Aquaculture Reports 11 (2018) 1–7

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Aquaculture Reports
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Influence of environmental salinity and cortisol pretreatment on gill Na+/ T

K+ −ATPase activity and survival and growth rates in Cyprinus carpio
⁎
Manoharan Saravanana,b, Mathan Ramesha, Rakpong Petkamb, , Rama Krishnan Poopalc
a
Unit of Toxicology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 641 046, TN, India
b
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
c
Environmental Toxicology and Toxicogenomics Lab, Department of Environmental Biotechnology, School of Environmental Sciences, Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchirappalli, 620024, TN, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of environmental salinity (2.5, 5, and 7.5‰), and cortisol
Salinity pretreatment (0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1) on gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity and survival and growth rates in a
Hormone common carp, Cyprinus carpio (L.). Cortisol pretreated fish in water (0‰), showed a significant increase in gill
Enzyme Na+/K+-ATPase activity after 3 days of exposure when compared to that of the control groups. In contrast,
Fish
cortisol pretreated fish exposed to various salinities (2.5, 5, and 7.5‰) showed a low level of gill Na+/K+-
ATPase activity during the study period of 14 days. However, the gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity on day 7th and
14th day was found to be not significant (except 0.01 μg l−1 cortisol treatment at 5‰, and 7.5‰, respectively).
We observed that the fish showed a great adaptation to all salinities and a higher survival rate during the study
period. However, a long-term exposure study is needed to assess the effects of environmental salinity and cortisol
pretreatments on these aspects for a desirable development in aquaculture practices.

1. Introduction
An adverse environmental condition challenges the capability of
fish to maintain their homeostasis (Wedemeyer et al., 1984). Salinity is
specific to the aquatic environment, and in most aquatic organisms egg
fertilization, early embryogenesis, and larval growth were dependent
on the salinity level (Boeuf and Payan, 2001). Environmental salinity is
a key factor for the survival of aquatic organisms, and any changes in
salinity may affect various physiological processes in organisms (Cuesta
et al., 2005). Chand et al. (2015) reported that the survival rate of M.
rosenbergii was significantly increased after 60 days trial period in
freshwater (0 ppt) and decreased as salinity increased. Previous reports
indicate that the changes in salinity affect the survival and hatching
rate, immune responses, hematological profiles, Na+/K+-ATPase ac-
tivity, levels of plasma Na+ and Cl− ions and histopathological char-
acteristics of aquatic organisms (Verdegem et al., 1997; Burg et al.,
2007; Ostrowski et al., 2011).
The freshwater animals are generally hyperosmotic to their en-
vironment and maintain their body fluids at higher levels for their ac-
climation and survival at different degrees of salinity (Martínez-Álvarez
et al., 2002; Huong et al., 2010). Cortisol is the predominant gluco-
corticoid in fish; it is synthesized by interrenal cells of the head kidney
and regulates osmolarity, metabolism and immune and stress associated
responses (Wendelaar Bonga, 1997; Takahashi et al., 2006; Vizzini
et al., 2007; Vazzana et al., 2010). In teleost fishes, cortisol has an
important osmoregulatory role in hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic con-
ditions (McCormick, 2001; Mancera et al., 2002). Moreover, cortisol
plays a dual role in carbohydrate metabolism and hydromineral reg-
ulation in several fish species by regulating the activity and the ex-
pression of gill Na+/K+-ATPase (Gallo and Civinini, 2003; Sangiao-
Alvarellos et al., 2005; McCormick et al., 2008). The osmoregulatory
role of cortisol is well established in many reports such as salinity tol-
erance, development, proliferation of gill chloride cells, and gill Na+/
K+-ATPase activity (McCormick, 1996; Seidelin and Madsen, 1999;
Babitha and Peter, 2010).
In fish, gill, kidney, and intestine are the major osmoregulatory
organs and play a role in hydromineral homeostasis (McCormick, 2001;
Evans, 2008). Even though there are many organs involving in the ion
regulation, gill is the main site in ion gains and losses (Evans, 1993).
Na+/K+-ATPase, a highly conserved membrane enzyme, is involved in
both ion uptake and salt secretion by the gill of teleost fish (Dang et al.,
2000; Evans et al., 2005). Cortisol favors saline water adaptation, pri-
marily by stimulating gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity (McCormick, 1990).
In Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar exogenous treatment with cortisol

