital
o w
systems.
• The RAT generates power from the airstream (or ram air) due to the
s
speed of the aircraft.
e
• The capacity of the electrical generator is usually 7.5 𝑘𝑉𝐴 (6𝑊).
Hydraulic Motor Generator (HMG):
c
• Drives aircraft generator when a total loss of electrical power
a s
occures.
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Emergency Power Unit (EPU):
t
• A turbine activated by a chemical reaction of hydrazine.
• Usually installed on military aircraft and it can operate for short
i o w
period.
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Power distribution
a c s _
Bus bars:
tr is
• The generated electrical energy is distributed to users through bus-bars.
•
o
A copper bar that connects the power generation system to the users
w
• In the electrical system various independent bus-bars exits.
s
• Each of them powers a specific number of users according to their importance in the flight
safety.
ce
AC distribution system:
• Split bus bar systems, in which each generator supplies its dedicated bus bar.
a s
• Parallel generating system, in which generators operate in parallel.
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• Slip parallel system, is a combination of the previous systems.
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Inverters, transformers and rectifiers
a
Inverter:
c s _
r s
• An electrical device that converts DC to AC and may vary the voltage.
t i
• The inverters can be divided in two categories:
o
– Dynamic or rotating inverters.
w
• Has an armature rotating in a common field system.
s
• The DC input is provided by a commutator, while the AC output is obtained from
three slip rings.
e
• The output is a three phase, characterized by 115𝑉 and 400𝐻𝑧.
c
– Static inverters.
s
• A solid state inverter with no moving parts.
a
• Static inverters are located in an electrical equipment bay.
tr is
• In the cockpit there is a remote on/off switch is used by the pilot to isolate the
inverter, when needed.
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Inverters, transformers and rectifiers
a c s _
Transformer:
r s
• A transformer is an electrical converter static device.
t i
• Converts the AC current at a particular voltage and frequency into another AC
current at different voltage but same frequency.
o w
• A transformer is made of two electrical conductors wrapped on a ring of magnetic
iron material called core.
s
Transformer Rectifier Units:
e
• Composed of a transformer with windings which have the task of lowering the
voltage from 115𝑉 to 28𝑉and some diodes which straighten the sinusoidal voltage
c
in constant voltage.
a s
• Used to charge batteries getting power from the AC generators.
r is
The main characteristics of the TRUs are:
t
• High overload capability.
• High efficiency, typically 90%.
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Circuit protection
c s _
Over-current:
a
• Conditions that happen in electrical circuits are those related to over-current.
tr is
• Particular cases of over-current are short circuits and overloads.
• Electrical systems must be protected against short circuits and overloads.
o w
• The devices responsible for this are:
– Fuses: A break off occurs when the passing current is too high.
s
– Breakers: heating causes deformation of the plate and the movement of a switch that can
e
be restored by pushing a button.
Current limiters:
c
Used in heavy duty power distribution circuits because they have a fusible element made of a
a s
single strip of tinned copper characterized by a high melting point.
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 94 w
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External and ground power
a c
The aircraft are generally equipped with 2 sockets, at
s _
r s
which the ground units must be connected:
o t i
1. An Alternating Current socket with 6 pins (for example the
w
other big pin, called A, guarantees the bonding)
s
2. A Direct Current socket with 3 pins (for example the big
e
central pin is that of the voltage
c
•
s
These sockets are positioned on the fuselage of the
a
aircraft, near the nose landing gear
tr is
• GPU: a mobile airport equipment that provides the
o
electrical power.
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Chapter 13,6
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EQUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
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Cabin entertainment equipment
a c s _
In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) or Passenger Entertainment System (PES) refers to the on-board
r s
entertainment available to passengers during a flight.
t i
• On long-range aircraft the IFE is provided by personal televisions installed on each passenger
seat
o w
• The IFE systems are usually isolated from the aircraft main electrical system
•
s
The screens of the cabin have a size from 5 to 42 inches
ce
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 97 w
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Cabin entertainment equipment
a c s _
r
•
s
The information displayed by the moving-map system is directly derived
t i
from the flight computer of the aircraft system
o s w
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 98 w
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Iridium network
a c s _
tr is
• In recent years, IFE has been expanded to include in-flight connectivity
services, such as Internet browsing, text messaging, emailing and phone
o w
usage (where permitted).
s
• All these functions are made via the Iridium satellite communication system.
e
It is a personal communication network based on satellites. The Iridium
network allows to send and receive voice and data messages in anywhere in
c
the world.
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 99 w
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Electronic emergency equipment
a c s _
tr is
There are also electronic devices employed for the aircraft localization and the
recovery of any parts or scraps. The main electronic emergency equipment are:
o w
• The Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)
e s
• Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB).
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 100 w
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ELT
a c s _
The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency self-contained and self-powered
r s
radio transmitter, designed to transmit a signal on international emergency frequencies
t i
(121.5MHz).
o
The ELT transmits continuously for three days, within a coverage range of about 150 NM.
w
For an aircraft with more than 19 passengers there must be at least one automatic ELT
e s
a c s
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01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 101 w
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ULB
a c s _
The ULB (Underwater Locator Beacon) consists of an electronic module, a transducer and a battery
r s
contained in a cylindrical aluminum case that is resistant to high pressure and violent impacts.
t i
The ULB is usually installed on each black box of the aircraft, in order to facilitate the recovery.
o w
Sometimes, this locator is directly installed on the fuselage of the aircraft, while in helicopters it is
s
generally placed at the back.
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Chapter 13,7
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FLIGHT CONTROLS
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Trim control
a c s _
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• Trim tabs are small surfaces, connected to the trailing edge of aircraft larger
control surfaces.
o w
• They have the function to stabilize the aircraft at a particular desired attitude,
without the need for the pilot to constantly apply a control force
s
• Using the trim tab, the reduction of the pilot manual force can reach the 100%
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 104 w
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Active load control
a c s _
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Control surfaces:
• Aero-elastic problems are reduced by using control surfaces.
o w
• Provide aerodynamic force in order to oppose:
– twisting motion.
s
– Bending motions.
e
• Oppose the effects of sudden gusts.
• Active load alleviation technique requires the use of a special form of
c
autopilot, whose sensors detect local accelerations.
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 105 w
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Flaps
a c s _
r
•
s
It can be bent down into the airflow to
t i
produce extra lift and can re-shape the wing
so that it has more camber.
o • When flaps are extended, the stalling speed

