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Dean DellaPenna
Department of Biochemistry, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557;
e-mail: della d@med.unr.edu
ABSTRACT
Plant foods contain almost all of the mineral and organic nutrients established
as essential for human nutrition, as well as a number of unique organic phy-
tochemicals that have been linked to the promotion of good health. Because
the concentrations of many of these dietary constituents are often low in edible
plant sources, research is under way to understand the physiological, biochem-
ical, and molecular mechanisms that contribute to their transport, synthesis and
accumulation in plants. This knowledge can be used to develop strategies with
which to manipulate crop plants, and thereby improve their nutritional quality.
Improvement strategies will differ between various nutrients, but generalizations
can be made for mineral or organic nutrients. This review focuses on the plant
nutritional physiology and biochemistry of two essential human nutrients, iron
and vitamin E, to provide examples of the type of information that is needed,
and the strategies that can be used, to improve the mineral or organic nutrient
composition of plants.
1 The US Government has the right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and to any
133
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
ROLE OF PLANTS IN HUMAN HEALTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Essential Human Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Bioavailability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Phytochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
PLANT IMPROVEMENT THROUGH CULTIVAR SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES FOR MINERAL NUTRIENTS: IRON AS
AN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Iron Processes in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Strategies for Iron Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES FOR ORGANIC NUTRIENTS: VITAMIN E
AS AN EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Structures and Functions of Tocopherols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Plant Oils: The Major Dietary Source of Tocopherols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
The Tocopherol Biosynthetic Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Strategies and Gene Targets for α-Tocopherol Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
ISSUES AND PROSPECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
INTRODUCTION
The nutritional health and well-being of humans are entirely dependent on
plant foods. Plants are critical components of the dietary food chain in that
they provide almost all essential mineral and organic nutrients to humans either
directly, or indirectly when plants are consumed by animals, which are then
consumed by humans. Because plants are autotrophic, they can acquire ele-
mental compounds and convert these into the building blocks (e.g. amino acids,
fatty acids, nucleic acids, secondary metabolites) needed to make all complex
macromolecules necessary to support plant growth and reproduction. Humans,
on the other hand, require many of the same mineral nutrients as plants, but
have additional requirements for various complex organic molecules. With the
exception of vitamins B12 and D, a plant-based food supply can ensure the
adequate nutrition of humans at all stages of life.
Not all plant foods, however, contain all the essential nutrients needed for
human health, nor do they usually contain given nutrients in sufficiently con-
centrated amounts to meet daily dietary requirements in a single serving. For
instance, seed foods are good sources of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
lipid-soluble vitamins, but tend to have low concentrations of Fe and Ca. Leafy
vegetables are good sources of most minerals and vitamins, but are less nutri-
ent dense with respect to protein and carbohydrates. Fruits provide carbohy-
drates, water-soluble vitamins, and various carotenoids, but generally are minor
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sources of protein and certain minerals. Thus, not only is a diverse, complex
diet necessary to fully support human growth and health, but the concentration
of various nutrients within the dietary mix also is an important determinant of
whether nutritional requirements are being met.
Unfortunately, many people do not consume a sufficiently diverse diet. In
the developing world, many low-income families exist on a simple diet com-
posed primarily of staple foods (e.g. rice, wheat, maize) that are poor sources
of some macronutrients and many micronutrients (22). As a result, recent es-
timates are that 250 million children are at risk for vitamin A deficiency (of
which 250,000–500,000 will suffer irreversible blindness every year), 2 billion
people (33% of the world’s population) are at risk for iron deficiency (in-
fants, children, and women of reproductive age are particularly vulnerable),
and 1.5 billion people are at risk for iodine deficiency (38). Furthermore,
even in the United States, the average intake of fruits and vegetables was re-
cently assessed to be only 3.4 servings per day, well below the five-per-day
recommendation of the US National Research Council (110, 145). This rec-
ommendation is derived from numerous epidemiological studies, which sug-
gest that the daily consumption of five or more servings of fruits and veg-
etables is associated with reduced risk for several types of cancer as well as
other degenerative diseases (12). Many of these studies have implicated an-
tioxidants, such as carotenoids (e.g. β-carotene and lycopene), tocopherols,
ascorbic acid, and selenium, as contributors to the healthful properties of such
a diet. Furthermore, fruits and vegetables also contain a vast and complex
array of bioactive secondary compounds (nonessential for humans), collec-
tively referred to as phytochemicals, that show promise in contributing to
the promotion of good health and protection against human diseases (139,
165).