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rakpong@kku.ac.th (R. Petkam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2018.04.002
Received 15 November 2017; Received in revised form 17 April 2018; Accepted 28 April 2018
Available online 15 May 2018
2352-5134/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
M. Saravanan et al.
increased gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity and also promotes salinity tol-
erance (McCormick et al., 2008). Richman and Zaugg (1987) suggested
that cortisol may stimulate saline water osmoregulatory mechanisms in
salmonids with increased gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity in pre-smolts
(Salmo trutta). Ojima et al. (2009) reported that a strong stimulation of
the hypo-osmoregulatory ability of Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) by
cortisol. Moreover, there are many pieces of evidence indicating the
involvement of cortisol in ion uptake in teleosts, for example, Sparus
aurata treated with cortisol increased ion regulatory capacity after
transfer to low salinity environments (Mancera et al., 1994). Increased
capacity for hypo-osmotic regulation in smolting and non-smolting
salmonids was achieved by injection of cortisol and growth hormone
prior to sea water transfer which resulted in increased activity of gut
and gill Na+/K+-ATPase (Madsen, 1990; Sakamoto and Hirano, 1993).
Siira et al. (2006) reported that the major precondition for a suc-
cessful selective fishery is that released fish would survive and continue
their normal physiological functions. The physiological functions are
generally influenced by environmental variables such as water salinity
in fish growth (Boeuf and Payan, 2001; Engström-Öst et al., 2005).
Survival and growth are important for the early life of fish and are
strongly coupled (Houde, 1997; Appelbaum and Kamler, 2000). About
20–50% of the total energy budget of fish is used for osmoregulation
alone (Boeuf and Payan, 2001). The fish culture at low salinity level
may also reduce the occurrence of disease (Resley et al., 2006).
Sampaio and Bianchini (2002) suggested that fish growth may be in-
creased at appropriate salinity level which may decrease energy ex-
hausted maintaining homeostasis. Many authors have reported on the
influence of water salinity on fish development (Watanabe et al., 1989;
Tandler et al., 1995; Boeuf and Payan, 2001; Luz et al., 2008). The
larval fish culture at low salinities may enhance growth and survival
rate in freshwater species than the freshwater conditions (Britz and
Hecht, 1989; Luz and Portella, 2002; Luz et al., 2004). A change from 0
to 36.6 psu seawater did not affect growth in the tilapia Oreochromis
spilurus (Jonassen et al., 1997) and salmonids grow better in saline
water during the winter with higher salinity (Boeuf, 1993). The growth
rate was increased in Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella and ju-
venile Acipenser guldenstaedti at a salinity of 2 psu (Konstantinov and
Martynova, 1993). A similar observation was also noted in Micro-
pogonias furnieri in 10–30 psu (Aristizabal-Abud, 1992), Chanos chanos
in 0–55 psu (Swanson, 1998).
It is known that there is a lack of available information to the pre-
treatment effect of cortisol, especially in a freshwater fish, C. carpio on
survival and growth rates and gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity at various
concentrations of salinity. This led us to carry out the present study. The
common carp C. carpio is one of the most salinity tolerant fish species
among most freshwater fish species. In this study, C. carpio was selected
based upon its economic value, easy availability, and wide consumption
by the people. In addition, C. carpio has proven to be an excellent model
to study the mechanisms of salinity changes based on their high toler-
ance to varying ranges of salinity and high resistance to stress and in-
fection. The aims of the present study are (i) to examine the effect of
cortisol on survival ability, (ii) to evaluate growth rate under cortisol
treatment and (iii) to examine the influence of cortisol on gill Na+/K+-
ATPase activity and in order to provide principle information for fur-
ther application of cortisol in the aquaculture industry.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Fish and experimental design
C. carpio in the average weight range of 0.26 ± 0.02 g and body
length of 2.65 ± 0.09 cm were obtained from a fish farm, Department
of Fisheries, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. They were
safely brought to the laboratory and acclimatized for 5 days in a large
plastic tank (60 × 30 × 45 cm) prior to the experiment. During the
acclimatization period, fish were fed on artificial fish feed once daily.
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Aquaculture Reports 11 (2018) 1–7
Water was renewed (1/3) daily, and feeding was withheld 24 h before
the commencement of the experiment. In the present study, tap water-
free from chlorine was used, and the water had the following physico-
chemical characteristics (APHA, 1998); temperature (27.5 ± 2 °C), pH
(7.2), dissolved oxygen (6.5 mg l−1). Before the start of the experiment,
fish were randomly divided into two groups which were housed in 200-l
aquaria with tap water which was continuously aerated. Saline water
was prepared with Rock salt.
2.2. Cortisol
Analytical grade cortisol (Hydrocortisone; H 4001-1G; ≥ 98%
HPLC; CAS No: 50-23-7) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich, Germany.
The stock solution of cortisol was prepared by dissolving in ethanol
(0.1%) and an appropriate amount of tap water. In this experiment,
cortisol was used to evaluate its influence on fish adaptation reared at
various salinity levels.
2.3. Cortisol pretreatment study
Healthy fish were taken from the stock, and 200 fish were allocated
into each tank containing 30 l of water in a total of 12 tanks. The
cortisol treatment was conducted in triplicates; fish were exposed to
different concentration of cortisol at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1 compared
with the naïve control for the period of 3 days.
2.4. Different salinity studies
For salinity tests, fish from cortisol pretreatment tanks (0.01 μg l−1)
were transferred to four salinity levels by dissolving rock salt at 0, 2.5,
5, and 7.5‰ into the tank using 30 fish per tank and ran in triplicates.
The same experimental setup was maintained to the other cortisol
pretreatments (0.1, and 1 μg l−1) and naïve control groups. The study
was conducted for a period of 14 days, and three-forth of the water was
renewed daily with an appropriate amount of salt in each tank in order
to maintain constant salinity concentration. Faeces were removed prior
to water renewal. Mortality was routinely checked every day. At the
end of 7th and 14th days of exposure, fish were selected from experi-
ment, and control tanks and gills were collected from each group and
stored in liquid nitrogen prior to the Na+/K+-ATPase activity assay.
2.5. Estimation of gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity
Gill tissue (50 mg) from each treatment were homogenized in ice-
cold 1.0 ml of 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.4) using a Teflon coated
homogenizer and then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm at 4 °C for 15 min. The
supernatant obtained after centrifugation was used for the estimation of
Na+/K+-ATPase activity following the method of Shiosaka et al. (1971)
with some modification in the total weight of the gill (50 mg) and
preparation of ANSA reagent (50 mg of ANSA was dissolved in 195 ml
of 15% sodium bisulphate solution and 5.00 ml of 20% sodium sulphite
solution). The gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity was expressed as μg/h/g.
2.6. Survival and growth rates
Survival and specific growth rates were evaluated each interval
according to the following standard formula (Tekinay and Davies,
2001).
No. of live fish
Survival rate (SR) = × 100
No. of fish introduces
Survival growth rate (SGR)
log of final weight (g) − log of initial weight (g)
= × 100
No. of days
M. Saravanan et al. Aquaculture Reports 11 (2018) 1–7