of the aircraft is reduced and this means that
s w
e
the aircraft can fly safely at slower speeds
(especially during take-off and landing)
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 106 w
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Slats
a c s _
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Slats:
t i
• Aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed-wing aircraft
which, when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack
o w
• The Krueger flap does not operate in this way because it only increases the
wing area and the wing curvature. Krueger flap is the most simple slat
e s
a c s
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01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 107 w
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Yaw damper
a c s _
A yaw damper is a device used on many aircraft to reduce the rolling and yawing oscillations
tr is
(Dutch roll phenomenon), which can be induced in some maneuvers
• Yaw damper increases the passengers comfort, ensures the aircraft stability and reduces the
o
work load of the pilot.
w
• for an aircraft that has the yaw damper included in its auto-stabilisation system is required a
s
three axis autopilot system
• Processes all data and provide the required corrections to automatically manage the rudder
e
actuators in order to damp the oscillation.
c
• Reduces workload of the pilot and improve comfort of passengers.
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 108 w
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Rudder limiter systems
a c s _
The rudder limiter system limits the displacement of the rudder at high speeds, in order to
r s
prevent rudder overloads.
t i
• The device is controlled by the RUDDER LIMIT switch. The rudder limiter mechanism
o
consists of an electric actuator, which blocks rudder’s displacement according to indicated
w
airspeed of the aircraft.
s
• The system monitors airspeed, which is obtained by the flight computers, and restricts
e
rudder’s displacement according to different parameters.
c
• For example:
s
o Full rudder travel (to 30) is permitted at speeds below 150 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠
a
o Intermediate travel (to 15) is permitted at speeds between 150 to 200 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑠
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o
t
Minimum travel (to 5.7) is permitted at speeds above 200 knots.
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Gust locks
a c s _
A gust lock on an aircraft is a mechanism that locks control surfaces in place, preventing random
r s
movement and possible damage of the surface from wind, while the aircraft is parked.
o t i
• Gust locks may be internal or external
s w
• The internal system is more complex. A cam actuated by a switch in the cabin engages a spring-
loaded roller with the purpose of neutralizing the controls when the hydraulic system is off.
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 110 w
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Stall protection system
a
•
c s _
Arrow wing desing has some disadvantages, tendency to stall the part wings’ tips.
tr is
• This phenomenon causes the nose lifting of the airplane with a low probability of being
able to resume normal flight.
o w
• In order to avoid these situations, there are two main stall warning systems:
– Stick shaker: stall warning device.
s
– Stick pusher: stall avoidance device, installed on most fixed-wing-aircraft.
e
Pneumatic stall warning:
• Consists of a slot cut in the leading edge of the wing .
c
• Connected by a plenum chamber and a small diameter pipe to an air operated sound reed
a s
situated in the cockpit.
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• Fitted on some small aircrafts.
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Fly-by-wire
a c s _
r
•
s
The FBW system replaces the mechanical actuation of the command, given
t i
by the pilot, with an electronic interface. The FBW system interposes some
calculators between the pilot and the final control of the actuators or of the
o w
aircraft surfaces
• The FBW systems are classified according to the percentage of use of the
s
electrical components in the system
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Chapter 13,8
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INSTRUMENT SYSTEM
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Instrument systems
a c s _
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Classification:
t is
The main flight instruments can be divided Aircraft instrument systems may be classified
into 3 categories: as:
o
• Pneumatic instruments. • Air Data Systems:
w
• Gyroscopic instruments.  Altimeter.
s
• Magnetic instruments.  Airspeed indicator.
 Vertical speed indicator.
e
• Engine instruments:
• Direct Reading Pressure and Temperature
c
Gauges:
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 114 w
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Static instruments
a c s _
The static instrument are called static instruments because their main device is a metallic
r s
aneroid capsule with very thin walls.
t i
• The capsule measure the difference in pressure.
• The static instruments receive pressure from:
o w
1. A static source (positioned in a point where it isn't affected by the aircraft motion)
s
2. A dynamic pressure (positioned in a point where it is affected by the aircraft motion)
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Altimeter
a
•
c
The altimeter is an aneroid barometer, whose measurements of the atmospheric
s _
r s
pressure are converted in altitude parameters
t i
• The altimeter is made up of a watertight box, connected with the outside through
the static source. Inside this box there is the capsule that is hermetically sealed
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 116 w
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Altimeter
a c
The barometric surfaces of reference, utilized in aviation, are:
s _
r s
• The airport surface (QFE)
t i
• The sea surface (QNH)
o
• The isobaric standard surface (QNE)
w
For example if, in the setting window, the pressure value of the isobaric standard
s
surface (1013millibar) is introduced, the altitude indications are called “flight
levels”. This setting of the altimeter is called QNE. This setting is used during
e
cruise.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 117 w
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Air speed indicator
a
•
c s _
The air speed indicator is the instrument that measures the aircraft speed in relation
tr is
to the air mass around it. It is made up of a watertight box, connected with the
outside through the static source.
o
• Inside the box there is the capsule, which is connected to the outside through the
w
dynamic source
s
• The expansion of the capsule is bigger as the dynamic pressure, and thus the aircraft
speed, is greater. During the flight the dynamic pressure is greater than the static one
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 118 w
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Air speed indicator
a c s _
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The different colorings identify and The most significant errors of the air speed
t i
delimit fields of the operational speed indicator are:
of the aircraft. The utilized standard • The error of position
o w
colors are: • The error of compressibility
• White • The error of density
s
• Green • The error of compressibility becomes important
• Yellow when the speed is so high to compress air
e
• Red. molecules inside the static source.
c
• The CAS corrected by this error is called EAS
(Equivalent Air Speed).
a s
• The TAS is the EAS (Equivalent Air Speed)
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corrected by the error of density
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Gyroscopic principle
a c s _
• The gyroscope is a rigid body that is put in rotation at high speed. The gyroscope is made of a
r s
rotating disk (the rotor), which, due to physical laws of conservation, tends to maintain its
t i
rotation axis (or spin axis) oriented in a fixed direction
The Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI)
o w
• Provides information concerning the aircraft attitude. It integrates:
– Aritificial horizon.
s
– Slip.
e
– Skid indicator.
– ILS receiver.
c
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI):
a s
• Composed of a directional gyro and a special pointer.
r is
• The pilot knows the horizontal attitude situation of the aircraft concerning both:
t
– Heading bearing
o
– Aircraft position compared to the radial of the radio aid.
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Gyroscopic instruments
a c s _
r s
Turn and slip indicator
t i
• The turn and slip indicator is made up of a gyroscope with 2°of freedom. It is
limited to rotate around its vertical axis (Z). The rotational axis of the
o w
gyroscope (X) is horizontal and it is parallel to aircraft transversal axis
• A gravity slip and skid indicator is a very simple instrument that uses both the
s
centripetal and centrifugal forces.
e
• The turn and bank indicator has also a gravity slip and skid indicator
a c s
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01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 121 w
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Gyroscopic instruments
a c s _
Directional gyro:
r
• The directional gyro, or heading indicator is made up of a gyroscope with 3° of freedom
t is
and with a horizontal spin axis.
• It is important to remember that the directional gyro moves gradually away from the
o w
indications of the compass, due to the apparent precession, the Earth’s rotation and the
construction imperfections.
s
• These gaps can reach a maximum of 15° per hour, and so they must be manually
corrected by the pilot every 15 − 20 flight minutes. The maximum drift rate directional
e
gyro is typical 1 degree per minute, with an accuracy of 2°.
c
• The rose is instinctive
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 122 w
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Compass system
a c
The magnetic compass is subject to 4 types of main errors:
s _
r s
• Acceleration error.
t i
Variation error:
o
caused by the fact that the magnetic compass provides indication in relation to the North
w
magnetic pole, which doesn’t coincide with the North geographic pole. The variation is greater
s
at Poles
Magnetic inclination error:
e
happens when the magnetic compass is near to the magnetic poles.
c
• The deviation error is caused by:
s
– The airborne presence of ferrous parts
a
– Electromagnetic equipment that can divert the flow lines of the Earth’s magnetic field.
tr is
• This error can be compensated thought some compensator magnets. It’s important to
remember that the values of residual deviation must not exceed 3°.
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EFIS and glass cockpit
a c s _
r s
The Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS):
t i
• Identifies a set of devices and electronic displays.
• Intended to represent with graphic symbols the flight and navigation information by a
o w
series of CRT or LCD.
s
A typical EFIS system consists of:
• Electronic displays.
e
• Control panels.
c
• Elaboration units.
s
The electronic displays of EFIS can be split in two categories:
a
• EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator) or PFD (Primary Flight Display), which
r is
provides attitude information.
t
• EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator) or ND (Navigation Display), which displays
o
typica information concerning navigation and flight planning.
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Bulb thermometer
a c s _
r s
• Another device that uses the change in electrical resistance as a function of
t i
temperature is the bulb thermometer. It is generally used to measure the operating
temperature of fluids inside engines.
o s w
• In these devices the probe consists of a container that encloses an electrical filament,
which is placed inside the fluid whose temperature must be taken
ce
• The selection of the material of the filament (nickel or platinum) depends on the
maximum operating temperature envisaged for the thermometer.
r a is s
• Nickel is generally used for temperatures up to 300°𝐶, while platinum is suitable for
t
maximum temperatures of 600°𝐶.
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Module 13,9
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LIGHTS
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Lights
a c s _
tr is
• Aircraft lighting may be divided into different groups:
o w
o External lights: exterior lights provide illumination of the ground during
landing and taxi operations and make the aircraft visible in flight.
e s
o Internal lights: min power 3W

