Water and wastewater related issues in Sri Lanka

Water Science and Technology Vol 47 No 12 pp 305–312 © IWA Publishing 2003

N.J.G.J. Bandara
Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka (E-mail: nbandara@sltnet.lk)

Abstract The primary problems concerning water resources in Sri Lanka are the depletion and degradation
of the resource caused by various anthropogenic activities. Surface inland waters in urban areas are polluted
heavily with domestic sewage and industrial effluents, and in rural areas with agricultural runoff. With regard
to ground water in certain areas of the dry zone, there is a high fluoride content and in hard, rocky, alluvial
areas, there is a high concentration of iron. In urban over-crowded cities, there is biological contamination of
ground water. Over-utilization, particularly through tube wells, is another major problem affecting ground
water resources in Sri Lanka. Oil spills, dumping of waste from ships, coral and sand mining, and industrial
activities are the main causes of marine pollution in the country. Except for pipe-borne water supply, irrigation
and hydropower schemes, in general water resources in Sri Lanka are managed very poorly. Regulations are
available to control most water related problems but enforcement of these regulations is lacking.
The ultimate result of degradation and depletion of water resources is the increasing health hazards.
Water-borne and vector-borne diseases are prevalent, particularly amongst urban low-income communities
with poor sanitary facilities and drainage. Despite government initiatives and legislation, very slow progress
has been made towards combating water pollution. This paper examines the most significant water and
wastewater related issues in Sri Lanka and their controlling mechanisms.
Keywords Colombo; effluents; Kelani; sewage; Sri Lanka

Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean off the southern coast of India. The country has a
total land area of 65,610 km2 hosting a population of 19.36 million (2000). The country has
three climatic zones, the dry zone, with less than 1,900 mm of rainfall, the intermediate
zone, with rainfall between 1,900 and 2,500 mm and the wet zone, with rainfall between
2,500 and 5,500 mm. About 50% of the water received from rainfall in Sri Lanka is lost to
evapo-transpiration. Of the balance, about 20% seeps to the ground water and only 30% is
available as inland waters. Sri Lanka has a radial network of 103 river basins originating
from the central hills, riverine marshes, about 20 major wetlands, irrigational and multipur-
pose reservoirs and flooded paddy-fields, making up an estimated 1,570 km2 of inland
waters. Ground water resources are fairly good in most parts of the country. Beside ground
water resources the country has about 225 springs out of which about 120 are located in the
central highlands. Sri Lanka has a total extent of 489,000 km2 of maritime waters. The
country has a coastline of 1,585 km, which is endowed with lagoons, estuaries and inlets
(Department of Census and Statistics: 1998).

Water and waste water issues in Sri Lanka

The main issues associated with water are the depletion and the degradation of the resource.

Depletion of water resources and uses

Depletion of water resources is a major issue, most prominently for the dry zone of the
country. With increased demand for agriculture, industrialization and rapid urbanization,
water resources are being rapidly depleted even in the wet zone. Present water demand is
met by mainly 8 of the relatively large rivers: Mahaweli River, Maduru-oya, Kalu River, 305

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 Kelani River, Walawe River, Gin River, Maha-oya, and Daduru oya with mean annual dis-
charges of 11,016, 8,051, 7,862, 5,474, 2,165, 1,903, 1,608 and 1,608 million cubic metres
(MCM) respectively. These rivers are highly exploited and with the rising demand the
mean annual discharge rates of these rivers are expected to reduce in the future. Water sup-
ply is also diminishing in Sri Lanka. Long-term studies have shown that there is a steady
decline of rainfall in at least the Central Province of the country. Associated with land use
changes there are also changes in water run-off rates and water yields. The loss of forest
N.J.G.J. Bandara

