CHAPTER – 2

2. GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE

2.1. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE

About Geological origin of word Shekhawati, Hakim Yusuf Jhunjhunuvi gives another
view. According to him Shekhawati derives its name from Persian language word 'Sheekh'
which means 'Sand deposited on the coastal area of sea'. This indicates that this area has
been inundated with seawater long back and converted to sand dunes over thousands of
years.12,13 It is not clear when these seas dried up and receded but the desert was created due
to the receding of the sea. Millions of years ago this land was inundated with sea water. 14
Fossils found in the area confirm that was once a covered by seawater. Gaurishankar
Hirachand Ojha believed that the desert area of Rajasthan was earlier an ocean but due to
earthquakes and other climatic reasons the seabed rose and the water receded southwards
leaving behind a sand mass, which later came to be known as Marukantar. The presence of
shells, conch etc. found in stone form in this area is clear evidence that this was a sea earlier.
15

The main rock types of the study area can be broadly divided into sedimentary
metamorphites and intrusive rocks of pre- Cambrian age, and belonging to the Alwar and the
Ajabgarh series of the Delhi system of Heron (op. cit.). The metamorphites includes
moderately metamorphosed schists, quartzites, marbles with intercalated cal- silicate rocks
and amphlbolites. (figure 2.1)
1. Alwar series: - The rocks of the Alwar series are predominantly arenaceous. The
alwar rocks are characterized by current bedding and ripple marks.
2. Ajabgarh Series: - Ajabgarh are mainly argillaceous. Current bending and ripple
marks are almost always absent in Ajabgarh series.

12
Hakim Yusuf Jhunjhunuvi: Jhunjhunu ka Itihasa, Vol III page-10
13
Ranwa 'Manu Mansukh '(2001), Amar Shaheed Lotu Jat,J C Ranwa Prakashan, Sikar, p-13
14
Parmeshwar Solanki: Rajasthan marupradesh ka iti vritatmak vivechan, p. 16

15
G H Ojha: Rajputane ka Itihasa (Part I), p. 83

1
Figure 2.1 Geological formation of Shekhawati region.
Although, the contact between the two series is not sharp, there is a narrow but distinct zone
of transition showing widely varying mineralogical assemblages. The proportion of chlorite
and biotite increases sharply from the Alwar series to the Ajabgarh series. The zone has been
further complicated by shearing, faulting and iron- magnesia metasomatism attendant with
mineralization.
The main orographic axis of the Aravalli hill range is defined by a narrow linear fold belt in
central Rajasthan. This fold belt which fans out in the north, northeast and south is known as
the Delhi Fold Belt (DFB) (Sinha-Roy, 1984) or the Main Delhi Synchnorium (Heron, 1953).
The DFB in the north 370 east contains rock sequences disposed in several nearly isolated
and independent fault-bound basins. In the Central part, i.e. south of Ajmer, the litho-units
show a fair degree of continuity, although these are truncated at
many places by shear zones. The DFB contains a number of granite plutons occurring from
Khetri in the north to Godhra in the South.
The Delhi Super group overlies the Aravallis. Delhi Super group is divided into lower Railo
group, middle Alwar group and upper Ajabgarh group. Railo group is rich in crystalline
limestones, grits, schistose rocks and quartzites. The famous marble of Makrana (Nagaur
district) belongs to this group. Alwar group and Ajabgarh group consist mostly of calc-
silicates, quartzites, grits and schistose rocks.16

2.1.1. South Delhi Fold Belt:

The main Delhi Synclinorium (Heron, 1953), confined to the central part of the Aravalli
hill range, contains rock sequences distributed in two synclines entrenched in the underlying
pre-Aravalli gneisses. A long narrow strip of inliers of basement rocks separates the outcrops
of the two synclines. On the outer flanks of each syncline, unconformable relations of the
Delhi rocks with the pre-Delhi gneisses are represented by the Barr and the Srinagar
Conglomerates. Along the margin of the inlier, shearing at the contact has produced
mylonitic and gneissose fabric in the basement rocks. A correlation of the stratigraphy
established in Alwar area (NDFB) of northeastern Rajasthan with that of the main Delhi
Synclinorium (SDFB) is uncertain. Although Heron (1953) used the stratigraphic
nomenclatures of the Alwar and the Ajabgarh Groups in the main Delhi Synclinorium
without establishing the younging polarity, Sen (1980) identified multiple tectonic units in
central and southern Rajasthan with westward younging. This composite unit is overlain in
the west by younger sequences comprising the Barr Conglomerate and the Ras Marble. Gupta
et al (1981) subdivided the Delhi Supergroup of the main Delhi Synclinorium into Gogunda
and Khumbalgarh Groups and correlated them with the Alwar and the Ajabgarh Groups,
respectively, of the Alwar sub-basin. The status of the rocks occuring west of the main Delhi
synclinorium is still debated. These are considered basement rocks by Heron (1953), high-
grade variants of the Ajabgarh Group by Sychanthavong and Desai (1977) and magmatised
younger sediments by Gupta et al (1981).