c
Passenger compartment lights
 Cargo and service compartment lights
r a is s
o Emergency lights: emergency lights provide interior and exterior illumination
t
of exits and exit paths during emergency evacuation
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Navigation lights
a c s _
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• Navigation lights are an essential system and control is obtained through a
relay activated switch in the flight deck. Normal power supply for such lights
o w
is 28 V AC from a protected bus such as the essential or standby bus
• Navigation lights include a single lamp:
s
1. Red light on left wing 110°
e
2. Green light on right wing 110°
3. White light on the tail 140°
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 128 w
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Strobe lights
a c s _
tr is
• The larger aircraft can be also equipped with some additional strobe lights,
located on the trailing edge of the wings and on the tail.
o w
• The strobe lights are activated both during the day and the night, in order to
encourage the identification of the aircraft both in flight and on ground,
s
especially in the case in which it occupies the runway
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 129 w
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Anti-collision lights
a c s _
tr is
• The anti-collision lights system (also called anti-collision beacon lights) mainly
consists of one or more red lights, according to the aircraft dimensions. They
o w
are flashing rotating lights, which are usually mounted on the top of the
fuselage or of the tail.
s
• The minimum light intensity is 100 candles (the output is 400 candles)
•
e
Anti-collision lights are activated when the engines are started up during
night flights and daylight hours
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 130 w
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Landing lights
a c s _
tr is
• Landing lights are white and they are installed on the aircraft in order to
illuminate the runway during landings and takes-offs
o w
• The landing lights are generally of the PAR 200 − 300 𝑊 type.
• Some systems use retractable landing lamps.
s
• The fixed part is switched on when the aircraft is authorized to entry in the
e
runway, and it is switched off at 10000 𝑓𝑡.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 131 w
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Runway turnoff lights
a c s _
tr is
• Runway turnoff lights are white lamps, positioned to illuminate laterally the
taxi-ways and the runways for an angle of 50°.
o w
• These lights are used during the take-off run, during the landing and during
the taxi phase
s
• During the departure, the runway turnoff lights are switched on at the
e
beginning of the taxi, and they remain activated until 10000 ft.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 132 w
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Logo lights
a c s _
o tr• Generally, the airliners are also
is
w
equipped with some logo lights that
illuminate the company's logo
e s
• The logo lights remain activated
during the night, during the ground
c
operations and during the flight
s
below 10000 ft.
tr a is
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 133 w
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Taxi light
a c s _
r
The taxi lights are designed to provide the
t is
illumination on the ground during the taxing phase or
when the aircraft is towed on the airport surface
o w
• The taxi lights don’t provide the same degree of
s
illumination of the landing lights
e
• On aircraft with a tri-cycle landing gear, the taxi lights
c
are often mounted on the non-steerable part of the
s
nose landing gear
r a is
•
t
Moreover some aircraft can be equipped with
additional taxi lights located on the lower surface of
o
the aircraft nose
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 134 w

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Internal light – Passenger lights
a c s _
r s
In the passenger cabin a large variety of lights can be
t i
installed.
o w
The most of the passenger cabin lights are:
s
• Controlled by the flight crew and flight
assistants
e
• Made of fluorescent tubes, connected to some
transformers to control the voltage
c
• COCKPIT: some incandescent floodlights with a
a s
large luminous beam that are installed on the
r is
cockpit ceiling
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 135 w

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ce
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Module 13,10
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ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
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Central Maintenance System
a c s _
tr is
• The line maintenance of the electronic system is based on the use of the
Central Maintenance System (CMS)
o w
•
s
The purpose of the CMC is to give a central maintenance aid to intervene on
aircraft systems and subsystems through controls located in the cockpit
e
• CMC computers are installed in the compartment of the electrical devices
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 137 w
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CMS
a c s _
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The aircraft CMS provides:
o w
• An access to maintenance message of all aircraft systems
•
s
An access to status information about ground tests
• A loading means of navigational files, data bases and system software
e
• A downloading means of maintenance data
c
• A means of printing data
•
s
A means of connecting to the aircraft system computers
tr a is
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 138 w
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CMS
a c s _
tr is
The CMS advantages are:
• Reduction of duration of operations
o w
• Reduction of the maintenance crew training time
•
s
Simplification of technical documentation
• Standardization of the equipment
ce
The CMS includes:
•
s
Built-In-Test –Equipment (BITE) for each aircraft system
a
• Central Maintenance Computers (CMC) in Boeing Industry
r is
• or Centralized Fault Display System (CFDS) in Airbus Industry
t
• MCDU
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 139 w

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BITE test
a c
The BITE has the functions:
s _
r s
• To monitor and measure the inputs
t i
• To measure and check the output
o w
• The BITE monitors the operational parameter and detects the possible failures that can
s
happen, to facilitate the aircraft maintenance in flight and on ground
• If a failure is detected, the BITE automatically generates the signals and insulate the
e
damaged element
c
• The BITE can be divided into three categories:
a s
• Start-up or power
r is
• Interruptive
t
• Continuous
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Central Maintenance Computer
a c s _
tr is
• The CMC computers that are installed on aircraft are usually 2 and they are
positioned in the compartment of the electrical devices.
o w
• In normal functioning:
The left CMC sends/receives the signals to the aircraft systems
e s
• In case there is a failure:
•
c
The left CMC detects a failure
• The right CMC controls the functioning of the system
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 141 w
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CMC menu’
a c
According to the type of the system installed on board, it can execute different
s _
r s
procedures to display the reports
o t i
On ground, first page:
w
• Last leg report
s
• Last leg ECAM report
• Previous legs reports
e
• Avionics status
c
• System reports/test
r a s
In flight:
t is
• Current leg report(failure detected during the current flight)
• Current leg ECAM report (shows the list of the ECAM advisories associated
o w
to the main failures detected during the current flight)
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Updating of software
a c s _
r s
It is important to control:
o t i
• The trustworthiness of the software, in order to check that there is no virus
w
• The compatibility of the software with the aircraft systems
s
• The correct installation, through some specific tests.
e
The uploading of files and databases is requested:
c
• Periodically, to update files that are necessary for the Flight Management System
s
(FMS) functions and for the Jeppesen electronic chart.
a
• To load a flight plan, generated on an external computer and stored on a CD-ROM
r is
or on a memory PC-CARD.
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Aircraft printer
a
•
c s _
The printer is usually located on the cockpit central console or on one cockpit side
r s
• The information are sent to the printer from the CMC, in ARINC 429 binary coded
t i
decimal form
o
• Inside the printer the data are converted in the language of the device
w
• The printer head is heated and it moves over a thermally sensitive paper
s
• The post flight report is automatically printed
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 144 w
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Module 13,11
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AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN
o
PRESSURIZATION
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 145 w