cover and topsoil has greatly reduced the capacity to absorb water. In addition, the country
has faced severe droughts during 1982–1983, 1994–1995 and during the year 2001, which
has resulted in significant drops of agricultural production and hydropower generation
capacity.
More than two thirds of the waters of many rivers flowing through the dry zone are used
prior to reaching the sea (Ministry of Forestry and Environment: 1998). The main water
user is irrigation (about 70%), followed by hydropower generation while only a small
proportion is used in industrial and domestic applications. Irrigation in the dry zone is also
supplemented with ground water extracted through deep wells. Major water resource
development projects provide 90% of Sri Lanka’s electrical energy and irrigate 500,000
hectares of land and have an aggregate installed capacity of 938 Megawatts as at 1998
(Dept of Census and Statistics: 1998).
Sri Lanka’s largest aquifers lie in the North and the North-West and hence the use of
dug- wells is higher in these areas. In the North, North-Central and Northwestern provinces
of the country, lift irrigation through tube-wells is practised without control. Excessive
draw of ground water through agro wells in certain dry zone areas has caused a drop in
the water table levels. Over-utilization is thus one of the main threats to ground water
resources in the country. A further burden is that rain-fed farming has been largely
neglected in Sri Lanka with the demand being met with heavy investments in irrigation.
The present practice of water use within each sector is often not efficient and each
unit of water rarely generates the maximum economic benefit, and it is estimated that the
water use for irrigation, which is the largest water use, is only 50% efficient (Ministry of
Forestry and Environment: 1998). With the increasing demand for water and unsystematic
water allocation, conflicts are developing between different users at both local and national
levels.
The sources of drinking water in Sri Lanka are pipe-borne water, protected and unpro-
tected wells and sources such as tanks and streams. Regarding domestic consumption,
according to 1998 data, less than 25% of the population had access to pipe-borne water and
a majority depended on ground water sources while 7% drew water from rivers and reser-
voirs (Department of Census and Statistics: 1998). Irrigation in the dry zone is also supple-
mented with ground water extracted through deep wells. The total water supply coverage
by the end of the year 2000 was 67% (Central Bank of Sri Lanka: 2000). According to
National Water Supply and Drainage Board records the urban water supply coverage by the
end of 1999 was 90% while in the rural areas it was only 57%.

Water quality degradation and related issues

The degraded quality of surface and ground water resources is a major environmental issue
the country is faced with at present. The latest National Environmental Action Plan
(NEAP) of 1998–2001 has identified water as one of the degraded environmental resources
in Sri Lanka. The degradation of the quality of water resources is primarily due to agri-
cultural practices, discharge of untreated industrial effluents and domestic waste water
into surface water bodies and storm water drainage canals, and haphazard disposal of
306 solid waste including hazardous material into open dumps. Major irrigation schemes

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 have caused salinisation. Shrimp farming which is a very lucrative industry in the
North-western Province of the country is another significant source of water pollution.
Improper sewage disposal contaminates both surface and ground water. Colombo is the
only city in Sri Lanka with an operating sewage system at present. 80% of Colombo’s
municipal population was connected to the sewerage system in 1994 (NWSDB: 1994).
Even here it is only a collection system, which operates to collect and discharge the
untreated sewage into the sea through ocean outfalls 1.5 km from the city. A few housing