Table 2
Effect of pretreated cortisol on gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity of C. carpio at
various salinities (2.5, 5, and 7.5‰; 14 days).
Cortisol Salinities (‰)
Levels (μg
l−1) Water 2.5 5 7.5

0 12.16 ± 0.72a 13.00 ± 0.58b 11.33 ± 0.33a 13.00 ± 0.50a

0.01 11.41 ± 0.30a 13.50 ± 0.76ab 12.66 ± 0.33a 14.25 ± 0.90a
0.1 13.50 ± 0.29a 12.50 ± 2.20ab 14.00 ± 0.50a 14.33 ± 0.17a
1 12.83 ± 1.17a 13.00 ± 1.15a 13.50 ± 1.61a 11.50 ± 0.58a
Salinity (S, F3,32) < 1 ns
Cortisol (C, F3,32) 1.30 ns
S x C (F9, 32) 1.26 ns

Fig. 1. Changes in gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity in a freshwater fish C. carpio # ns = Not significant
treated with various concentrations of cortisol (0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1; 3 days). Values are expressed as the mean ± S.E of five individual observations. In a
Means in the bars followed by common letters for the cortisol treatments are column, means followed by common letters (superscript) are not significantly
not significantly different (P < 0.05) according to DMRT. different at 5% level (P < 0.05) by DMRT.