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Introduction
a c s _
r s
• Main use of compressed air: pressurization and conditioning system, anti-ice
t i
protection, engine start up system.
o w
Methods to provide compressed air:
s
• Engine bleeding
e
• Generation through the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit)
c
• Generation through some ground support equipment
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 146 w
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Air conditioning system
a c s _
On aircraft, the air conditioning system has the function to maintain comfort environmental
r s
conditions (temperature, humidity and air composition) during all flight phases.
t i
• The air conditioning system must be designed to extract and introduce heat in the cabin.
o s w
• Comfort conditions must guaranteed also in critical environment.
e
• The pneumatic system takes hot air from the compressor.
c s
• Mixing hot air, taken from the engine, with cold air passed through a refrigerating cycle, it is
a
possible to obtain the air at correct temperature and humidity for the maintenance of the
r is
desired environmental cabin conditions.
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Air conditioning system
a c s _
In order to guarantee the maximum comfort of passengers the air temperature, present in the
r s
cabin, must be comprised between 18° 𝐶 (65°𝐹) and 24°𝐶 (75°𝐹).
t i
• The humidification must control the amount of water vapor in terms of relative humidity. If this
o w
parameter is too high, the environment becomes sticky, while if it is too low, the room
temperature seems colder.
e s
• The filtration is important in order to guarantee debris free air in the cabin.
c
• The relative air humidity must be about 20 − 30 %
r a is s
• In normal conditions, the air conditioning system must guarantee in the cabin an air flow of
t
about 1 𝑙𝑏 per minute for each person. This value cannot be less than the half in case of failure
of the system
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Small not-pressurized aircraft
a
•
c
There is not a real conditioning system, they are equipped with a ram air
s _
tr is
system. The air comes directly from outside the aircraft: same pressure and
temperature of the air in which the flight occurs.
o w
• The air that comes from outside is filtered and heated before entering the
s
aircraft cabin through a series of ducts.
e
• Main problem: how to heat the air.
c s
• The air can be heated using an engine exhaust heat exchanger or a
a
combustion heater
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 149 w
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Exhaust heat exchanger system
c s _
•
a
Ram air coming from a forward facing air duct passes through a heat exchanger in which
hot exhaust gasses of engine pass.
tr is
• After the air is heated, it enters a chamber in which cold air coming from another aircraft
intake flows into.
o
•
w
At this point the air mixture enters the cabin.
• Advantages: cheap and very efficient.
s
• Disadvantages: very dangerous in case of an internal leak. This damage can cause carbon
e
monoxide poisoning. In addition this system doesn’t operate if the aircraft is stationary
and there are no fans installed.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 150 w
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Combustion heater system
a
•
c s _
They use the aircraft fuel to heat the air. The air is provided by a fan, while the fuel is
r s
directly taken by the aircraft fuel system.
t i
•
o
The air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug; the exhaust gases travel through the
w
exhaust outlet.
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 151 w
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Large pressurized aircraft
a c s _
r s
• Air for the air conditioning system is bled from the engine.
t i
• Hot air is directly taken from the compressor and it must be cooled to reach a suitable
temperature.
o w
• Hot air, taken from the engine, is mixed with cold air coming from a refrigerating cycle to
obtain the desired temperature and humidity
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 152 w
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Large pressurized aircraft
a c s _
r s
The air conditioning systems also uses a percentage of recycled air from the cabin.
t i
Recycled air is filtered and mixed with pure air.
o w
Advantages:
s
The system must elaborate a smaller external air flow
e
It is possible to maintain the relative humidity around acceptable values, reducing the need to
c
add humidity to the dry air that comes from the refrigerating cycle.
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 153 w
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Air cycle and vapor cycle machines
a c
Air cooling is achieved using some “packs” that can include two cycles:
s _
r s
• Air cycle
t i
• Vapor cycle.
o
The number of cooling packs depends on the size of the aircraft.
w
When it is necessary to install more than one pack, these packs work independently to
s
provide air for each compartment they work for.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 154 w
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Air cycle and vapor cycle machines
a c s _
r s
Pack = turbine that drives a compressor on a rotor shaft.
t i
The turbine and the compressor wheels are similar: they consist of a cast wheel and
some blades made of aluminum alloy.
o w
The turbine wheel rotates within a nozzle ring, while the compressor wheel rotates
within a diffuser ring
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 155 w
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Air cycle machines – reverse joule cycle
a c s _
r
•
s
Most common refrigerating cycles on aircraft are air cycles.
t i
• Air cycles are thermodynamic cycles in which the air undergoes
o w
some transformations in order to reach the desired
temperature and pressure conditions.
e s
• The theoretical refrigeration cycle is a reverse Joule cycle:
1. The external air, flows into the compressor, in which it is
c
subjected to a compression.
a s
2. Then in the second phase an isobaric cooling happens
r is
3. while in the next phase an expansion occurs through the
t
turbine, until the pressure present in cabin is reached
4. The air is expelled from the fuselage by control valves
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Bootstrap cycle
c _
• Bootstrap cycle = improved standard refrigeration cycle.
a s
• The fluid is subjected to two compressions and passes through two heat exchangers before
r s
entering the turbine.
t i
• Heat exchangers reduce the air temperature before entering the second compressor and
o
the turbine
w
• Fan: connected to turbine and compressor, cools them when aircraft is ground. In flight
s
cooling is provided by the airflow.
• Water separator: installed after the turbine and before the air flows into the cabin. It
e
provides a whirling movement to the air, to facilitate the formation of microscopic water
drops. Then drops are drained to avoid condensation in cabin
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 157 w
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Vapour cycle machines
a c s _
r s
In refrigerating vapor cycles the air cooling is achieved with a refrigerant fluid. This
t i
fluid is able to absorb heat during the evaporation process.
o w
Major components of a typical vapor cycle machine:
s
• Liquid receiver
• Thermostatic expansion valve
e
• Evaporator
c
• Turbo-compressor
s
• Condenser.
tr a is
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 158 w
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Vapor cycle machines
a c s _
r s
• Refrigerant stored in the liquid receiver.
t i
• From this reservoir the fluid passes in the thermostatic
expansion valve and reaches the evaporator.
o w
• In the evaporator the hot air coming from engines boils the
refrigerant and then enters the cabin at a much lower
s
temperature
e
• The vaporized refrigerant fluid flows into the compressor
(coupled with the turbine) and reaches a high temperature
c
and pressure.
s
•
a
Then the hot gas enters the condenser and is cooled by the
ram air coming from outside.
tr is
• The refrigerant condenses and it is pumped back to the
liquid receiver to start a new cycle.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 159 w

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Flow, temperature and humidity control system
a c
Flow control system
s _
r s
• The rate of air entering the aircraft cabin is regulated by mass flow control valves.
t i
• Valves maintain constant the rate of supplied air, even if the speed of enginees and
compressor vary.
o w
• When the air is supplied by an engine driven compressor, a spill valve is installed.
s
• When the air is directly bled by the compressor of engine, a variable orifice valve is installed.
Variable orifice valve:
e
• Characterized by a variable orifice, whose section is set according to the airflow pressure
c
entering the valve.
Temperature control system:
a s
• the cabin air temperature is obtained mixing refrigerating cyccle’s air with that of the
r is
compressor, temperature control can be:
t
– Manual or mechanical.
o
– Automatic.
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 160 w

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Flow, temperature and humidity control system
a c
Humidity control system:
s _
r s
• A dedicated circuit, made of humidifiers, regulates the humidity rate in the cabin.
t i
• Can be activated automatically or manually.
o
• Humidifiers
w
– Automatically activated when, during the climb, aircraft reaches 10000𝑓𝑡.
s
– Automatically switched off when, during the descent, the aircraft reaches that altitude.
Pressurization system:
e
• The cabin pressure is regulated in order to not exceed the set limit in terms of pressure.and
c
oxygen concentration.
s
• Total air pressure inside the cabin must be increased until a limit value, which is equal to air
a
pressure at 8000𝑓𝑡 of height.
r is
• Below this altitude the human body is in a comfortable condition and the load on the aircraft
t
fuselage is not excessive.
o
• The valve is controlled by an automatic system.
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 161 w

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Pressure controller and outflow valve
a
•
c s _
The pressure controller is connected to the outflow valve: it sends some signals to the
r s
valve in order to regulate its aperture
t i
• When the aircraft is on ground, the valves are maintained in the complete open
o
position, in order to ensure the air exchange even if the air conditioning system is
w
activated. After the take-off the valves moves towards the closed position, which is
never reached in order to guarantee the air exchange during the flight.
s
• Only in the case of failure the outflow valve closes, preserving the cabin pressure, for a
e
time interval sufficient to lead the aircraft at an altitude where the pressurization isn’t
necessary.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 162 w
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Inward relief valves and safety valves
a
•
c
Inward relief valves :since the case of negative
s _
r s
differential pressure is the most dangerous one, the
t i
aircraft is equipped with valves, called inward relief
valves, which automatically open, when the
o w
external pressure is above a certain value.
e s
The safety valve operates when the difference between
c
the cabin pressure and the external pressure is bigger
s
than a specific value utilized for the fuselage design.
tr a is
• Generally the safety valves are activated when the cabin
pressure exceeds the limit value of about 0.25 psi.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 163 w

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Additional instruments
a c s _
r s
In the cockpit, some instruments, which permit pilot to controls the aircraft pressurization,
t i
are installed:
o • The cabin altimeter
o w
o • The cabin variometer (expressed ft/min)
s
o • The cabin differential pressure indicator
• The cabin altimeter indicates the cabin altitude. It remembers that the cabin altitude is
e
defined as the atmospheric height at which the value of the pressure inside the fuselage
corresponds.
c
• The cabin variometer controls the pressure rate inside the cabin, referring to the altitude
a s
variation per minutes [ft/min]
r is
• The cabin differential pressure indicator indicates the pressure difference between the
t
inside and the outside of the aircraft [psi]
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 164 w

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Module 13,12
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FIRE PROTECTION
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 165 w

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Fire and smoke detection and warning systems
a
•
c
Detectors are based on temperature and smoke measures.
s _
r s
• They provide an alarm when a temperature higher than a fixed value is detected, or
t i
when an important smoke concentration is present.
o
The detection systems:
w
• Indicate when a fire starts or stops
s
• Provides audio and video warnings
The detection systems are different according to the aircraft are in which they must be
e
installed
c
The most common types of detection systems are:
s
• Thermal detectors
a
– Unit detectors.
tr is
– Continuous detectors
• Smoke detectors
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 166 w

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Characteristics
a c s _
r s
• The characteristics of the detection systems are:
o t i
• To create a warning signal after 60 seconds of an abnormal parameter
w
• To provide a warning signals after that more than one sensor records anomalies
s
• To provide a warning message before to be damaged by the fire
•
e
To provide a warning message by radio transmission
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 167 w
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Thermal detector
a c
The thermal detectors can be divided into:
s _
tr is
• Unit detectors: are based on some bimetallic strips that opens a contact
when the temperature is higher than a set parameter
o w
• The continuous detectors are made of a conductor placed in a semi-
s
conductor material. There are two types of fire-wire:
e
- Resistance type: When the temperature increases, the insulation breaks and
the current flows outside the grounded fire-wire.
c
• Capacitance type: the capacitance depends on many parameters and one of
s
them is the dielectric constant changing with temperature
tr a is
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 168 w
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Smoke detector
a c s _
r s
The smoke detectors are located in:
t i
Baggage holds
o
Freight bays
w
Toilets
s
Equipment bays
e
The most common types of the photoelectric smoke detectors are:
c
Light scatter types
a s
Light absorption types
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 169 w
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Light scatter types
a
•
c s _
The light scatter types are based on the principle for which when a light hits a photo-
r s
electric cell, it produces a an electric current
o t i
• When the air is clean, the light rays does not reach the photoelectric cell
s w
• When in the air the smoke is present light rays start reflecting on the smoke particles
and hit the photoelectric cell producing electricity
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 170 w
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Light absorption types
a c s _
tr is
• The light absorption types have a photoelectric cell that receives all the light
when the air is clear
o w
• When smoke is present, the light that reaches the photoelectric cell reduces
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 171 w
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Fire on aircraft
a c s _
• The fire fighting in the cabin is executed by hand with mobile portable extinguishers
tr is
• The fire fighting in the remote aircraft areas (engines, avionic bays and cargo compartments) is
executed by fixed extinguishers
o s w
• The fire fighting is very difficult in case of nacelles
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 172 w
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Extinguishing systems
a c
The extinguishing systems are:
s _
r s
• Fixed
t i
• Portable
o
• Mixed
s w
• The fixed systems are permanently installed
•
e
The portable systems includes hand fire extinguishers
• The mixed systems includes fixed pipelines and portable extinguisher
a c s
A reduction of the fire risk can be obtained in 2 ways:
r is
• By pressurizing tanks with an inert gas (Nitrogen).
t
• By inserting some reticular fillers into tanks.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 173 w