To ensure an adequate dietary intake of all essential nutrients and to increase
the consumption of various health-promoting compounds, researchers have
been interested in improving the nutritional quality of plants, with respect to
both nutrient composition and concentration (13, 47, 161). In this article, we
discuss the role that plant foods play in human nutrition and health, and review
some of the efforts pertinent to plant nutrient composition. We then review our
current knowledge regarding the physiological, biochemical, and molecular
mechanisms that are involved in the eventual deposition of iron, a mineral
nutrient, and vitamin E, an organic nutrient. Because it would be impossible
to discuss all plant-derived nutrients in this article, we focus on just these
two nutrients to provide examples of the type of information that is needed,
and the strategies that can be used, to improve the mineral or organic nutrient
composition of plants.
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Bioavailability
The total content, or absolute concentration, of a given nutrient in a food is not
always a good indicator of its useful nutritional quality, because not all of the
nutrients in food are absorbed. Human nutritionists use the term bioavailability
to describe the proportion of an ingested nutrient that is digested, absorbed,
and ultimately utilized (17). Digestion involves various physical, chemical,
enzymatic, and secretory processes that combine to break down the food matrix
as much as possible (keep in mind that cellulose cannot be digested because
humans do not express a cellulase). These digestive processes serve to release
and solubilize nutrients so they can diffuse out of the bulk food matrix to the
enterocytes of the intestine. Absorption then depends on whether the nutrient
is in an appropriate form (e.g. charged, complexed), whether the necessary
absorptive transport systems are in place in the gut (this depends in part on the
individual’s nutritional status), and whether inhibitory or promotive substances
are present in the food matrix (90). Because of these issues, the bioavailability
of many minerals and organic micronutrients varies greatly (110), and can
be as low as 5% in the case of most plant sources of Fe (23) or in the case
of Ca when it is present in foods as crystalline Ca-oxalate (40, 158). This
raises the possibility that one strategy for improving plant nutritional quality
could be merely to alter the composition of the food (e.g. changing the form of
the stored nutrient, removing inhibitory compounds), in order to enhance the
bioavailability of existing nutrient levels.
Phytochemicals
Besides the well-established minerals and vitamins, plants can provide an array
of interesting, nonessential phytochemicals in the diet. Phytochemicals can be
separated into several groups, based on their biosynthetic origin, with some
groups containing several thousand chemically distinct compounds. These in-
clude flavonoids, flavones, phytosterols, phenols and polyphenols, phytoestro-
gens, glucosinolates, and indoles, to name but a few (11, 27, 33, 37, 69, 82, 152).
With respect to human health, estimates of potential therapeutic value have
been made for numerous compounds produced by plants. Unfortunately, most
of our information in this area stems from epidemiological evidence that only
can provide associations between health benefits and particular foods or classes
of food components. Thus, the current research focus in this area is to identify
the exact chemical(s) responsible for a given beneficial effect and to delineate
the underlying biochemical and molecular mechanisms involved. For many
groups of phytochemicals, we know little about their bioavailability, whether
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138
Table 1 Essential human nutrients, daily requirements, and plant food sources
10:2
Maximum Safe upper intake Predominant plant Mean nutrient content Human health
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Minerals
Potassium 2000 mg 9X Various 447 mg (kale) 94
Calcium 1200 mg 2X Vegetables 48 mg (broccoli) 4
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vegetables
Iron 15 mg 5X Seeds, leafy 1.47 mg (pea) 164
vegetables
Zinc 15 mg 1X Seeds 2.93 mg (wheat flour) 2
Manganesed 2–5 mg 1X Seeds 4.9 mg (oat) 76
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vegetables
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Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin E 10 mg α-TEf 100X Seeds, leafy 1.23 mg α-TE 154
vegetables (wheat flour)
Annual Reviews
Reference 110.
b
The concept assumes that there is individual variation in both requirement for the nutrient and tolerance for high intake. The safe upper intake limit is associated
with a low probability of adverse side effect. The authors are not advocating intake of supplements at these levels. Values were derived from References 83, 110,
and 168.
c
Concentrations are for 100 g raw, edible portion of food; values are representative for predominant source and are not the highest known example. All seed
sources represent whole-seed or whole-grain values. Note that water content varies among sources. Values are from References 138 and 154a.