2.7. Statistical methods 3.2. Survival and growth rates

Statistical data analysis was made individually on each sample, and After cortisol pretreatment, all fish showed a great survival rate
the mean value of five individual observations was taken for each under the 2.5, 5, and 7.5‰ at the end of 14 days (a maximum of 100%
parameter. All values were expressed as means and analyzed by and a minimum of 93.33%) (Table. 3). The results show that the cortisol
ANOVA, followed by a DMRT test to determine the significant differ- (0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1) pretreated fish had 100% survival rate at the
ences (P < 0.01, and P < 0.05) among the cortisol, between the higher salinity level 7.5‰. There was no mortality in cortisol pre-
salinity, and the difference between the cortisol and salinity on each treatment exposure for a period of 3 days whereas a slight mortality
parameter. rate was observed in cortisol pretreated fish when transferred to dif-
ferent salinities (Table. 4). No fish died in the freshwater control group.
Further, the wet weight and standard length of the fish were increased
3. Results in all the concentrations of cortisol pretreatment at 7.5‰ (Figs. 2–5). In
particular, 0 μg l−1 cortisol pretreatment showed a minimum weight
3.1. Gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity and length values when compared to other treatments during the
14 days exposure period.
In this study, gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity (μg/h/g) in the fish C.
carpio was significantly (P < 0.05) increased at 0.1, and 1 μg l−1 of 4. Discussion
cortisol pretreatments when compared to control groups (Fig. 1).
During the exposure to different types of salinities such as 2.5, 5, and Cortisol, a major corticosteroid plays an important role in the reg-
7.5‰, the gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity was not significantly altered in ulation of metabolism, growth, and osmoregulation in fish (Wendelaar
the cortisol pretreated fish (0, 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1) at the end of 7th Bonga, 1997; Mommsen et al., 1999; Kumai et al., 2012). It is involved
day (Table 1). Similar to the 7th day exposure, the gill Na+/K+-ATPase in both ion uptake and salt secretion in teleost fish and/or increase the
activity was not significantly changed in all 0, 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg l−1 capacity to maintain plasma ions (McCormick et al., 2008; Tomy et al.,
cortisol pretreated fish under different salinities at the end of 14th day 2009). Therefore, it is considered as a key osmoregulatory hormone
(Table 2). A slight increase in gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity was ob- promoting seawater acclimation in many teleosts (McCormick, 1995;
served in the experimental fish exposed to 2.5‰ in 0, 0.01, and 0.1 μg Schreiber, 2001; Varsamos et al., 2005; Veillette et al., 2007;
l−1 of cortisol pretreated fish at the end of 14th day. However, there McCormick et al., 2008). In freshwater fish, administration of cortisol
were no significant changes in gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity under 2.5, stimulates the uptake of ions such as Na+, Cl−, and Ca+ in freshwater
5, and 7.5‰ exposures at the end of 14th day. fish (Laurent and Perry, 1990; Lin et al., 2011). Further, cortisol also
regulates the gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity which is a membrane-bound
enzyme in teleost fish (Dange, 1986; Sunny and Oommen, 2001; Burg
Table 1
Effect of pretreated cortisol on gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity of C. carpio at et al., 2007) and considered as a fundamental regulator of chloride cell
various salinities (2.5, 5, and 7.5‰; 7 days). differentiation and proliferation (McCormick, 2001). In addition, this is
also essential for intracellular homeostasis (McCormick, 1995; Tang
Cortisol Salinities (‰)
et al., 2012).
levels (μg
l−1) Water 2.5 5 7.5 In the present study, a significant increase in gill Na+/K+-ATPase
activity after administration of cortisol indicates that cortisol stimulates
a a a
0 12.50 ± 0.50 11.00 ± 1.16 13.58 ± 2.70 12.75 ± 0.73a the osmoregulatory capacity and maintains the hydromineral balance
0.01 10.91 ± 1.88a 11.50 ± 1.26a 12.00 ± 1.53a 10.91 ± 1.84a
in the gill of fish. Dang et al. (2000) demonstrated that cortisol treat-
0.1 11.25 ± 2.00a 13.10 ± 0.95a 12.25 ± 0.43a 13.50 ± 0.58a
1 12.83 ± 0.44a 12.66 ± 0.33a 12.75 ± 0.14a 12.33 ± 0.44a ment increased the expression of immunoreactive Na+/K+-ATPase
F − Statistics # activity. Short term cortisol treatment regulates osmotic homeostasis in
Salinity (S, F3,32) < 1 ns North African catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell) by triggering and
Cortisol (C, F3,32) < 1 ns integrating the osmotic competence of gills (Babitha and Peter, 2010).
S x C (F9, 32) < 1 ns
Further, Sunny and Oommen (2001) also reported that rapid stimula-
# ns = Not significant tion of ATPase activity in the freshwater tilapia O. mossambicus in both
Values are expressed as the mean ± S.E of five individual observations. In a in vivo and in vitro induced by cortisol as a non-genomic pathway. In-
column, means followed by common letters (superscript) are not significantly traperitoneal cortisol treatments enhanced the gill Na+/K+-ATPase
different at 5% level (P < 0.05) by DMRT. activity in gold fish indicating that cortisol likely alters transcellular