N.J.G.J. Bandara
schemes and some industrial estates outside Colombo are served with a few small sewage
systems. In suburban and rural areas individual households contain septic tanks. In most
low-income settlements occupying stream and canal reservations, sewage is discharged
directly into surface water bodies or drainage canals. Inappropriate discharge of industrial
effluents is the other main cause of water pollution in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka has 80
categories and 300 units of high polluting industries (Ministry of Forestry and
Environment: 1998). Liquid effluent from many polluting industries undergoes very little
or no treatment prior to discharge to water bodies. Exceptions are the industries located in
the two export processing zones at Biyagama and Katunayake, which have central
treatment systems, and a few medium and large operations which could afford treatment
facilities.
A significant issue is that industries are located in highly populated suburban areas.
Examples are two major industrial areas of the country: Ratmalana-Moratuwa with more
than 225 industries and Ekala-Jaela with about 140 industries where the water bodies are of
highly degraded condition. Of particular significance is the deterioration of the water
quality in the Lunawa lagoon and Bolgoda Lake in the Ratmalana-Moratuwa area where
the fisheries are threatened. Water quality results of Bolgoda Lake are shown in Table 1
along with some urban and semi-urban water bodies in Sri Lanka. Note that Beira Lake is in
the heart of Colombo’s municipal area and Kandy Lake is in the center of Kandy city,
whereas Bolgoda Lake and Labugama reservoir supplying water to Colombo are in subur-
ban areas of the Colombo district. Hazardous waste generation and its disposal is another
major cause for concern in Sri Lanka. According to a recent study in Sri Lanka about 40,000
tonnes of hazardous wastes, both liquid and solid, are generated annually (Department of
Census and Statistics: 1998). The final destiny of these wastes is not known.
Another source of pollution, particularly of ground water, are open dumps of solid waste
in urban areas. Still the country does not have a single sanitary landfill and leachate from
the dumpsites infiltrates directly to the ground water. To augment the problem these sites
are in highly populated, low income, neighborhoods, which depend on ground water for

Table 1 Average water quality of some urban and semi-urban water bodies of Sri Lanka

Indicator Beira Lake Kandy Lake Bolgoda Labugama

Lake Reservoir

Total phosphorus as “P” mg/l 1.52 (0.42–2.57) <0.001 <0.001 <0.001

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen as “N” mg/l 13.75 (6.44–28) 3.59 (2.52–5.4) 5 <1
Chlorophyll a mg/l 0.28 (0.22–0.34) <0.002 <0.001 <0.001
Suspended solids mg/l 90 (17–215) 5.7 (4–8) 33 1
Turbidity (NTU) 208 (40–1400) 13 (10–17) 3 1
Biochemical oxygen demand mg/l 46 (5–350) 3.3 (2.9–3.7) 5 <1
Transparency (cm) 12 (3–21) 112 (72–170) 85 450
pH 7.94 (2.85–10.5) 7.6 (7.5–7.7) 7.3 7.5
Ammonical nitrogen (mg/l) 1.74 (0.0–12.0) 1.30 (1.22–1.41) – –
Orthophosphates as “P” (mg/l) 2.071 (0.36–26) 0.01 (0.008–0.015) – –
Source: UDA/Roche International, Canada (1993), Beira Lake Restoration Study as reported in 1998,
Statistical Compendium on Environment Statistics, Sri Lanka: 1998, Department of Census and Statistics,
Government of Sri Lanka 307

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 even drinking purposes. In rural areas, although industrial effluents are limited there is
water resource contamination with agricultural run off containing fertilizers and pesticides.
The gravity of water pollution is apparent when examining water quality measurements
of Kelani River, which meets a major part of the demand for pipe-borne drinking water sup-
plies of Colombo. The water supply intake point is at Ambatale, 14 kilometres from the
river mouth. In turn, sewage from low-income settlements and industrial effluent from a
large number of industries is discharged conveniently to the Kelani River. Tanning and
N.J.G.J. Bandara