d
Recommended values for these nutrients are provided as estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake ranges, because less information is available on which
to base the RDAs. Values are from Reference 110.
e
One mg NE (niacin equivalent) is equal to 1 mg of niacin or 60 mg of dietary tryptophan.
f
One mg α-TE (α-tocopherol equivalent) is equal to 1 mg (R,R,R)-α-tocopherol.
g
Preformed vitamin A is not found in plant foods. However, plants contain a number of provitamin A carotenoids (e.g. β-carotene), which can be metabolized
NUTRITIONAL IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS
to vitamin A.
h
Vitamin A activity is expressed in retinol equivalents (RE). One mg RE is equal to 1 µg all-trans retinol, 6 µg all-trans β-carotene, or 12 µg of other pro-
vitamin A carotenoids.
139
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the absorbed compounds are metabolized into active or inactive forms in the
body, or their modes of action at the cellular, biochemical, or molecular level.
and the capacity for safe bioavailable storage in the edible tissues. Additionally,
because energy costs to the plant may dictate that content changes are more
feasible at the µg level than the mg level, percentage changes in mineral content
may be more dramatic for the micronutrient and nonessential minerals.
The mineral composition of each plant organ is determined by a sequence of
events that begins with membrane transport in the roots, proceeds to the xylem
system for transit to the vegetative organs, may involve temporary storage in
stem or leafy tissues, in some cases utilizes mobilization via the phloem path-
way, and concludes with deposition in one or more cellular compartments (see
Figure 1). All of these processes are integrated and regulated by the plant to
Figure 1 Whole plant schematic of the processes relevant to Fe transport and accumulation in
higher plant tissues. Potential control points that would influence the movement of Fe from one
compartment to the next include: (A) Fe acquisition/uptake phenomena, including the release
of compounds by roots to chelate or solubilize soil Fe; (B) intracellular/intercellular transport,
including the involvement of xylem parenchyma; (C ) transpiration rates of vegetative tissues;
(D) storage and remobilization phenomena; (E ) Fe-chelate expression and capacity for phloem
Fe loading; (F ) phloem transport capacity of photoassimilates from a given source region; (G )
communication of shoot Fe status via phloem-mobile signal molecules to regulate root processes.
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ensure that adequate, but not toxic, quantities of mineral nutrients are avail-
able for the plant’s growth and development. For any given mineral, a holistic
understanding of the relevant transport and partitioning mechanisms, and the
molecular to whole-plant factors that regulate them, is critical to enable im-
provement strategies to be developed. Strategically, one must determine the
process or processes that rate limit the eventual deposition of each mineral in a
given structure, such that these can be targeted for genetic or molecular modi-
fication. Our current understanding of these processes in iron nutrition is given
as an example.
ROOT IRON ACQUISITION Higher plants utilize one of two strategies for Fe ac-
quisition (101). Strategy I involves an obligatory reduction of ferric iron (usu-
ally as an Fe[III]-compound) prior to membrane influx of Fe2+; this strategy is
used by all dicotyledonous plants and the non-grass monocots. Strategy II (used
by grasses) employs ferric chelators, called phytosiderophores, that are released
by roots and chelate ferric iron in the rhizosphere. The Fe(III)-phytosiderophore
is absorbed intact via a plasmalemma transport protein. When plants of either
strategy are challenged with Fe-deficiency stress, the processes associated with
one or the other strategy are upregulated in the plant’s root system.
Mechanistically, Strategy I plants utilize a plasmalemma reductase that trans-
fers an electron from an internal reductant to an external Fe(III)-chelate (63).
Reduced Fe2+ is released from the chelate and is transported across the root-cell
plasmalemma via a ferrous transport protein (34, 39). At present, root Fe(III)
reductase activity has been characterized in a number of species (107), but no
plant Fe(III) reductase has been isolated and sequenced. However, four can-
didate genes ( frohA, frohB, frohC, and frohD), suggested to encode Fe(III)
reductases, have been identified in Arabidopsis by PCR, using degenerate
primers based on conserved motifs found in yeast Fe(III) reductases (122, 123).
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More information is known about the Fe2+ transporter. The Arabidopsis IRT1
gene (for Iron Regulated Transporter) was identified by functional complemen-
tation of a yeast mutant defective in iron uptake (34). Expression of IRT1 is
localized to roots in Arabidopsis, and is induced when plants are challenged
with Fe deficiency.