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M. Saravanan et al. Aquaculture Reports 11 (2018) 1–7

Table 3
Survival and Growth rate of cortisol pretreated fish C. carpio at various salinities for the period of 14 days.
Parameters 0 μg l-1 0.01μg l-1 0.1 μg l-1 1 μg l-1

Survival rate (%)

Water 100 100 100 100
2.5 ‰ 96.66 100 100 93.33
5‰ 100 96.66 96.66 93.33
7.5 ‰ 96.66 100 100 100

Initial length/fish (cm) 2.65 ± 0.09 2.65 ± 0.09 2.65 ± 0.09 2.65 ± 0.09
Final length/fish (cm)
Water 2.59 ± 0.07 2.56 ± 0.04 2.62 ± 0.03 2.59 ± 0.05
2.5 ‰ 2.70 ± 0.06 2.80 ± 0.08 2.63 ± 0.08 2.89 ± 0.09
5‰ 2.60 ± 0.03 2.65 ± 0.03 2.88 ± 0.10 2.84 ± 0.03
7.5 ‰ 3.34 ± 0.01 2.76 ± 0.10 2.76 ± 0.09 2.79 ± 0.02

Initial weight/fish (g) 0.26 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02
Final weight/fish (g)
Water 0.25 ± 0.04 0.21 ± 0.04 0.21 ± 0.01 0.17 ± 0.01
2.5 ‰ 0.27 ± 0.02 0.28 ± 0.02 0.24 ± 0.02 0.32 ± 0.04
5‰ 0.23 ± 0.00 0.22 ± 0.00 0.34 ± 0.02 0.39 ± 0.05
7.5 ‰ 0.43 ± 0.01 0.31 ± 0.02 0.28 ± 0.04 0.26 ± 0.00

Specific growth rate (%)

Water −0.09 ± 0.00 −0.33 ± 0.01 −0.33 ± 0.01 −0.62 ± 0.02
2.5 ‰ 0.05 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00 −0.14 ± 0.00 0.43 ± 0.01
5‰ −0.24 ± 0.01 −0.23 ± 0.01 0.57 ± 0.02 0.95 ± 0.04
7.5 ‰ 1.19 ± 0.05 0.04 ± 0.01 0.19 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00

Values are expressed as the mean + S.E of five individual observations

Table 4
Mortality rate of C. carpio during the experimental period (14 days).
Treatment Days

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Cortisol
0 μg l−1
0.01 μg l−1
0.1 μg l−1
1 μg l−1
0 μg l−1
Water
2.5‰ x Fig. 2. Growth curve with mean standard length of cortisol pretreated C. carpio
5‰ reared in various salinities at the end of 7th day.
7.5‰ x
0.01 μg l−1
Water
2.5
5‰ x
7.5‰
0.1 μg l−1
Water
2.5‰
5‰ x
7.5‰
1 μg l−1
Water
2.5‰ x x
5‰ x x
7.5‰

transport processes in order to enhance active ion acquisition (Chasiotis
and Kelly, 2012). Their findings strongly corroborate with the results on
the significant increment in gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity in fish C.
carpio treated with cortisol.
Acclimatization to changes in environmental salinity involves sev-
eral hormonal and osmoregulatory adjustments in order to re-establish
ionic homeostasis (Sparks et al., 2003). The expressions of Na+/K+-
ATPase are often correlated directly with salinity (Tipsmark and
Madsen, 2001; Hawkings et al., 2003; Hiroi and McCormick, 2007;
Kang et al., 2008). Some species are known for their ability to acclimate
to different salinity media (Jordan et al., 1993). Salinity tolerance is in
large part dependent on the function of major osmoregulatory organs
Fig. 3. Growth curve with mean body weight of cortisol pretreated C. carpio
reared in various salinities at the end of 7th day.
(Veillette et al., 2006). In the present study, C. carpio showed better
salinity tolerance treated with cortisol and gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity
was increased little under different salinities. Similar to our reports, an
increase of Na+/K+-ATPase activity in the gill of Persian sturgeon,
Acipenser persicus exposed to cortisol was noticed when acclimatized to
various salinity level (Khodabandeh et al., 2009). According to Doyle
and Epstein (1972), an elevated level of Na+/K+-ATPase activity in
Anguilla rostrata was correlated with the increase in number and ma-
turation of chloride cells. In contrast to the above increase a significant
decrease in gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity was also found in many fish