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System tests
a c s _
r s
Materials can be classified as:
t i
• Fire proof materials: its fire resistance must not be smaller than that of stainless steel.
• Fire resistant materials: its fire resistance must be equal to that of aluminum alloys.
o w
• Flame resistant materials: they don’t propagate the flame when the source is moved
s
away.
• Inflammable materials: they promptly light and then explode.
e
Portable fire extinguisher:
c
• Maintenance technicians must carry out some checks on fire extinguishers in order to
ensure the correct functioning of all devices.
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 174 w
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13,13
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FUEL SYSTEM
01.11.2018 i o
Rev.04 Pag. 175 w
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System layout
a
Fuel tanks:
c s _
r s
• The quantity of fuel transported on board of some aircraft reaches high value and
t i
represents a significant fraction of the total aircraft mass.
o
• The correct position of the fuel storage is important, because the fuel consumption can
w
considerably influence the position of the center of gravity.
• One of the most used procedures to load fuel is that to utilize wing tanks
s
• The wing tanks are integral tanks that are constructed in the wing structure,
e
completely sealing the section utilized for this scope
Wing tanks have also some disadvantages:
c
• The available volume is scarce on supersonic aircraft
s
• On military jets these tanks represent a wide area exposed to bullets
a
• They can suffer of leaks
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 176 w
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Pump supply
a c s _
Engines must receive a minimum fuel pressure at variable flowing
r s
rate. The fuel supply can be completed in two different ways:
t i
• For gravity, that is tanks are located higher than engines.
• Under pressure, with the use of some pumps.
o s w
Pump:
• The operation of a pump is connected to its characteristic curve.
e
• The diagram connects the fuel flow rate and the pressure
provided by the pump.
c
• Transfer pump ensures appropriate pressure in the whole
a s
system, these pumps are installed inside the tanks so that they
r is
maintain a pressure greater than the vapor tension of the fuel.
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 177 w

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Dumping, venting and draining
a c
In all fuel tanks there are also two systems important to flight safety:
s _
r s
• Ventilation system.
t i
– Puts the free surface of the fuel in communication with the air of the external
o
atmosphere.
w
– The tanks must be equipped with vents able to ensuring ventilation during
s
operation and refueling.
– Ventilation of tanks is necessary in order to avoid over-pressures during refueling
e
and depressions due to consumption during the flight.
c
– Refueling and those of feeding demand that the pressure of the mixture air vapors
is maintained equal to external pressure in order to avoid stress or formation of
a s
fuel vapors.
r is
– For most commercial aircraft the vent box is located towards the wing tip.
t
• Drain system.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 178 w

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Cross-feed and transfer
a
•
c s _
The transfer of fuel is very different, according to the number and the type of engines, to
r s
the relative position between tanks and engines.
t i
• On multi-engine aircraft, it must be possible to feed any engine with the fuel of any tanks.
• For load loss reasons, the cross-feed line should be installed close to the tanks.
o w
• If the cross-feed line is located near the engines, the pipe has a double flow rate, which
s
means double loss causing major sizing of the booster pumps.
ce
• If the cross-fee line is near the engines instead, the pipe
has a double flow rate.
a s
• Which means a double loss causing a major sizing of the
r is
booster pumps.
t
• In case of failure of one pump, or leakage in one tank, the
damaged branch must be isolated by shut off valves.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 179 w

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Indication and warnings
a c s _
r s
Inside the tanks some sensors are installed. These devices detected the
t i
level of the present fuel. They can be of different types:
o w
• Mechanical sensors: are made of some floaters able to move along a
guide
e s
• Ultrasonic sensors: by utilizing the emission and reception of sound
pulsed-signal by an ultra-sound sensor installed in the bottom of the tank.
a c s
• Capacitive sensors: The fuel level is measured using the change in
r
electrical capacitance of a capacitor. The capacitance of the capacitor
t is
depends on the dielectric value existing between the two armatures of
the capacitor  An increase in fuel level would increase in capacitance.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 180 w

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Ground refueling
a
•
c s _
The ground refueling of an aircraft must be done under pressure of about 0.35 MPa,
tr is
by airport systems or by ground tankers.
• When some tankers are used, it is necessary to electrically link the aircraft with the
o
tanker, in order to avoid the formation of electrical arches
s w
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 181 w
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tr a is s
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ce
a s
13,14
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HYDRAULIC POWER
01.11.2018 i o
Rev.04 Pag. 182 w
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Hydraulic system layout
a c s _
A hydraulic system is primarily made of:
r
• Pumps, that generate the pressure and the flow rate
t is
requested by the system in a delivery line and low
pressure in a return line
o w
• Pipes, connections and some valves, that have the task
s
to distribute the hydraulic energy to different devices
e
• Different users, which are connected to actuators that
c
transform the hydraulic energy into mechanical power.
s
(jack or hydraulic engines)
tr a is
• A series of accessories with specific functions, such as
filters, accumulators and heat exchangers
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 183 w

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Hydraulic fluids
a c
In the aeronautical sector, fluids used must meet the following requirements :
s _
r s
• Have a good lubricant power
t i
• Avoid corrosion
o w
• Viscosity must be limited to avoid power losses and overheating.
• Good wear resistance, through the addition of additives
s
• Good resistance to formation of contaminated particles that shall damage the
e
components
• Low risk of fire
c
• Low toxicity
r a is s
The fluid types, which are utilized in hydraulic systems, are of two categories:
t
• Mineral oil
• Synthesis oil.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 184 w

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Mineral oil
c s _
• Mineral oil is generated by the distillation of high quality petrol.
a
•
r
These oil types have some characteristics that vary according to the temperature and they
t is
have fire risks.
• They also have good lubricant proprieties. Mineral oils have limited corrosive
o
characteristics in relation to other oil types.
w
• This type of fluid is often used on little aircraft and in the shock-absorber of the landing
s
gear
e
Synthetic oil
c
is the most used type in large aircraft systems(𝑆𝑘𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑙™). This product is characterized by :
s
• Low degree of oxidation
r a
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion
t is
• Low freezing temperature
• High fire resistance
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 185 w

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Hydraulic reservoirs and accumulators
a c
Hydraulic reservoirs:
s _
r s
• Hydraulic system are reservoirs and accumulators.
t i
• In hyraulic system one or more reservoirs can be installed.
o
• Reservoirs contain fluid that is used in the system.
w
• Reservoirs are necessary:
s
– To permit the separation of possible gases in suspension.
– To absorb the volume variation of the fluid, caused by thermal pumps.
e
– To dissipate heat.
c
• The main element of a hydraulic reservoir are:
s
– A filler neck that has a filter, which collect impurities.
a
– A little window to control the fluid level inside.
tr is
– A level sensor.
– A feed line to the pumps of the main system and to the auxiliary system.
i o w
– A filter to purify the return fluid.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 186

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a c
Hydraulic accumulators:
s _
tr is
• They are connected in parallel to the system line.
• These devices are able to store a speecific energy quantity, which is then
o w
given back to the system as oil inpressure.
• The main functions of an accumulator are:
s
– To provide a limited quantity of fluid in pressure to users in emergency
e
conditions, when pumps are damaged.
– To maintain the circuit in pressure, helping pumps when a great supply is
c
needed.
s
– To absorb all pressure variation caused by the activation and
a
deactivation of users.
tr is
– To absorb the fluid hammering, in case of abnormal operation of the
safety valves.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 187 w