2.1.2. Metamorphism:
It has been concluded by Sharma (1988) that the rocks of the South Delhi fold belt indicate
medium-grade (amphibolite facies) regional metamorphism, although there is a spatial

16 Heron, A.M. (1953): The Geology of Central Rajputana. Mem. Geological Survey of India, 79, p.389.
variation in the development of metamorphic assemblages. The grade of metamorphism
increases westward from staurolite-kyanite zone in the east .
Near the southern extremity of the South Delhi fold belt in Deri-Ambaji area, the regional
metamorphism has been over-printed by thermal metamorphism. Deb (1980) suggested that
in this area the first event was a regional metamorphism under greenschist facies conditions.
Plutonic intrusions associated with the second phase of folding caused thermal
metamorphism producing cordierite-anthophyllite assemblage and hornfelsic texture in the
rocks. Siliceous marble developed diopside-forsterite assemblage and amphibolites
developed hornblende-labradorite +diopside assemblage. The P-T estimates for the thermal
metamorphism are suggested to be 3 kb and 5750 C.17
Geological formations of the area under study may be divided into distinct parts as shown
in figure.2.1 which illustrates that about 85% is covered by blown sand, it is recent formation
about one lac years whereas about 15% area falls under Delhi system formation about 45 lac
years and origins of upper Cambrian period.
The Sikar district is mainly divided into two parts by Aravalli ranges; eastern part is
represented by Alwar group of rocks which comprises quartzite marble, schist, gneiss, among
metallic minerals copper ore is the most important found at Dariba, Neem- ka- Thana also at
Baleswar, Abirwala and Mothooka, Bihar, Khoon and Salwari. Iron ore deposits are located
at raipur, Bagoli, sirohi and Pachlongi sirohi. Among non- metallic minerals, Apatite, Calcite,
Dolomite, Fluorite, limestone, Barytes and Pyrrohotite, mica, Talc are important besides this
Baryte, mica, quartz are also extracted, Radioactive minerals and Molybolenite in Khadela-
Ganeshwar area are still under investigation, while the western part is covered with sand
dunes.(figure2.1)

2.2. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS:-

Climate is the most important geographical factor of any region which has its
paramount impact on distribution of human activities and land and human relation. The line
that divides, arid and semi- arid region passes through Jhunjhunu and Sikar, lies towards
north‟s. So, impact of desertic conditions clearly shown in more than half of the study area.
Summer season, reflects low irregular rainfall, conditions of high temperature, high
temperature Variability, dust storm and rate of high evaporation.

17Roy, A.B. and Jakhar, S (2002), Geology of Rajasthan (NW India), Scientific Publishers
(India), Jodhpur.
As far as the type of climate of the region under study is concerned the observations revealed
that according Koppen‟s climatic classification the region falls under arid type of climate,
(Bshw- covers fully both of districts i.e., Jhunjhunun and sikar) . According to Thronwaite‟s
climatic classification point of view, the region under study is distinctly divided into two
parts- under i.e., E climate region of arid climate in western part of 66 line and lower – D
climatic obtains semi- arid climate in eastern part of 66 lines.
The climate of the study area is divides into following seasons:
1. Summer season – March to June
2. Monsoon season – July to September.
3. Winter season – October to February.

