Literary realism

Literary realism is part of the realist art

movement beginning with mid-
nineteenth-century French literature
(Stendhal), and Russian literature
(Alexander Pushkin) and extending to the
late nineteenth and early twentieth
century.[1] Literary realism attempts to
represent familiar things as they are.
Realist authors chose to depict everyday
and banal activities and experiences,
instead of using a romanticized or
similarly stylized presentation.

Background
Broadly defined as "the representation of
reality",[2] realism in the arts is the
attempt to represent subject matter
truthfully, without artificiality and
avoiding artistic conventions, as well as
implausible, exotic and supernatural
elements.
Realism has been prevalent in the arts at
many periods, and is in large part a
matter of technique and training, and the
avoidance of stylization. In the visual
arts, illusionistic realism is the accurate
depiction of lifeforms, perspective, and
the details of light and colour. Realist
works of art may emphasize the ugly or
sordid, such as works of social realism,
regionalism, or kitchen sink realism.

There have been various realism

movements in the arts, such as the opera
style of verismo, literary realism,
theatrical realism and Italian neorealist
cinema. The realism art movement in
painting began in France in the 1850s,
after the 1848 Revolution.[3] The realist
painters rejected Romanticism, which
had come to dominate French literature
and art, with roots in the late 18th
century.

In the Introduction to The Human

Comedy (1842) Balzac "claims that
poetic creation and scientific creation are
closely related activities, manifesting the
tendency of realists towards taking over
scientific methods. The artists of realism
used the achievements of contemporary
science, the strictness and precision of
the scientific method, in order to
understand reality. The positivist spirit in
science presupposes feeling contempt
towards metaphysics, the cult of the fact,
experiment and proof, confidence in
science and the progress that it brings,
as well as striving to give a scientific
form to studying social and moral
phenomena."[4] Realism as a movement
in literature was a post-1848
phenomenon, according to its first
theorist Jules-Français Champfleury. It
aims to reproduce "objective reality", and
focused on showing everyday, quotidian
activities and life, primarily among the
middle or lower class society, without
romantic idealization or dramatization.[5]
It may be regarded as the general
attempt to depict subjects as they are
considered to exist in third person
objective reality, without embellishment
or interpretation and "in accordance with
secular, empirical rules."[6] As such, the
approach inherently implies a belief that
such reality is ontologically independent
of man's conceptual schemes, linguistic
practices and beliefs, and thus can be
known (or knowable) to the artist, who
can in turn represent this 'reality'
faithfully. As literary critic Ian Watt states
in The Rise of the Novel, modern realism
"begins from the position that truth can
be discovered by the individual through
the senses" and as such "it has its origins
in Descartes and Locke, and received its
first full formulation by Thomas Reid in
the middle of the eighteenth century."[7]
In the late 18th century Romanticism
was a revolt against the aristocratic
social and political norms of the previous
Age of Reason and a reaction against the
scientific rationalization of nature found
in the dominant philosophy of the 18th
century,[8] as well as a reaction to the
Industrial Revolution.[9] It was embodied
most strongly in the visual arts, music,
and literature, but had a major impact on
historiography,[10] education[11] and the
natural sciences.[12]
19th-century realism was in its turn a
reaction to Romanticism, and for this
reason it is also commonly derogatorily
referred as traditional or "bourgeois
realism".[13] However, not all writers of
Victorian literature produced works of
realism.[14] The rigidities, conventions,
and other limitations of Victorian realism
prompted in their turn the revolt of
modernism. Starting around 1900, the
driving motive of modernist literature
was the criticism of the 19th-century
bourgeois social order and world view,
which was countered with an
antirationalist, antirealist and
antibourgeois program.[13][15][16]

Social realism …

Social Realism is an international art

movement that includes the work of
painters, printmakers, photographers and
filmmakers who draw attention to the
everyday conditions of the working
classes and the poor, and who are critical
of the social structures that maintain
these conditions. While the movement's
artistic styles vary from nation to nation,
it almost always uses a form of
descriptive or critical realism.[17]

Kitchen sink realism (or kitchen sink

drama) is a term coined to describe a
British cultural movement that developed
in the late 1950s and early 1960s in
theatre, art, novels, film and television
plays, which used a style of social
realism. Its protagonists usually could be
described as angry young men, and it
often depicted the domestic situations of
working-class Britons living in cramped
rented accommodation and spending
their off-hours drinking in grimy pubs, to
explore social issues and political
controversies.