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a c s _
r s
On aircraft different hydraulic accumulators are installed:
t i
• Spring accumulators.
o
• Gas accumulators.
w
• Diaphragm accumulators.
s
• Bladder accumulators.
• Piston accumulators.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 188 w
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Pressure generation:electric, mechanical and pneumatic
a c s _
r s
The hydraulic energy is available by converting the mechanical power that is
t i
mainly taken from the following sources:
• Aircraft engines
o w
• Electrical engines
s
• Pneumatic engines
e
• The devices that transform mechanical energy into hydraulic power are called
c
hydraulic pumps
• Their function is to take the oil from designed reservoirs, and then make it
a s
available with a higher pressure to the system and to users
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 189 w
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Power generation:electric, mechanical and pneumatic
a c
Hydraulic pumps used in aeronautical hydraulic circuits are volumetric pumps.
s _
r s
Axial pump:
t i
• These are also called displacement pumps, because they displace a fluid volume and force it
into the system
o w
• The flow rate Q generated by the pump is equal to: 𝑄 = 𝜼. 𝑅𝑃𝑀. 𝑉
s
• The leakage is kept at a low level, so that the efficiency of a hydraulic pump working at 21 MPa
is normally higher than 95%.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 190 w
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Power generation:electric, mechanical and pneumatic
a c s _
r s
Radial pump: Another pump type, which can be used in the
t i
hydraulic system.
o w
Gear pump:
s
• This device is made of a chamber in which two contra-rotating
cogged wheels move
e
• The fluid is sucked in areas that develop between sectors of the
c
single wheel and walls of the box. When the wheels arrive in the
delivery area, the teeth engage themselves and the oil is forced
a s
to exit the sectors and then it is pushed in the pipeline
r is
• The gear pumps are simple and resistant systems, but they are
t
rather cumbersome. In addition they provide less pressure than
that provided by a piston pump
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 191 w

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Constant flow rate
a
•
c
A constant flow rate is desirable for hydraulic systems
s _
tr is
• In the case of the constant pressure system, a valve is installed after the
pump.
o
•
w
This valve controls the pressure and guarantees a constant value.
• This valve is a device with a cursor that is normally open.
s
• According to the value of the pressure of the system, the opening of the
e
orifice can be varied
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 192 w
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Variable flow rate
a c s _
r s
• This method is more efficient than the previous one, because the pressure of the
t i
system is maintained constant, while the requested flow rate can be easily changed
o w
• It is an expensive technique
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 193 w
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Power distribution
a c s _
Relief valve: is automatically activated to protect the system from oil overpressures by opening
r s
a return line to reservoir.
t i
Shuttle valve: Installed close to some users that can be supplied by two different hydraulic
o w
circuits, usually the main one and the emergency one. Allows the selection of the emergency
unit in case the pressure in the main system is reduced.
e s
The sequence valve instead is employed to control the sequence of two or more actions.
c
The servo-valves are electrically controlled and are able to adopt specific intermediate
a s
positions between the full opening and the full closing of the device
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 194 w
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Indication and warning systems
a c s _
r s
The indication and warning systems are placed on the central panel of the pilot.
t i
These systems include:
o
• Pressure indicators.
w
• Oil quantity indicators.
s
• Temperature indicators
• Pumps low pressure indicators
e
• Low oil quantity indicators
c
• Oil overheating indicators.
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 195 w
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ce
a s
13,15
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ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION
01.11.2018 i o
Rev.04 Pag. 196 w
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Ice and rain protection
a c
Ice formation, classification and detection:
s _
r s
• Rime ice.
t i
– A thin layer that doesn’t cause serious aerodynamic problems.
o
– Provokes a loss of visibility through windows and the occlusion of little air cockets.
w
– A fragile and little substantial that can be easily removed.
s
• Clear ice.
• Opaque ice.
e
Many different methods are used to detect the presence of ice:
c
• Visual detection:
a s
– Black hot rod: installed outside the fuselage, so that it can be seen from the flight
r is
deck.
t
• Fiber optic sensors: intalled on different points of the aircraft structure.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 197 w

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Anti-icing systems: electrical, hot air and chimical
a c s _
r s
Ice protection system:
t i
• Permetting the prevention or removal of ice.
o s w
ce
• Acts in two ways:
– Anti-icing systems: the prevention of ice formation.
a s
– De-icing systems: the ice removal when the ice is just formed.
r is
•
t
The aircraft windshield is a wiper system, a rain repellent system and a heating
system
o
• The Ice identification rod vibrate at a frequency of 40𝐾𝐻𝑧
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 198 w

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Anti-icing systems: electrical, hot air and chimical
a c
Anti-icing systems:
s _
r s
• Electrical methods
t i
• Pneumatic methods
o
• Chemical methods.
w
Chemical methods:
s
• Anti-icing operation protects the aircraft from possible contaminations.
• The duration of protective effect, is called holdover time.
e
Hot air methods:
c
• Based on pneumatic heating with the use of turbine engines
a s
• This causes engine deterioration.
r is
Electrical methods:
t
– Spray mat.
– Heat mat.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 199 w

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De-icing systems: electrical, hot air and chimical
a c s _
Dei-icing systems:
r
• Electrical methods
t is
• Pneumatic methods
• Chemical methods.
o w
Pneumatic methods:
• Based on the use of discontinuous inflatable systems, called boots, that are able to
s
remove the ice when it has formed.
e
• The de-icing pneumatic system has the disadvantage that to cause a disturb in the wing
aerodynamic, also when elastic elements are flat.
c
Electrical methods:
a s
• Made of a net of thin films of conductor material, which are electrically supplied in a
r is
continuous way.
t
• On tail units doesn’t involve great energy consumption, while its use on wing surfaces,
which are huge, requests a high generation of electrical power board.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 200 w

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Rain repellent
a c s _
r s
• The external fluid spray system comprises a de icing fluid tank connected by a
t i
pipe line to an electrically operated pump, the delivery side of which is
coupled to a spray device arranged in front of the windscreen. This system is
o w
used in case of heavy precipitation in order to improve the pilot visibility.
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 201 w
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a c s _
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ce
a s
13,16
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LANDING GEAR
01.11.2018 i o
Rev.04 Pag. 202 w
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Construction, shock absorbing
a c s _
Construction:
r s
The landing gear is made of a series of components:
t i
• Shock absorber.
• Brake.
o w
• Wheel.
s
• Tire.
• Extraction and retraction devices.
e
Typical configurations include the landing gear:
c
• Single wheel, mainly used for little aircraft.
• High number of wheel.
a s
• Generally, the number of wheels increases when the estimated load acting on the
r is
considered leg increases.
t
Tricycle configuration:
o
• The two legs, called main legs, are located as far as possible to the center of gravity
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 203 w

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a c s _
r s
Tricycle configuration with a rear wheel:
t i
• On the ground the aircraft keep the nose-up attitude.
o
• During the braking, a braking torgue is generated that tries to overturn the
w
aircraft forward.
s
• During the landing the aircraft tends to increase the attitude at the touch
down phase.
e
• The aircraft suffers of lateral instability.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 204 w
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a c s _
r s
Shock absorber:
t i
• The shock absorber represents the main component of the landing gear.
o
• Absorb energy during its deformation and dissipate the rest in form of heat
w
• Most common type is the oleo-pneumatic shock absorber.
s
• The static component, which is the gas, follows an adiabatic transformation.
• The viscous element, the oil, has a trend in relation to the crushing of the shock
e
absorber.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 205 w
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Indicating and warning
a c s _
r s
Indicator lamps:
t i
• Micro switches or proximity switches are operated by the up and down locks
and are wired into indicator lamps in the flight deck.
o w
– Green: unit locked down.
– Red: unit unlocked.
s
– No light: unit locked up.
e
The ECAM WHEEL page displays information about:
• Main landing gear.
c
• Nose landing gear.
a s
• Landing gear doors.
r is
• Brake temperature.
01.11.2018 i o t Rev.04 Pag. 206 w

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Brakes
a
•
c s _
The brakes must absorb the kinetic energy, transforming it in heat, and so they are
r s
subject to a remarkable heating.
t i
• The brakes are composed by a series of discs coupled to the rim and the pistons that
o
act to them.
w
• Carbon is preferred because of its remarkable advantages in terms of weight, specific
s
heat, conductivity, thermal expansion and mechanical resistance to high
temperatures.
e
• In fact, the brakes temperature can reach:
– 500°𝐶 during normal braking.
c
– 1000°𝐶 during aborted take-off.
a s
• Main components of a disck brake:
r is
– Pressure plate.
t
– Stator discs.
o
– Rotor discs.
i w
– Back plate.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 207