metal finishing and processing industries are of main concern. As a result, in addition to
organic waste, the river is polluted with heavy metals. Near the points of discharge, the
Kelani River passes through a population density of 5,000–10,000 persons per km2
(Department of Census and Statistics: 1998). The catchment forest of the river is replaced
to a significant extent with plantations, home gardens, housing and deforested land. The
peneplains consist largely of tea and rubber plantations and home gardens, whereas the
coastal floodplains are covered with rubber, paddy fields, home gardens, industries and
housing schemes. Over the years a gradual deterioration in the water quality of Kelani
River has been noted with the associated changes in the land use patterns.
Water quality monitoring studies conducted at various points of the river have shown
that at the different points, catchment waters were of extremely good quality with very low
dissolved solids, lowest turbidity and highest dissolved oxygen (DO) (8 mg/l) and hence
lowest biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (Department of Census and Statistics: 1998).
However, even here the nitrate levels were found to be rather high (0.05–3.878 mg/l) indi-
cating contamination with agricultural runoff from plantations (Department of Census and
Statistics: 1998). Presence of coliform bacteria has been observed throughout the river with
the total coliform count in the middle course of the river ranging from 0–1,500 cells/100 ml
indicating the inaptness of these waters for drinking purposes. This is mainly due to waste
disposal from bordering towns. The coastal flood plains were shown to be the most pollut-
ed. The BOD level of the river has ranged from 1.2–17 mg/l. The coastal flood plain is
reported to have an acidic pH averaging a pH of 5.3, high nutrients and increasing conduc-
tivity, which can be attributed to the heavy industrialization and improper effluent
discharge. Close to, and within the estuaries, the waters have shown increased pollution
levels with very high BOD and organic matter, and dissolved salts and conductivity due to
salinity intrusions (Department of Census and Statistics: 1998).
Water quality results from monitoring points at Ambatale, Hanwella (located a little
upstream of Ambatale) and Victoria Bridge (located a little downstream of Ambatale) are
given in Table 2. The domestic and industrial waste added to the river as it flows down its
course can explain the increase in the BOD and the COD and reduction of DO downstream.
With regard to ground water, the quality of ground water is fairly good in most areas of
the country. However, in certain areas of the North-Central and Eastern Provinces, the
ground water has a high content of natural fluoride levels. This has resulted in high
incidences of fluorisis (mottling) amongst the children in these areas. Another naturally
occurring concern with ground water is the high concentration of iron in hard, rocky and
alluvial areas. Associated with urbanization there is significant biological contamination of
ground water particularly where there is a thin layer of soil. The ground water in the Jaffna
peninsula has a high nitrate content due to heavy use of agrochemicals. General characteris-
tics of ground water in the area of Colombo are given in Table 3.
The most significant consequence of degradation of water quality in Sri Lanka is the
effect it has on people’s health particularly in urban low-income settlements, which do not
have proper sanitation and clean drinking water. Most of these communities do not have
access to pipe-borne water. The dug-wells are located close to toilets or are too shallow. In
308 addition these areas do not have proper drainage systems. Thus exposure to vector-borne

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 Table 2 Water quality at various points of Kelani River – 1999

Parameter Hanwella Ambatale Victoria Bridge

pH 7.64 7.61 7.35

Temperature (°C) 25.6 26.3 27
Turbidity (NTU) 10 10 10
Conductivity (ms/cm) 0.036 0.043 0.202
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 6.82 6.31 4

N.J.G.J. Bandara
Total hardness (mg/) 35 30 50
Suspended solids (mg/) 39 30 62
Biochemical oxygen demand (mg/) 5 10 15
NO3 (mg/) 0.440 0.241 0.603
Total PO4 (mg/) 0.063 0.021 0.013
Alkalinity (mg/) 10 10 10
Chemical oxygen demand (mg/) 10 20 140
Chlorides (mg/) 10 7.5 35
Total chromium (mg/) 0.29 0.032 0.330
Total lead (mg/) 0.010 0.038 0.064
Source: Central Environmental Authority as reported by Perera, K.R.D.S. (2000), in Statistical Compendium
on Natural Resources Management of Sri Lanka – 2000 for Sustainable Development, Planning Division,
Ministry of Forestry and Environment

Table 3 General characteristics of ground water

in Colombo, Sri Lanka
Station parameter ppm
Total hardness <50
Nitrate 20–40
Nitrite 0.03–0.05
Ammonia <0.2
Chlorides <100
Fluorides 0.1–0.5
Silica <20
Total Iron 3.25
Manganese 0.04–0.1
Vanadium <0.05
Chromium <0.024
Cobalt <0.02
Copper <0.03
Zinc 0.025–0.25
Source: Dissanayake and Weerasooriya, (1986),
Hydrochemical Atlas of Sri Lanka as reported in
1998, Statistical Compendium on Environment
Statistics, Sri Lanka: 1998, Department of
Census and Statistics, Government of Sri Lanka