The films, plays and novels employing

this style are set frequently in poorer
industrial areas in the North of England,
and use the rough-hewn speaking
accents and slang heard in those
regions. The film It Always Rains on
Sunday (1947) is a precursor of the
genre, and the John Osborne play Look
Back in Anger (1956) is thought of as the
first of the genre. The gritty love-triangle
of Look Back in Anger, for example, takes
place in a cramped, one-room flat in the
English Midlands. The conventions of the
genre have continued into the 2000s,
finding expression in such television
shows as Coronation Street and
EastEnders.[18]

In art, "Kitchen Sink School" was a term

used by critic David Sylvester to describe
painters who depicted social realist–type
scenes of domestic life.[19]

Socialist realism …
Socialist realism is the official Soviet art
form that was institutionalized by Joseph
Stalin in 1934 and was later adopted by
allied Communist parties worldwide.[17]
This form of realism held that successful
art depicts and glorifies the proletariat's
struggle toward socialist progress. The
Statute of the Union of Soviet Writers in
1934 stated that socialist realism

is the basic method of Soviet

literature and literary criticism. It
demands of the artist the truthful,
historically concrete representation
 of reality in its revolutionary
development. Moreover, the
truthfulness and historical
concreteness of the artistic
representation of reality must be
linked with the task of ideological
transformation and education of
workers in the spirit of socialism.[20]

The strict adherence to the above tenets,

however, began to crumble after the
death of Stalin when writers started
expanding the limits of what is possible.
However, the changes were gradual since
the social realism tradition was so
ingrained into the psyche of the Soviet
literati that even dissidents followed the
habits of this type of composition, rarely
straying from its formal and ideological
mold.[21] The Soviet socialist realism did
not exactly emerge on the very day it was
promulgated in the Soviet Union in 1932
by way of a decree that abolished
independent writers' organizations. This
movement has been existing for at least
fifteen years and was first seen during
the Bolshevik Revolution. The 1934
declaration only formalized its canonical
formulation through the speeches of the
revolutionary Maxim Gorky and Andrea
Zhdanov, the representative of the Party's
Central Committee.

The official definition of social realism

has been criticized for its conflicting
framework. While the concept itself is
simple, discerning scholars struggle in
reconciling its elements. According to
Peter Kenez, "it was impossible to
reconcile the teleological requirement
with realistic presentation," further
stressing that "the world could either be
depicted as it was or as it should be
according to theory, but the two are
obviously not the same."[22]

Naturalism …

Naturalism was a literary movement or

tendency from the 1880s to 1930s that
used detailed realism to suggest that
social conditions, heredity, and
environment had inescapable force in
shaping human character. It was a
mainly unorganized literary movement
that sought to depict believable everyday
reality, as opposed to such movements
as Romanticism or Surrealism, in which
subjects may receive highly symbolic,
idealistic or even supernatural treatment.

Naturalism was an outgrowth of literary

realism, influenced by Charles Darwin's
theory of evolution.[23] Whereas realism
seeks only to describe subjects as they
really are, naturalism also attempts to
determine "scientifically" the underlying
forces (e.g., the environment or heredity)
influencing the actions of its subjects.
Naturalistic works often include
supposed sordid subject matter, for
example, Émile Zola's frank treatment of
sexuality, as well as a pervasive
pessimism. Naturalistic works tend to
focus on the darker aspects of life,
including poverty, racism, violence,
prejudice, disease, corruption,
prostitution, and filth. As a result,
naturalistic writers were frequently
criticized for focusing too much on
human vice and misery.[24]