Strategy II plants release one of a group of closely related phytosidero-
phores belonging to the mugineic acid family (147). Phytosiderophores are
low-molecular-weight peptides derived from methionine (109, 134); their bio-
synthetic pathway is fairly well established (97, 108). A few of the critical bio-
synthetic enzymes have recently been identified (62, 73, 74), as a result of
differences observed between Fe-sufficient and Fe-deficient plants. Strategy II
plants require at least two membrane transport systems for phytosiderophores:
one to facilitate the efflux of uncomplexed phytosiderophore and the other
the influx of Fe(III)-phytosiderophore. Release follows a diurnal periodicity in
most species (167) and may involve vesicular targeting to the plasmalemma
(112). Fe(III)-phytosiderophore influx is generally increased in Fe-deficient
plants and the uptake system appears capable of transporting most of the iden-
tified Fe(III)-phytosiderophore species (96). Both high-affinity and low-affinity
phytosiderophore uptake systems have been shown to function in maize (156).
Neither of the transporters has been identified at the protein or gene level, but a
transport-defective maize mutant ( ys1) may prove useful in this regard (156).
Although much has been learned about the mechanisms of iron acquisition
in higher plants, including the upregulation of root biosynthetic and transport
systems in response to Fe deficiency, we only have limited understanding of
the molecular regulation of these processes. Recent evidence suggests that the
control may lie in the shoot tissues. Studies with two Fe-hyperaccumulating
pea mutants demonstrated that shoot-to-root transmission of a phloem-mobile
signal was responsible for the elevated rates of root Fe(III) reduction (53). Root
reductase activity in wild-type, Fe-sufficient pea also was shown to be dynam-
ically modulated throughout the plant’s life cycle in response to whole-plant
Fe demand (49). These and other studies (84, 125) indicate that whole-plant
Fe status is somehow monitored and assessed by the shoot tissues, with Fe
need or Fe demand subsequently communicated to the roots, probably through
an intracellular network (93). Because Fe(III) reduction is thought to be the
rate-limiting Fe acquisition process in Strategy I plants (55, 166) and the en-
tire phytosiderophore synthesis and transport cascade is critical for Strategy
II plants (25, 156), it is no wonder that these processes are tightly regulated
by the shoot to prevent toxic accumulation of Fe. The phloem-mobile signal
compound has yet to be identified, but possible candidates include hormones,
Fe-binding compounds, and even re-translocated Fe (10, 85, 98, 125, 141).
Identification of the signal and a characterization of its molecular interaction
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Figure 2 Tocopherol structures. The number and position of ring methyls in α, β, γ , and δ are
indicated in the accompanying table.
with the ultimate goal of modifying the levels of these nutrients in agronomically
important plants. The remainder of this section focuses on recent progress in the
molecular dissection and manipulation of the tocopherol biosynthetic pathway
in plants. α-Tocopherol manipulation is presented here as a specific example of
the potential of such integrative approaches for manipulation of plant-derived
phytochemicals.
Table 2 Tocopherol levels and composition in selected crops and plant oilsa
using radiolabeled intermediates. Through these efforts it was shown that pho-
tosynthetic organisms synthesize α-tocopherol using a common set of enzy-
matic reactions (162). The first step in the pathway is the formation of ho-
mogentisic acid (HGA), the aromatic precursor common to both tocopherols
and plastoquinones (162), by the enzyme p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxyge-
nase (HPPDase). The HPPDase enzyme locus (PDS1) has been identified by
mutant analysis in Arabidopsis and shown to be essential for tocopherol and
plastoquinone biosynthesis in plants (113). Several laboratories have now iso-
lated cDNAs encoding HPPDase from various plant species and, surprisingly,
have shown it to be a cytosolic enzyme (44, 114). HPPDase represents the
first enzyme of the tocopherol biosynthetic pathway to be cloned from any
photosynthetic organism.
HGA is subject to phytylation or prenylation (phytyl-PP and solanyl-PP, C20
and C45, respectively) to form the first true tocopherol and plastoquinone inter-
mediates, 2-methyl-6-phytylplastoquinol and 2-methyl-6-solanylplastoquinol-
9, respectively. Genetic studies have identified a single locus in Arabidopsis (the
PDS2 locus) whose mutation disrupts both phytylation and prenylation, sug-
gesting both reactions are mediated by a single enzyme (113). This activity is
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Figure 3 Tocopherol biosynthetic pathway. The pathway shown is present in all photosynthetic
organisms. Enzymatic activities are labeled in black boxes. The sequence of steps to α-tocopherol
after addition of the phytyl tail to HGA is the most widely accepted of many possible sequences pro-
posed from biochemical studies. HPPDase is generally accepted as having a cytosolic localization;
all other enzymes are presumably localized to plastids.