diseases is high. Of water and sanitation related diseases, 1992 records show that island-
wide there had been 874 cases of typhoid, 2,949 cases of hepatitis, 8,513 cases of dysentery,
374 cases of food poisoning, 4,574 cases of diarrhea, and 37 cases of cholera out of a total
population of 12,629,565 (NWSDB: 1994). 1995 records show 84 deaths and 30,832
recorded cases of water-related diseases such as shigella food poisoning, viral hepatitis and
typhoid, and 77 deaths from, and 46,643 recorded cases of, vector-borne diseases (Ministry
of Forestry and Environment: 1998). In the year 2000 there had been 36 deaths due to
dengue and 76 due to malaria (The Central Bank of Sri Lanka: 2000).
With respect to coastal water bodies, the major concerns are the degradation of coastal
habitats and increased erosion resulting from loss of the coral buffer against waves along
the coast. Coral mining for the production of slaked lime is an abundant industry in many
parts of the coast of Sri Lanka. The control of this activity has been unsuccessful over the
years. Marine pollution also occurs from oil spills from large tankers carrying oil and from 309

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 Table 4 Industries in the coastal areas of Sri Lanka and their pollution potential

Type of industry Number of units Total wastewater Estimated pollution kg/day

load m3/day BOD COD

Textile 41 7,100 4,970 11,360

Food and beverages 47 4,111 6,166 12,333
Rubber processing 154 4,840 9,670 29,040
Tanning of hides 151 614 3,229 8,070
N.J.G.J. Bandara

Metal preparation and finishing 76 6,692 669 –

Paints and chemicals 33 928 92.2 –
Source: Coastal Conservation Department as reported by Perera, K.R.D.S. (2000), in Statistical
Compendium on Natural Resources Management – Sri Lanka – 2000 for Sustainable Development,
Planning Division, Ministry of Forestry and Environment

ship wastes disposed to the sea. Increasing industrial developments in the coastal areas is
another cause of concern. Table 4 gives the number of industries located in coastal areas
with high or medium pollution potential and their waste loads.

Water resource degradation controlling mechanisms in Sri Lanka

A number of initiatives have been taken by the government of Sri Lanka to address the
concerns associated with water resources. The country is empowered with about 50 water
related laws and 20 government agencies regulating water resources. However, there has
been little coordination of their activities. To facilitate their coordination, The Water
Resource Council and The Water Resource Secretariat were established in July 1995 and
January 1996 respectively. A Water Resource Authority was established in 2000.
Accordingly a new Water Resources Act is being prepared.
Monitoring of the quality of drinking water is done by the NWSDB. To ensure drinking
water quality the National Standards Institution has published standards for potable water
as well as for water extracted for public water supplies. The control of pollution of the
waterways with industrial effluent is under the Central Environmental Authority (CEA).
For this purpose, the CEA prepares pollution control guidelines, sets pollution control stan-
dards, conducts monitoring activities and issues Environmental Protection Licenses (EPL)
for polluting industries. In 1993, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) regulations
have been gazetted under which industries are categorized as low or non-polluting indus-
tries that do not require EPL, those that require EPL but not EIA and those that require EIA.
The government started a program in 1994, which continues to date, to introduce cleaner
technologies to local industries. In 1996, a National Industrial Pollution Management
Policy was adopted. Some of the main principles behind the strategies adopted here are pol-
lution prevention at source and the clustering of industrial units in estates. Regulations for
hazardous waste management were gazetted on 23rd of May 1996. The government is also
promoting an industrial estate management strategy for siting new industries (Ministry of
Forestry and Environment: 1998). Several areas suitable for locating these estates have
been identified. As another initiative the government had proposed to build two central
facilities for treating liquid effluents discharged from two industrial clusters and domestic
waste waters from these two areas. World Bank assistance will be provided for construction
of these facilities. However, this has not yet materialized. In spite of the initiatives taken by
the government, most existing industries still have not invested in clean technology and
waste treatment.
To control pollution arising due to heavy use of agrochemicals the Government has
taken a policy decision to promote organic farming and integrated pest management.
310 However, it has failed to control the usage of agrochemicals, particularly pesticides. This is