Criticism …
Critics of realism cite that depicting
reality is not often realistic with some
observers calling it "imaginary" or
"project".[25] This argument is based on
the idea that we do not often get what is
real correctly. To present reality, we draw
on what is "real" according to how we
remember it as well as how we
experience it. However, remembered or
experienced reality does not always
correspond to what the truth is. Instead,
we often obtain a distorted version of it
that is only related to what is out there or
how things really are. Realism is
criticized for its supposed inability to
address this challenge and such failure is
seen as tantamount to complicity in a
creating a process wherein "the
artefactual nature of reality is overlooked
or even concealed."[26] According to
Catherine Gallagher, realistic fiction
invariably undermines, in practice, the
ideology it purports to exemplify because
if appearances were as self-sufficient,
there would probably be no need for
novels.[25] This can be demonstrated in
the literary naturalism's focus during late-
nineteenth-century America on the larger
forces that determine the lives of its
character as depicted in agricultural
machines portrayed as immense and
terrible, shredding "entangled" human
bodies without compunction.[27] The
machines were used as a metaphor but it
contributed to the perception that such
narratives were more like myth than
reality.[27]

There are also critics who fault realism in

the way it supposedly defines itself as a
reaction to the excesses of literary
genres such as romanticism and Gothic -
those that focus on the exotic,
sentimental, and sensational
narratives.[28] Some scholars began to
call this an impulse to contradict so that
in the end, the limit that it imposes on
itself leads to "either the representation
of verifiable and objective truth or the
merely relative, some partial, subjective
truth, therefore no truth at all."[29]

There are also critics who cite the

absence of a fixed definition. The
argument is that there is no pure form of
realism and the position that it is almost
impossible to find literature that is not in
fact realist, at least to some extent while,
and that whenever one searches for pure
realism, it vanishes.[30] J.P. Stern
countered this position when he
maintained that this "looseness" or
"untidiness" makes the term
indispensable in common and literary
discourse alike.[25] Others also dismiss it
as obvious and simple-minded while
denying realistic aesthetic, branding as
pretentious since it is considered mere
reportage,[31] not art, and based on naive
metaphysics.[32]
The novel

Australia …

In the early nineteenth century, there was

growing impetus to establish an
Australian culture that was separate from
its English Colonial beginnings.[33]
Common artistic motifs and characters
that were represented in Australian
realism were the Australian Outback,
known simply as "the bush", in its harsh
and volatile beauty, the British settlers,
the Indigenous Australian, the squatter
and the digger–although some of these
bordered into a more mythic territory in
much of Australia's art scene. A
significant portion of Australia's early
realism was a rejection of, according to
what the Sydney Bulletin called in 1881 a
"romantic identity" of the country.[34]

Most of the earliest writing in the colony

was not literature in the most recent
international sense, but rather journals
and documentations of expeditions and
environments, although literary style and
preconceptions entered into the journal
writing. Oftentimes in early Australian
literature, romanticism and realism co-
existed,[34] as exemplified by Joseph
Furphy's Such Is Life (1897)–a fictional
account of the life of rural dwellers,
including bullock drivers, squatters and
itinerant travellers, in southern New
South Wales and Victoria, during the
1880s. Catherine Helen Spence's Clara
Morison (1854), which detailed a Scottish
woman's immigration to Adelaide, South
Australia, in a time when many people
were leaving the freely settled state of
South Australia to claim fortunes in the
gold rushes of Victoria and New South
Wales.

The burgeoning literary concept that

Australia was an extension of another,
more distant country, was beginning to
infiltrate into writing: "[those] who have at
last understood the significance of
Australian history as a transplanting of
stocks and the sending down of roots in
a new soil". Henry Handel Richardson,
author of post-Federation novels such as
Maurice Guest (1908) and The Getting of
Wisdom (1910), was said to have been
heavily influenced by French and
Scandinavian realism. In the twentieth
century, as the working-class community
of Sydney proliferated, the focus was
shifted from the bush archetype to a
more urban, inner-city setting: William
Lane's The Working Man's Paradise
(1892), Christina Stead's Seven Poor Men
of Sydney (1934) and Ruth Park's The
Harp in the South (1948) all depicted the
harsh, gritty reality of working class
Sydney.[35] Patrick White's novels Tree of
Man (1955) and Voss (1957) fared
particularly well and in 1973 White was
awarded the Nobel Prize in
Literature.[36][37]