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Landing gear systems
a c s _
r s
On aircraft other two systems are installed. These systems, which are very important, are:
t i
• Antiskid system
– In order to have maximum efficiency during braking.
o w
– Avoid the wheel lock.
s
• Increase of the braking distance because the friction coefficient is reduced.
• Loss of guidance control, due to the loss of tire grip.
e
• Risk of tire explosion.
c
• Autobraking system
s
- The auto-braking system is generally connected to the anti-skid system. If the auto-
a
braking system is activated, the anti-skid device is working too. When the taxing control is
r is
set on the auto-braking, the pilot does not push pedals to brake, because the maneuver is
t
automatically executed.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 208 w

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Tires
a c s
• The core body of the tire is a multi-layer of nylon fibers, which are positioned along
r s
different directions and drown in the rubber.
t i
• An over inflation is less severe than a low pressure, but it determines:
– Reduction of grip with the track.
o w
– Increase intension of the canvas frame, resulting in decrease elasticity, essential to
s
absorb shock.
– Increased vulerability to tread damage (cuts), due to the increasedd tension of the
e
tire.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 209 w
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Steering
a c s _
r s
• Light aircraft are commonly provided with the nose-wheel steering
t i
capability, provided by a simple system of mechanical linkage hooked to the
rudder pedals.
o w
• Instead, large aircraft utilize a power source for the nose-wheel steering.
s
This system is necessary because large aircraft have larger mass and heavier
e
weight.
c
• During taxiing, steering hand-wheels (one for the pilot and one for the co-
a s
pilot) are used to control the direction of the aircraft. The steering hand-
wheel provides 75° of nose wheel deflection both in left or right direction.
tr is
Signals from each hand-wheel are summed up
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 210 w

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Shimmy
a c s _
tr is
• An important phenomenon that is connected to the employment of the
landing gear is the shimmy. Shimmy is a summarizing term for the torsion
o w
flutter phenomenon of aircraft landing gears.
s
• A way to oppose the phenomenon consists in installing the shimmy damper
e
on the landing gear. The shimmy damper is a little piston able to provide the
necessary damping to cancel or reduce vibrations
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 211 w
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Air-ground sensing
a
•
c
Most aircraft and helicopters utilize some type of Weight On Wheel (WOW)
s _
r is
Sensor or Switch that activates when the aircraft is on the ground
t
• A faulty or incorrectly adjusted WOW system may cause vital systems to not
o
function or function intermittently
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ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 212 w
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ce
a s
Chapter 13,17
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OXYGEN
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 213 w

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Oxygen system
a c
On civil aircraft the oxygen is supplied only in emergency conditions, when:
s _
tr is
• The pressurization system fails.
• There is the presence of fumes or gasses.
o w
• One or more passengers have medical difficulties.
• The supply should last at least 15 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 at a pressure altitude of 8000 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 at
s
30 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒.
e
• On civil aircraft, the system, dedicated for the oxygen supply in the cockpit, requests the
installation of a particular tank that generally operates at 1850 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (12.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎).
c
• In particular:
a s
– Provision of oxygen mixed with air on demand
r
– Provision of oxygen only on request
t is
– Provision of continuous flow of oxygen at a pressure double in comparison to the
two previous cases.
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Oxygen system
a c s _
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tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o
Rev.04 Pag. 215 w
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Crew oxygen system
a c
The technical solution used for the emergency oxygen system is double:
s _
r s
• To install some supply circuits, dedicated to the passengers and the flight crew
t i
• To equip the aircraft with some oxygen tanks/bottle (both fixed and portable)
o w
On civil aircraft, the system dedicated for the cockpit oxygen supply, requests:
s
• The installation of a particular tanks operating at 1850 psi
• A distribution net must reach every single certificate position of the crew
e
• Some regulations to allows the flow to come into the mask
c
• Some masks, one for each crew member
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 216 w
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Oxygen
a c
Sources, storage, charging and distribution:
s _
r s
• The gaseous system is divided in two categories:
t i
– Continuous flow:
o
– Any automatic control in the main ringsupply can overridden by a member of the crew.
w
– Pressure demand.
s
Supply regulation:
• On wide body aircraft, the crew control the oxygen system for the cockpit and cabin, through
e
the oxygen panel, located on the cockpit overhead panel.
c
• The red button is the control of the mask bays in the passengers compartment.
s
• When it is in the AUTO position, the mask bays automatically open as the cabin altitude
a
exceeds 10000𝑓𝑡 (3050𝑚).
r is
• When the guard is lifted and the button is pressed, the mask bays open, regardless of the cabin
t
altitude.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 217 w

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Oxygen
a c
Indications and warnings:
s _
r s
• On glass cockpit aircraft, the indications and warnings concerning the oxygen system and the
t i
pressurization circuit of the aircraft are shown on the DOOR page of the ECAM system.
– The indications corrisponding to oxygen system are displayed in the upper right corner of
o w
the page.
– The OXY writing is displayed in green.
e s
c s
• There may be also amber half frame, whcih appears as an
a
alert to the pilot, when oxygen is slightly below 1500𝑝𝑠𝑖
r is
(10,3𝑀𝑃𝑎).
t
• This condition calls for the pilot attention.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 218 w

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Chemical oxygen generators
a c
The chemical oxygen generators are especially used for the passenger cabin oxygen
s _
r s
system
t i
• The chemical oxygen generators are made by:
• A metallic container
o w
• A candle of chlorate sodium
s
• A pressure detonator
The oxygen is produced by the exothermal reaction developed in the candle
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 219 w
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Oxygen system
a
•
c s _
The information about the oxygen system is displayed on the lower right corner
r s
of the DOOR/OXY page.
t i
• The OXY writing indicates the value of the pressure of the oxygen. This value is
o
expressed in psi.
w
• When it is normal, the information is displayed in green (Green band and black
s
rectangular symbol on white back-ground), while if the value is too low the
number is colored by the amber
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01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 220 w
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Oxygen system on military jet
a
•
c s _
On military jets, the pilot breathing is guaranteed through a mask, similar to that of
r is
the picture. This mask is usually used during the whole flight, and the oxygen
t
concentration, that it provides, varies according to the aircraft altitude
o s w
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 221 w
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ce
a s
Chapter 13,18
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PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 222 w

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System layout
a c s _
The pneumatic system works at 10MPa that correspond to a 2 to 8% bleed from compressor
r s
The main users of the pneumatic system usually are:
t i
• The pressurization and the conditioning system
o
• The anti-ice system
w
• The system dedicated to the start-up of engines.
e s
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 223 w
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s A
e S
Sources: engine, APU, compressors, rervoirs and ground supply
a c
APU (Auxiliary Power Unit):
s _
r s
• A check valve is installed so that when the APU is not running air from the
t i
pneumatic manifold can’t back feed through the APU
o
• Air pressure from the APU is controlled by altering the inlet guide vanes to
w
the load compressor
s
Indications and warnings:
ce
• The pneumatic system is automatically controlled and
monitored by 2 BMCs.
r a s
•
is
There is one BMC for each engine bleed system.
t
• However, both BMCs are interconnected and if one fails,
o
the other takes-over most of its functions (NOT ALL).
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 224 w

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s A
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Pressure control
c s _
• The air provided by the pneumatic system must be regulated in quantity and in
a
physical characteristics (pressure and temperature).
r s
•
t i
The pneumatic system must be connected to a circuit of control and regulation.
• In case of stage 8 of the compressor, the characteristics of the tapped air are quite
o
similar to the requested employment conditions.
s w
In case air bleeding occurs at the high pressure stage,
e
downstream of the bleeding point more valves are installed:
c
• High pressure bleed valve, the air taken from the stage of
a s
high pressure passes through a high pressure shut off valve
r
(high pressure bleed valve), electrically controlled and
t is
penumatically driven.
o
• Check valve, which avoids that the air is short circuited,
i w
tapped air is not allowed to come back in the low pressure
stage of the compressor.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 225

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s A
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Indications
a c s _
• The information concerning the pneumatic system is also displayed on the
r s
lower part of the ECAM BLEED page.
t i
• On this page the valves of the pneumatic system are represented by a little
circle, with a line inside
o s w
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 226 w
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es S A
a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
a s
Chapter 13,19
tr is
WATER AND WASTE
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 227 w

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s A
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Potable water system
a
Storage:
c s _
r s
• Potable water is stored in a small tankers
t i
• The stored water must be sufficient for the whole flight
o
• The water quantity that the tank must contain depends on the number of passengers that
w
the aircraft transports.
s
• In general, an amount of water ranging from 2 to 4 liters is required for each passenger.
• The storage system of potable water requests the installation of a tank able to feed all
e
different users.
c
Heating:
• The water must be heated to the right temperature for the hot water taps
a s
• The water must be enough heated to make hot drinks
r is
Cooling:
t
• The water of the drinking fountains must be cooled
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 228 w

