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Los 3 X Losm/S: Penetrat
Los 3 X Losm/S: Penetrat
Radiography
5.1 Introduction
Source: Penetrat~ radiation: x-ray, gamma-rays, neutrons.
99
100 CHAPTER 5. RADIOGRAPHY
• Ra.dia.tion 1Iux, t/J, is the number of photons per unit a.rea. per unit
time, or more rigorously the number of photon tracks per unit volume
per unit time.
• Ra.dia.tion 1Iuence, t/J is the time integra.ted 1Iux, with units of photons
per unit a.rea..
(5.2)
1= BIoexp[-J.lXI (5.4)
5.3 Sources
5.3.1 X-Rays
• Produced by high-energy electrons bombarding an electron-rich target
(usually made of tungsten).
• Photon energy can vary contniously any where from zero to the max-
imum possible energy of eV.
• The continuous energy spectrum is due to the deflection of electrons by
the strong electromagnetic fields surrounding the nuclei of the atoms
of the target (bremsstra.hlung radia.tion).
• The photon energy spectrum contains peaks (called the line spectra)
corresponding to electron transitions between the shells of the target
atom.
• X-ra.y ma.chines are related by the peak energy, eVp , or simply the
a.pplied voltage Vp , called peak voltage as it corresponds to the pea.k
energy.
5.3.2 Gamma-Rays
• Emit discrete photon energies.
• Strength is determined by source activity:
Activity = AN (5.6)
where A here refers to the decay constant (1/s) and N is the number
of radioactive nuclei, Activity measured in disintegration per second
(Becquerel) or Curies (1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010 Bq), sources up to 10 Ci have
been used.
104 CHAPTER 5. RADIOGRAPHY
• Source decays:
N = Noexp(-At) (5.7)
where No is the number of nuclei at time, t = O.
• Half-life:
1n2 0.669
ti = T= -A- (5.8)
• The Grains of the emulsion undergo & chemical reaction upon exposure
to radiation.
• Film exposure:
e=Ixu (5.9)
e
where refers to radiation exposure, I to radiation intensity at film,
and t is time of film exposure, note that I can be increased by increas-
ing x-ray machine current.
5.5. INDICATION 105
J.
D = log- (5.10)
Jt
• Each type of film has its won characteristic logarithmic exposure curve
(D v.s. log E) that defines its response rate.
E
log(RE) = log E, (5.11)
The higher the value of GD, the better is the film contrast.
• Faster films have a larger value of D for a given RE, as grains in film
begin reaction sooner, but higher speed films tend to have larger grains
and may not produce the required deta.il.
5.5 Indication
5.5.1 Unsharpness
Unsharpness, loss of resolution is caused by geometric effects, as well as film
unsharpness.
106 CHAPTER 5. RADIOGRAPHY
• An x-ray sources is not a point source and has a finite size, called the
focal spot size, F, which is the effective width of the source.
U,-_ Fl
Lo
(5.13)
(5.14)
5.5.2 SHeJ1Sitivi~
with the usual definition of the above parameters used. Penetrameters are
used to measure this in practice, note that 6.z can be +ve or -ve.
Penetrameters
• These are image quality indicators placed on top or alongside of object
to check ability of setup (selected source energy, current, exposure
time, film, distances).
3. Operate x-ray machine for a time and milliampere setting that equals
the exposure.
Example
Design an x-ray radiography system for examining a steel plate varying in
thickness from 7 to 10 mm.
• ExPosure graphs available for 100 kV and 120 kV, therefore these two
voltages will be used, but either will do.
• For 0.27 inches, 100 kV, E 1'::$ EI mA- minute, i.e. 20 mA for a minute,
or 10 mA for two minutes, at 100 kV.
• For 0.4 inches, 120 kV, E 1'::$ EV mA- minute, i.e. 25 mA for a minute,
or 12.5 mA for two minutes, at 120 kV.
108 CHAPTER 5. RADIOGRAPHY
5.9 Graphs
110 CHAPTER 5. RADIOGRAPHY
I \
I
......-..~-'DARKER AREAS '
. (WHEN PROCESSED)
CATHODE FOCUSING
FIlAMENT CUP
,-. ".
GLASS ELECTRONS
\ ANODE
ENVELOPE I
I
\
/ X-RAY \ TARGET
BEAM
LOW-ENERGY
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION EJECTED
ELECTRON
~O
ABSORBERS OF _ ~NIZATION
HIGH ATOMIC WEIGHT
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION OF LONGER
ABSORBERS OF WAVELENGTH
ANY ATOMIC WEIGHT
LIBERATED
COMPTON EFFECT ELECTRON
HIGH-ENERGY o
ELECTROMAGNETIC ., IONIZATION
'"
RADIATION '"
EJECTED
ELECTRON
~~-:'I~NIZATION
ABSORBERS OF
HIGH ATOMIC WEIGHT
INTENSITY
HIGH
MILLIAMPERES
LOW
MILLIAMPERES
MAXIMUM
APPLIED VOLTAGE
~ APPLIED VOLTAGE
INTENSITY
WAVELENGTHS
ADDED BY
INCREASED·
KILOVOLTAGE
~ APPLIED VOLTAGE
.. 2
1 ,. ;.
180 /
V
160
;/
140
120
V
100
/
/ .
"
'"
'"
80
/
60
o 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
. INCHES OF STEEL
FJgUre 5.7: Voltage Required for Steel
5.9. GRAPHS 117
20M
10M
8M
..,
~
« 6M
E 5M
4M
3M
2M
X-ray machine
1M Serial 1234
800 0.005 lead screen front
0.010 lead screen back
600
Density 2.0
500
TFD (target-ta-film
400 distance) 36 in
300 Film Type II
Film processing
200 Date
Prepared by:
10,000
8000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
800
TYPE A
~--:--, r-n:=:b====;;t--"'~SOURCE
I (EXTENDABLE FOR
CONTROL ROD L:::============:=:I PANORAMIC SHOTS)
0.
"- 100
.
l.&.l
8
--
0
~ 6
.."
u 5
4
'"&.
Uj 3
10
8 "Densities other than 2.0 can be ob-
tained by applying the factors given
6 below. Multiply the exposure calcu-
5 lated from the formula by the cor-
4 rection factor indicated for the
3 desired density.
Density 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
2 Correction
factor 0.43 0.71 1.0 1.30 1.62
1 2 3
Steel (in)
2.5 G)
IE
~
a
2.0
-
2
1.5
1.0
0.5
o
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
'~.POINT
/ \
I
I \
\ SOURCE
I \'
\',
\ "
AXIS NORMAL
TO FILM PLANE
I \ \ '
",
~
\ \
\ "-
" \\ SPECIMEN--.0,
V I
I
' \ "
. \
\
""
\"
\ "
:
I
\ " t-.-----.
FILM
"
.,,1/,\\
-'\
I I \
I nI
, 1\ I
,1.1\ SOURCE TO SPECIMEN
I' II
SPECIMEN "1/ IIII
(FRONT) DISTANCE
" II
~ ~
.. -"_. , .. r I
~
.I I
•
" II TRUE IMAGE
"
,I
. 1\
II SPECIMEN (FRONl)
'-I_I.' TO
,, I I . ,. FILM DISTANCE
, I I
I '"
4T 1T 2T
.O~"D .020"D .040"D
o
,...
t
ID NO.
o
t
6
T
.020"