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M. Saravanan et al.
Fig. 4. Growth curve with mean standard length of cortisol pretreated C. carpio
reared in various salinities at the end of 14th day.
Fig. 5. Growth curve with mean body weight of cortisol pretreated C. carpio
reared in various salinities at the end of 14th day.
species (McCormick et al., 1991; Handeland et al., 2000; Piermarini and
Evans, 2000). In the present study, a slight decrease in gill Na+/K+-
ATPase activity was also noted in 0.1 μg l−1 at 5‰ (-5.60) at the end of
14th day experiment. Kelly et al. (1999) reported that a significant
decrease in Na+/K+-ATPase activity in the 12‰ black sea bream and
suggested that the need to exchange ions for urinary output was re-
duced in an isosmotic environment. The findings of the present study
suggest that the fish C. carpio in freshwater have increased Na+/K+-
ATPase activity in some cases for active absorption of different ions
from saline water. When these fish are suddenly acclimated to water
with 2.5, 5, and 7.5‰ salinity, they are faced with a high amount of
incoming ions than freshwater, and they will decrease their gill Na+/
K+-ATPase activity. Imsland et al. (2003) hypothesized that the re-
duced gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity found at 15‰ salinity levels would
lead to reduced energy expenditures. Some previous reports indicated
no effect of salinity on Na+/K+-ATPase activity (Yoshikawa et al.,
1993; Kelly et al., 1999) while others reported a strong effect of salinity
on gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity (Piermarini and Evans, 2000; Imsland
et al., 2003). A positive correlation between environmental salinity and
Na+/K+-ATPase activity was observed by Kültz et al. (1992) whereas a
negative correlation between water salinity and Na+/K+-ATPase ac-
tivity was reported by Marshall et al. (1999) and Lin et al. (2004).
Measurements of survival and growth parameters are commonly
used as endpoints to determine the acute/chronic and/or sublethal ef-
fects of chemical substances. These two are most important processes in
fish (Houde, 1997) that can significantly be influenced by environ-
mental conditions such as salinity (Jana et al., 2006). In general, the
influence of salinity on fish growth varies significantly among fish and
salinity ranges (Boeuf and Payan, 2001; Saoud et al., 2007). For in-
stance, the fish C. carpio grows rapidly in waters of less than 0.5‰
salinity (Yangzhong et al., 1989) whereas such salinity levels affected
the growth of gilt-head sea bream, Sparus aurata (Laiz-Carrión et al.,
2005). Furthermore, salinity intrusion in freshwater aquaculture areas
leads to salinity stress and some organisms perished due to their in-
ability to cope up with such stress (Chand et al., 2015). In the present
study, there was no significant growth rate and mortality rate in C.
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Aquaculture Reports 11 (2018) 1–7
carpio subjected to different salinities. The results obtained from this
study shows a better survival rate even in 7.5‰ level following 14 days
exposure which may be due to reduced osmoregulatory stress
(Ostrowski et al., 2011). Further, growth performance seems to be re-
lated to the amount of energy expended for osmoregulation as salinity
increases (Imsland et al., 2003). A reduction in growth rate has been
reported in cultured fish species due to decreased food intake by in-
creasing salinity level (Boeck et al., 2000; Imsland et al., 2001). Salinity
may influence the amount of energy available for the growth of fish by
changing the energetic cost of ionic and osmotic regulation (Iwama,
1996).
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, our results proved that C. carpio is an efficient os-
moregulator and the alteration of gill Na+/K+-ATPase activity may be
due to the maintenance of ion and water homeostasis in different
salinity environment. Further, exogenous cortisol application can in-
crease the osmoregulatory capacity (increases gill Na+/K+-ATPase
activity) of fish before releasing into salinity water and can reduce their
mortality. Even though the optimal salinity range for growth of
common carp was found to be in the range from fresh water to 2.5‰, it
showed a great tolerance with these different salinities. Further studies
are necessary to elucidate the precise mechanism of cortisol effects in a
long-term exposure and to optimize a desirable condition to develop an
appropriate approach for aquaculture and fisheries practices at various
salinity levels.
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