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s A
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Potable water system
a c
Distribution:
s _
r s
• The pressure must be enough to force the water to all taps, heaters and
t i
beverage makers
o
Contents indication:
w
• The cabin crew must be able to control the water level during the flight
s
• The technician must be able to control the quantity of loaded water
Anti-frost system:
e
• It prevents the water freezing in the supply pipes
c
• Some Electrical heaters are placed around the pipes
a s
Removal of waste water:
r
•
is
The waste water must be removed from sinks, drinking fountains towards the
t
outside of the aircraft
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 229 w

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s A
e S
Toilet system layout, flushing and servicing
a c
Toilet system can be classed into three groups:
s _
r s
1. Removable toilets, often called Elson type
t i
2. Re-usable toilets liquid flush type
o
3. Clean water flush type, or vacuum flush type
w
• The sink water is drained outside the aircraft
e s
• The flush type single toilet unit has a sink that distributes hot
and cold potable water, and a WC that uses instead a
c
management system of black water.
a s
• This system is made of a tank containing a liquid, which is
tr is
treated with chemical additives.
o
• These substances protect from the fermentation and the
i w
development of bacteria
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 230

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s A
e S
Water system layout, supply, distribution, servicing and draining
a c
Potable water tanks:
s _
r s
• On large aircraft there may be two or more drain points under the fuselage, one in front
t i
of the wing section and one behind.
o
Water pressurization system consists of:
w
• A filter, normally a paper throwaway type, to prevent particles entering water links.
s
• A pressure regulator to control the air pressure, if it beomes dangerously high.
• A pressure switch, switches the compressor on when the system pressure drops.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 231 w
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s A
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Corrosion aspect
a
•
c s _
The toilets, especially the sinks, are the places in which the corrosion starts.
r s
• The toilet floor does not have an easy access for maintenance and is subject to
t i
moisture, so it is a common place where corrosion can start (It must be used floor
o
panel sealings)
w
• To avoid corrosion it is necessary to provide some extra protection.
s
• A strong corrosion resistant material is the titanium.
ce
tr a is s
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 232 w
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s A
c e _S
tr a is s
o s w
ce
a s
Chapter 13,20
tr is
INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONIC
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 233 w

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s A
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Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA)
a
•
c s _
The first step in this direction was taken by Honeywell in 1995 with the concept of
r s
Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA). Avionic devices were decomposed into their basic
t i
functional elements: Processing, I/O, Power Supply and Gateway. These functions were
allocated to distinct modules (CPM = core processing module, IOM = I/O module, PSM
o w
= power supply module, GWM = gate way module).
s
• These modules were physically assembled within a cabinet frame
e
•
c
The communication between the modules provided a back plane bus (SAFE BUSTM).
The back plane bus protocol and the module operating system middleware provided
a s
certified services for strong SW/SW partitioning, HW/SW segregation, and failure
r is
monitoring.
t
• The Core Processor Input/output Module (CPIOM) is the common avionics computer
resource supporting most of the software-implemented functions of the aircraft. The
o w
CPIOM is a standard hardware platform designed to host several independent aircraft
i
functions.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 234

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s A
e S
Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA)
a c
Federated architecture and its limits:
s _
r s
• Standard avionic boxes are chosen to host the general purpose controllers, labeled CPIOM
t i
(Core Input-Output Module).
• The standard CPIOM is applied to both cockpit and utility functions.
o w
• Due to the concept of Open IMA, responsibility for the development of systems and
s
functions remains up to system manufacturers.
• The moor’s law derives from the observation that over the history of computing
e
hardware, the number of transistors on integrated circuits doubles aproximately every two
years.
c
• The period often quoted as ‘’18 months’’ is due to intel executive David House.
a s
– The traditional concept ‘’federated architecture’’ principle: one function - one
r is
computer could no longer be maintained.
t
– This approach finally faced its natural limit when the and volume of the black boxes’’
hit the envelope restrictions of the aircraft. In order to shrink volume, weight and
i o w
costs, multiple functions are integrated onto single computing device.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 235

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s A
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Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA):
a c
System development and integration process
s _
r s
• In order to develop standardized IMA controllers linked to the Aircraft Data
t i
Communication Network (ADCN), the aircraft assembler has to modify the
conventional development processes and responsibilities.
o w
– The Avionic Module Supplier.
– The Aircraft System Manufacturer and the aircraft assembler.
s
• The aircraft assembler specifies the basic features of the IMA modules according to the
e
ARINC standards 600, 615 and 653.
c
•
s
The tool chain enables the system manufacturers to debug and verify the software
a
functions in the very early stage of the development sycle.
tr is
• The partitioning is a concept concerning software and hardware development, it
o
consists in the fact that each system is not affected by the others and it can therefore
i w
be tested separately.
01.11.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 236

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s A
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Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA):
a c s _
tr is
Common Remote Data Concentrator (CRDC):
• It concentrates data from analog and discrete signals remotely (for example,
o w
in proximity to associated sensors and actuators) and then communicates
this data to computer processing resources on the aircraft
s
• The CRDC is an avionics unit generally installed outside of the avionics
e
compartment.
Avionnic Full Duplex Switched Ethernet System (AFDX):
c
• The AFDX bus supports a data transfer rate of 100 Mbits/s as well as a
a s
multitude of end systems (up to 5000 service access ports at full data
transfor speed).
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 237 w
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es S A
a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
a s
Chapter 13,21
tr is
CABIN SYSTEMS
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 238 w

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s A
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Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)
a c
The Cabin Intercommunication Data System, or CIDS, gives the interface between
s _
r s
the flight crew (cabin/cockpit) and the cabin systems
t i
• The main improves for new CIDS are related to the exclusive use of touch-screen
o
interfaces, common software platform and a common, user-friendly interface to
w
obtain fleet uniformities and to reduce costs (components and specialization
courses).
s
• These systems are generally operated by means of control panels, especially the
e
cabin attendant panels.
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 239 w
wi
s A
e S
Cabin Network Service (CNS)
a c s _
tr is
• The Cabin Network Service (CNS) is a new kind of system that allows interconnecting
the entire aircraft system to the available services: communication, entertainment,
o w
diagnosis system, flight data, etc.
s
• The principle of operation of the CNS can be compared to that of a common pc
network where the data runs on wires and transmits information to all the connected
e
stations.
c
• The first advantage is that with a single wire it is possible to transmit more information
a s
to different LRUs and on board systems.
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 240 w
wi
s A
e S
In-flight entertainment system
a c s _
r s
• The satellite television is the most recent innovation for in flight entertainment
t i
system
• The covered area and the relative satellite are:
o w
o West Europe (ASTRA and HOTBIRD)
s
o East Europe, Russian zone (EUTELSAT W4)
o North Africa and Mid-East (ARABSAT and NILESAT)
e
o India (INSAT 4B)
a c s
o tr is
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 241 w
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es S A
a c s _
o tr is
s w
ce
a s
Chapter 13,22
tr is
INFORMATION SYSTEM
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 242 w

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s A
e S
Information system
a c
Flight deck information system:
s _
r s
• Important flight, navigation and engine information is presented in six large display screens.
t i
• The new displays save space, have a lower weigh, require less power and generate less heat,
o
which contributes to greater reliability and a longer service life.
w
• The flat panel displays remain clearly visible in all conditions, even direct sunlight.
s
• Three multipurpose control dsplay units (CDU) provide data display and entry capabilities for
flight management functions. These units are the primary interface with an integrated Airplane
e
Information Management System (AIMS).
c
Classical configuration help flight crew to execute their job, avoiding possible accidents:
• Ground Maneuver Camera System (GMICS), designed to assist the pilot in ground maneuvering
a s
of the aircraft with camera views of the nose gear and main gear areas.
r is
• Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is a standard equuipment. It
t
incorporates a digital terrain map which is compared to airplane position from the navigation
o
system. It gives an audible alert.
01.11.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 243 w

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s A
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Means of storing
a c
On modern aircrafts memories used are SSD Solid State Drive that have completely
s _
r s
replaced the older technology based on the Hard Disk Drive HDD. SSD shows a breaking
t i
risk lower than an Hard Disk Drive because in a SSD there are no moving parts. Moreover:
o w
o SSD doesn’t need defrag.
o SSD is more shock resistant than the HDD.
s
o SSD produces less heat than the HDD.
ce
• Usually this kind of drive is based on flash memory. Flash memories use the features of
Floating Gate MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor) a field effect
a s
transistor able to store electric charge for a long time.
tr is
• The limit of flash memories is that they cannot be wrote and read limitless like hard disk
drives therefore they have lifecycles.
01.11.2018 i o Rev.04 Pag. 244 w

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