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 mainly attributed to sales campaigns and promotions carried out by agrochemical
suppliers.
To address environmental concerns associated with coastal and marine resources, the
Coastal Resources Management Plan was updated in 1997 and a new Fisheries Act was
introduced in 1996. Sri Lanka has ratified the MARPOL Convention on Ship-generated
Waste and the IMO Convention on Marine Pollution. In 1990 a Marine Pollution
Prevention Authority was established to implement these conventions. Regulations have

N.J.G.J. Bandara
been put forth to control coral and sand mining. With foreign funds a project was undertak-
en to rehabilitate coastal areas that are eroded and to nourish beach areas.

Conclusions
Sri Lanka faces several water and wastewater issues which have resulted in environmental
and socio-economic complications. Water-related health hazards affect particularly the
urban low-income communities. These problems arise primarily due to the depletion of
water resources and its supply, and degradation of its quality. Lack of water supply has
retarded developmental activities of the country such as in agriculture and industry. Since
electricity generation in the country is primarily from hydropower, diminishing water sup-
ply affects the economy of the entire country. With the ever increasing population growth,
urbanization and industrial and commercial activities the demand for water from all sectors
is increasing rapidly. Sri Lanka does not have an efficient water allocation system giving
rise to many conflicts both at local and national levels, and the inefficiency of uses,
particularly in the irrigation sector, which is the largest user of water, again causes econom-
ic losses. A reason for water not being used optimally in Sri Lanka can be because it is still
not considered as an economic good.
Most of the surface water bodies in the country, particularly lakes in the urban areas and
downstream segments of rivers are heavily polluted. The main causes are the lack of
appropriate sewage collection and treatment facilities and industrial effluent management.
A significant concern is the lack of sanitary facilities for low-income settlements, which
affects not just these populations but also the whole country. With regard to industrial efflu-
ent management, although new regulations such as EIA and EPL requirements are in effect,
lack of monitoring encourages unacceptable means of waste disposal.
There is evidence that even ground water resources in the country are over-utilized and
polluted from agrochemicals in the rural areas and sewage in the urban areas. A developing
country like Sri Lanka can’t afford the costly cleaning processes of groundwater and hence
pollution prevention is the most cost effective way of control. A management strategy and
proper monitoring is essential for ground water extraction. Even marine pollution is
significant since it affects the flourishing fisheries and tourism industries in the country and
hence must be kept under control.
Water allocation amongst different users and water pollution has been addressed at
various forums and through various government policies and regulations. However, most
of these problems associated with water availability and water quality are only increasing
daily. A main reason is that though stringent regulations exist, their enforcement is lacking
primarily due to limited government resources. The state must involve the private sector in
efforts at conservation of water resources.
The degradation of water resources and user allocation problems are severe enough to
call for drastic and immediate actions. The government of Sri Lanka needs to take urgent
measures to prevent further degradation of the resource by enforcing the existing
regulations and to clean up the water bodies in dire condition, perhaps with private sector
participation.
311

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 Acknowledgements
The information provided by the officials of the Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources, Central Environmental Authority and the National Water Supply and Drainage
Board is acknowledged with gratitude.

References
Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2000). Annual Report 2000, Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Central Bank Printing
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Press, Sri Lanka.

Department of Census and Statistics (1998). Statistical Compendium on environmental statistics Sri Lanka:
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Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1998). National Environmental Action Plan (1998–2001). NAITA
Press, Sri Lanka.
National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) (1994). Water supply and Sanitation related
information-1992. Sri Lanka.
Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka (1991). Natural Resources of Sri Lanka,
Conditions and Trends. Sri Lanka.
Perera, K.R.D.S. (2000). Statistical Compendium on Natural Resources Management – Sri Lanka – 2000 for
Sustainable Development. Planning Division, Ministry of Forestry & Environment, Sri Lanka.
Urban Development Authority (1994). Environmental Management Strategy for Colombo urban area. Sri
Lanka.

312

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