A new kind of literary realism emerged in

the late twentieth century, helmed by
Helen Garner's Monkey Grip (1977) which
revolutionised contemporary fiction in
Australia, though it has since emerged
that the novel was diaristic and based on
Garner's own experiences. Monkey Grip
concerns itself with a single-mother
living in a succession of Melbourne
share-houses, as she navigates her
increasingly obsessive relationship with
a drug addict who drifts in and out of her
life. A sub-set of realism emerged in
Australia's literary scene known as "dirty
realism", typically written by "new, young
authors"[38] who examined "gritty, dirty,
real existences",[38] of lower-income
young people, whose lives revolve around
a nihilistic pursuit of casual sex,
recreational drug use and alcohol, which
are used to escape boredom. Examples
of dirty-realism include Andrew
McGahan's Praise (1992), Christos
Tsiolkas's Loaded (1995), Justine Ettler's
The River Ophelia (1995) and Brendan
Cowell's How It Feels (2010), although
many of these, including their
predecessor Monkey Grip, are now
labelled with a genre coined in 1995 as
"grunge lit".[39]

United Kingdom …

Ian Watt in The Rise of the Novel (1957)

saw the novel as originating in the early
18th-century and he argued that the
novel's 'novelty' was its 'formal realism':
the idea 'that the novel is a full and
authentic report of human experience'.[40]
His examples are novelists Daniel Defoe,
Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding.
Watt argued that the novel's concern with
realistically described relations between
ordinary individuals, ran parallel to the
more general development of
philosophical realism, middle-class
economic individualism and Puritan
individualism. He also claims that the
form addressed the interests and
capacities of the new middle-class
reading public and the new book trade
evolving in response to them. As
tradesmen themselves, Defoe and
Richardson had only to 'consult their own
standards' to know that their work would
appeal to a large audience.[41]

Later in the 19th century George Eliot's

(1819–1880) Middlemarch: A Study of
Provincial Life (1871–72), described by
novelists Martin Amis and Julian Barnes
as the greatest novel in the English
language, is a work of realism.[42][43]
Through the voices and opinions of
different characters the reader becomes
aware of important issues of the day,
including the Reform Bill of 1832, the
beginnings of the railways, and the state
of contemporary medical science.
Middlemarch also shows the deeply
reactionary mindset within a settled
community facing the prospect of what
to many is unwelcome social, political
and technological change.

While George Gissing (1857–1903),

author of New Grub Street (1891),
amongst many other works, has
traditionally been viewed as a naturalist,
mainly influenced by Émile Zola,[44]
Jacob Korg has suggested that George
Eliot was a greater influence.[45]

Other novelists, such as Arnold Bennett

(1867–1931) and Anglo-Irishman George
Moore (1852–1933), consciously
imitated the French realists.[46] Bennett's
most famous works are the Clayhanger
trilogy (1910–18) and The Old Wives' Tale
(1908). These books draw on his
experience of life in the Staffordshire
Potteries, an industrial area
encompassing the six towns that now
make up Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire,
England. George Moore, whose most
famous work is Esther Waters (1894),
was also influenced by the naturalism of
Zola.[47]

American realism …

William Dean Howells (1837–1920) was

the first American author to bring a
realist aesthetic to the literature of the
United States.[48] His stories of middle
and upper class life set in the 1880s and
1890s are highly regarded among
scholars of American fiction. His most
popular novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham
(1885), depicts a man who, ironically,
falls from materialistic fortune by his
own mistakes. Other early American
realists include Samuel Clemens (1835–
1910), better known by his pen name of
Mark Twain, author of The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn (1884),[49][50] Stephen
Crane (1871–1900), and Horatio Alger,
Jr. (1832–1899).

Twain's style, based on vigorous, realistic,

colloquial American speech, gave
American writers a new appreciation of
their national voice. Twain was the first
major author to come from the interior of
the country, and he captured its
distinctive, humorous slang and
iconoclasm. For Twain and other
American writers of the late 19th century,
realism was not merely a literary
technique: It was a way of speaking truth
and exploding worn-out conventions.
Crane was primarily a journalist who also
wrote fiction, essays, poetry, and plays.
Crane saw life at its rawest, in slums and
on battlefields. His haunting Civil War
novel, The Red Badge of Courage, was
published to great acclaim in 1895, but
he barely had time to bask in the
attention before he died, at 28, having
neglected his health. He has enjoyed
continued success ever since—as a
champion of the common man, a realist,
and a symbolist. Crane's Maggie: A Girl of
the Streets (1893), is one of the best, if
not the earliest, naturalistic American
novel. It is the harrowing story of a poor,
sensitive young girl whose uneducated,
alcoholic parents utterly fail her. In love,
and eager to escape her violent home
life, she allows herself to be seduced into
living with a young man, who soon
deserts her. When her self-righteous
mother rejects her, Maggie becomes a
prostitute to survive, but soon commits
suicide out of despair. Crane's earthy
subject matter and his objective,
scientific style, devoid of moralizing,
earmark Maggie as a naturalist work.[51]
Horatio Alger Jr. was a prolific 19th-
century American author whose principal
output was formulaic rags-to-riches
juvenile novels that followed the
adventures of bootblacks, newsboys,
peddlers, buskers, and other
impoverished children in their rise from
humble backgrounds to lives of
respectable middle-class security and
comfort. His novels, of which Ragged
Dick is a typical example, were hugely
popular in their day.