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the branch point for the tocopherol and plastoquinone biosynthetic branches of
the pathway, and represents a second potentially key enzymatic step regulating
flux through the pathway. In addition to the level and activity of the enzyme
encoded by the PDS2 locus, the availability of various substrates for the reac-
tion (HGA, solanyl-PP, GGDP, and phytol-PP) also are potentially important
in determining the total amount and ratios of tocopherol, tocotrienol, or PQ
intermediates made in a tissue. For tocopherols, production of the hydrophobic
tail would minimally require a (possibly specific) GGDP synthase and a reduc-
tase for saturating GGDP to generate phytol-PP. A GGDP reductase has recently
been cloned that is active toward both free GGDP and geranylated chlorophyll
derivatives (78). In the coming years, overexpression of this enzyme should
allow determination of its involvement in tocopherol synthesis.
2-Methyl-6-phytylplastoquinol is the common intermediate in the synthesis
of all tocopherols. The next steps in α-tocopherol synthesis are ring methyla-
tions and ring cyclization. The preferred reaction sequence for α-tocopherol
synthesis in isolated spinach chloroplasts is thought to be: (a) ring methylation
at position 3 to yield 2,3-dimethyl-6-phytylplastoquinol, (b) cyclization to yield
d-7,8 dimethyltocol (γ -tocopherol), and finally (c) a second ring methylation
at position 5 to yield α-tocopherol (137). The first ring methylation reaction
is common to both tocopherol and plastoquinone synthesis and is thought to
be carried out by a single enzyme that is specific for the site of methylation
on the ring but has broad substrate specificity and accommodates both classes
of compounds (24, 137). The second ring methylation enzyme (γ -tocopherol
methyltransferase) has an enzymatic activity distinct from the first and has been
purified from both higher plants and algae (31, 67, 133). The tocopherol cycliza-
tion enzyme has been purified to homogeneity and biochemically characterized
from Anabena variabilis (142, 143).
Although α- and γ -tocopherol biosynthesis proceeds as described above,
it is not entirely clear how δ- and β-tocopherols are produced. Although not
commonly found in all plant tissues, δ- and β-tocopherols can nonetheless
be present at relatively high levels in certain tissues, most notably seeds. It
is most likely that δ- and β-tocopherols are synthesized by a subset of the
same complement of enzymes involved in α-tocopherol synthesis and only
accumulate under conditions when one or both methylation enzymes are rate
limiting. The overall tocopherol composition is therefore determined by the
combined activities and substrate specificities of the tocopherol cyclase and
two methylation enzymes present in a given tissue.
pathway (flux through the pathway) and those predominantly affecting qualita-
tive aspects of the pathway (the relative amounts of α-, β-, γ , and δ-tocopherols
produced). Current evidence suggests that steps involved in the formation and
phytylation of HGA (HPPDase and the prenyl/phytyl transferase) and produc-
tion of the phytol tail (GGDP synthase and GGDP reductase) function in a
quantitative manner to regulate flux through the pathway (43). The subsequent
cyclization and methylation reactions function primarily in a qualitative manner
to regulate the tocopherol composition of a given plant tissue (30).
Quantitative manipulation of tocopherol levels requires metabolic engineer-
ing of what are likely to be multiple enzymatic activities in order to increase
carbon flux through the pathway. HPPDase and GGDP reductase have already
been cloned, and as other relevant pathway enzymes are cloned, quantitative
manipulation of tocopherol levels in plant tissues may indeed become a real-
ity. Qualitative manipulation of the existing tocopherol composition in a tissue
would require positive or negative alteration of one or both of the methyltrans-
ferases. Negative alteration would cause accumulation of specific biosynthetic
intermediates (β-, γ -, and δ-tocopherols), while positive manipulation would
result in the conversion of any biosynthetic intermediates to the pathway end
product, α-tocopherol. A tocopherol biosynthetic enzyme that is likely to have
the greatest impact on the levels of α-tocopherol accumulated in a tissue is the
final enzyme of the pathway, γ -tocopherol methyltransferase.
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