Other later American realists are: John

Steinbeck, Frank Norris, Theodore
Dreiser, Upton Sinclair, Jack London,
Edith Wharton and Henry James.

Europe …
Benito Pérez Galdós, Spanish writer from the Canary
Islands

Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850) is the

most prominent representative of 19th-
century realism in fiction through the
inclusion of specific detail and recurring
characters.[52][53][54] His La Comédie
humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100
novels, was the most ambitious scheme
ever devised by a writer of fiction—
nothing less than a complete
contemporary history of his countrymen.
Realism is also an important aspect of
the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils
(1824–1895).

Many of the novels in this period,

including Balzac's, were published in
newspapers in serial form, and the
immensely popular realist "roman
feuilleton" tended to specialize in
portraying the hidden side of urban life
(crime, police spies, criminal slang), as in
the novels of Eugène Sue. Similar
tendencies appeared in the theatrical
melodramas of the period and, in an even
more lurid and gruesome light, in the
Grand Guignol at the end of the century.

Gustave Flaubert's (1821–1880)

acclaimed novels Madame Bovary (1857),
which reveals the tragic consequences of
romanticism on the wife of a provincial
doctor, and Sentimental Education (1869)
represent perhaps the highest stages in
the development of French realism.
Flaubert also wrote other works in an
entirely different style and his
romanticism is apparent in the fantastic
The Temptation of Saint Anthony (final
version published 1874) and the baroque
and exotic scenes of ancient Carthage in
Salammbô (1862).

In German literature, 19th-century realism

developed under the name of "Poetic
Realism" or "Bourgeois Realism," and
major figures include Theodor Fontane,
Gustav Freytag, Gottfried Keller, Wilhelm
Raabe, Adalbert Stifter, and Theodor
Storm.[55]

Later realist writers included Leo Tolstoy,

Benito Pérez Galdós, Guy de
Maupassant, Anton Chekhov, Leopoldo
Alas (Clarín), José Maria de Eça de
Queiroz, Machado de Assis, Bolesław
Prus and, in a sense, Émile Zola, whose
naturalism is often regarded as an
offshoot of realism.

The theatre
Theatrical realism was a general
movement in 19th-century theatre from
the time period of 1870–1960 that
developed a set of dramatic and
theatrical conventions with the aim of
bringing a greater fidelity of real life to
texts and performances. Part of a
broader artistic movement, it shared
many stylistic choices with naturalism,
including a focus on everyday (middle-
class) drama, ordinary speech, and dull
settings. Realism and naturalism diverge
chiefly on the degree of choice that
characters have: while naturalism
believes in the overall strength of
external forces over internal decisions,
realism asserts the power of the
individual to choose (see A Doll's House).

Russia's first professional playwright,

Aleksey Pisemsky, and Leo Tolstoy (The
Power of Darkness (1886)), began a
tradition of psychological realism in
Russia which culminated with the
establishment of the Moscow Art
Theatre by Constantin Stanislavski and
Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko.[56] Their
ground-breaking productions of the plays
of Anton Chekhov in turn influenced
Maxim Gorky and Mikhail Bulgakov.
Stanislavski went on to develop his
'system', a form of actor training that is
particularly suited to psychological
realism.

19th-century realism is closely

connected to the development of modern
drama, which, as Martin Harrison
explains, "is usually said to have begun in
the early 1870s" with the "middle-period"
work of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik
Ibsen. Ibsen's realistic drama in prose
has been "enormously influential."[57]

In opera, verismo refers to a post-

Romantic Italian tradition that sought to
incorporate the naturalism of Émile Zola
and Henrik Ibsen. It included realistic –
sometimes sordid or violent – depictions
of contemporary everyday life, especially
the life of the lower classes.

In France in addition to melodramas,

popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-
century turned to realism in the "well-
made" bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin
Labiche and the moral dramas of Émile
Augier.

See also
Chanson réaliste (realist song), a style
of music which was directly influenced
by realist literary movement in France
History of modern literature
Verismo, an application of the tenets
of realism to (especially late-romantic
Italian) opera.

Notes
1. Champfleury, Jule-Français (1857).
Le Realisme. Paris: Michel Lévy. p. 2.
2. Donna M. Campbell. "Realism in
American Literature" . Wsu.edu.
Retrieved 2014-07-15.
3. "Metropolitan Museum of Art" .
Metmuseum.org. 2014-06-02.
Retrieved 2014-07-15.
4. Kvas, Kornelije (2019). The
Boundaries of Realism in World
Literature. Lanham, Boulder, New
York, London: Lexington Books. p. 8.
ISBN 978-1-7936-0910-6.
5. "Realism definition of Realism in the
Free Online Encyclopedia" .
Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com
. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
. in so far as such subjects are
"explicable in terms of natural
causation without resort to
supernatural or divine intervention"
Morris, 2003. p. 5
7. Watt, 1957, p.12
. Casey, Christopher (October 30,
2008). " "Grecian Grandeurs and the
Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain,
 the Elgin Marbles, and Post-
Revolutionary Hellenism" .
Foundations. Volume III, Number 1.
Archived from the original on May 13,
2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
9. Encyclopædia Britannica.
" ''Romanticism''. Retrieved 30
January 2008, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online" . Britannica.com.
Retrieved 2010-08-24.
10. David Levin, History as Romantic Art:
Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman
(1967)
11. Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the
Western educational experience
(1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich
Pestalozzi
12. Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators
and Burning Tygers: Poetry and
Science from William Bartram to
Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 2005
149(3): 304–315
13. John Barth (1979) The Literature of
Replenishment, later republished in
The Friday Book' '(1984).
14. "Victorian Literature" . The Literature
Network. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
15. Gerald Graff (1975) Babbitt at the
Abyss: The Social Context of
Postmodern. American Fiction,
TriQuarterly, No. 33 (Spring 1975),
pp. 307-37; reprinted in Putz and
Freese, eds., Postmodernism and
American Literature.
1 . Gerald Graff (1973) The Myth of the
Postmodernist Breakthrough,
TriQuarterly, 26 (Winter, 1973) 383-
417; rept in The Novel Today:
Contemporary Writers on Modern
 Fiction Malcolm Bradbury, ed.,
(London: Fontana, 1977); reprinted in
Proza Nowa Amerykanska, ed., Szice
Krytyczne (Warsaw, Poland, 1984);
reprinted in Postmodernism in
American Literature: A Critical
Anthology, Manfred Putz and Peter
Freese, eds., (Darmstadt: Thesen
Verlag, 1984), 58-81.
17. Todd, James G. (2009). "Social
Realism" . Art Terms. Museum of
Modern Art. Retrieved 6 February
2013.
1 . Heilpern, John. John Osborne: The
Many Lives of the Angry Young Man,
New York: Knopf, 2007.
19. Walker, John. (1992) "Kitchen Sink
School" . Glossary of Art,
Architecture & Design since 1945,
3rd. ed. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
20. On Socialist Realism" by Andrei
Sinyavsky writing as Abram Tertz
ISBN 0-520-04677-3, p.148.
21. Cornwell, Neil (2002). The Routledge
Companion to Russian Literature.
 London: Routledge. p. 174.
ISBN 9781134569076.
22. Kenez, Peter (1992). Cinema and
Soviet Society, 1917-1953.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 157. ISBN 0521428637.
23. Williams, Raymond. 1976. Keywords:
A Vocabulary of Culture and Society.
London: Fontana, 1988, p. 217.
ISBN 0-00-686150-4.
24. Pavel, Thomas (2015). The Lives of
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External links
 Realism in American literature at the
Literary Movements site
"Victorian Realism – how real?" on
BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring
Philip Davis, A.N. Wilson and Dinah
Birch

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