Summer season: - summer season is experienced by high temperature, scorching heat and
dust storms and dust devil. This season starts with increases in temperature and similarly
increase in speed of prevailing wind right from march. Wind direction shifts from North
West to south west. Temperature of study region experiences increases from April and
continuous till may and becomes highest in June up to 45 centigrade. Mean average monthly
temperature of May and June ranges between 250 c to 350 c. days are extremely hot and
temperature starts declining in evening and as the night occurs, the surface becomes cool. In
this season relative humidity is low and increases slowly. Their experiences wide difference
between morning humidity and evening humidity. High humidity in prevails in morning and
it becomes low till evening.
Monsoon season: - In local language this season known as “chomassa”, consisting rain fall
in four months. This region generally experiences first rain of monsoon in the last week of
June. But sometimes it delay and comes in July month. The uncertainty of monsoon results
negative impact on the agriculture of the study area. Relative humidity increases in rainy
season the rainy season extended from July to September and at September end monsoon
starts retreating and during this time relative humidity becomes less. Commencement of
monsoon period i.e., onward period is very important for the season that sudden stability of
sand dunes and fluvial based soil erosion increases with the first rainfall of the rainy season
i.e., from the month of either June or July
The distribution of monsoon rainfall (June to September) which obviously illustrates
that as one proceeds towards northern part of arid region for the area under study the amount
of rainfall (in cm) decreases. High rainfall (40 to 50 cm) obtains by the lower hilly low
rainfall by the upper desertic part, respectively. Distribution of average annual rainfall, which
illustrates that lower portion of the region under study obtains more rainfall (above 40 cm)
whereas upper low (below 30 cm), respectively.
Winter season: - The study region experiences winter season around last week of October,
but the actual winter starts In December till February. January is the coldest month of the
year. In night temperature falls below freezing point and frost starts in region. The invention
of temperature experiences in morning due to low relative humidity, cold night and clear sky.
Wind prevails towards North West. The study region is affected by scorching cold wind due
to snow fall in Himalayan region. Winter season also receives little rain fall due to influence
of western disturbances know as “Mawat”. This is beneficial for rabbi crops. Dense fog
appears in morning remains till noon.
At the part of distribution of temperature either in summer season or in winter season, the
region under study has two distinct parts. In summer season upper part received more
temperature i.e., above 40 degree centigrade, similarly in winter season again in contrast, the
upper portion of the region under study obtains low temperatures in winter season i.e., below
6 degree centigrade .
The average rainfall of the Shekhawati region is 475mm.where as, in Sikar it is 503mm. and
in Jhunjhunu it is 413mm. Among all, Khetri record highest rainfall of 582mm. followed by
Udaipurwati(550mm) and Neem-ka-thana 535mm. The study region receives 90% of its
rainfall from S.W monsoon. The average temperature during rainy season varies from 27 0 to
300 Celsius. Here highest temperature becomes 48 centigrade and minimum is 4 centigrade.
The quantity of rainfall in western part is less than 300mm and more than 450mm in south-
eastern part in Shekhawati region. (Figure 2.1.1)
Evaporation: - Evaporation is the most important factor which depletes the moisture content
of the soil. A definite amount of soil moisture is required for the proper development of the
plants or crops. Rain fall pattern in Kantli basin is scattered and prevails when temperature
becomes high, results high evaporation rate. Highest evaporation takes place in the month of
May during which extreme summer season prevails. During the whole month the rate of
evaporation is at its zenith and it depicts that it is the only factor for the dryness of the study
area.
Humidity: - only during, the short period of the south west monsoon the relative humidity
remains high. The air remains dry during rest of the year. During summer season, which is
the hottest period of the year in noon the humidity levels remains below 30%.
Cloudiness: - During south west monsoon, sky covers by medium to dense clouds. Sky
becomes clear during whole year, only left rainfall season. But due to western disturbances,
clouds occur for sometime.
Winds: - generally winds blow from low to medium speed, but starts to extreme during
monsoon season from west to south western. In winter season, wind prevails from west to
north and in summer season, wind effects from south western and north western direction.
2.2.1. Rainfall Pattern in Shekhawati region:
The climate of Rajasthan state varies from arid to sub-humid. To the west of the Aravalli
range, the climate is characterized by low rainfall with erratic distribution, extremes of
diurnal and annual temperatures, low humidity and high wind velocity. The climate is semi-
arid to sub-humid in the east of the Aravalli range, characterized by more or less the same
extremes in temperatures but relatively lower wind velocity and high humidity with better
rainfall. The entire state is characterized by hyperthermic conditions. The annual rainfall in
the state varies significantly. The general trend of Isohytes is from north-west to south-east.
There is a very rapid and marked decrease in rainfall west of the Aravalli range, making
western Rajasthan the most arid part. The average annual rainfall is more than 40cm in Sikar
and Jhunjhunun regions and along the western fringes of the Aravallis range. The yearly total
rainfall is highly variable at different places all over the state and it is most erratic in the
western half with frequent spells of drought, punctuate occasionally by heavy downpour in
some years, associated with the passing low pressure systems over the region. The south-west
monsoon which has its beginning in the last week of June in the eastern parts, may last till
mid-September. Pre-monsoon showers begin towards the middle of June and post monsoon
rains occasionally occur in October. In the winter season also, there is sometimes, a little
rainfall associated with the passing westerns distribution over the region. At most places, the
highest normal monthly rainfall is during July and August.
The climate of Sikar district is characterized by a hot summer, scanty rainfall, and chilly
winter and a general dryness of air in brief monsoon. The minimum and maximum
temperature is 30 C. and 460 C. the average temperature is 230 C. and the average annual rain
fall is 466 mm.
The climate of the Jhunjhunu district can be classified as semi-arid. It is charaterised by very hot
summers and very cold winters with poor rainfall during south-west monsoon period. In May and
June, the maximum temperature may sometimes goes up to 48o C. The
potential evapotranspiration rates are quite high, especially during May and June. The total
annual potential evapotranspiration is 1502.6mm.
The mean annual rainfall of the Shekhawati region based on 23 years data (1990-2012),
reveals out as 474.64mm. However average annual rainfall (1990-2012) among tehsils of the
Shekhawati region, highest recorded by Khetri (581.78mm), Udaipurwati(550.19mm), Neem-ka-
thana(511.04mm)Buhana(489.61mm),Sikar(487.52mm),Nawalgarh(479.57mm) classified as
average annual rainfall more than Shekhawati region(474.64mm) and average annual rainfall less
than Shekhawati region(474.64mm) are Dantaramgarh(459.28mm)
,Srimadhopur(458.44mm),Chirawa(459mm),Laxmangarh(419.48mm),Jhunjhunu(413.48mm),
lowest recorded by Fatehpur(386.30mm)(Table-2.1.1 & 2.1.1a). It can be inferred that Low
erratic rainfall and strong wind result shifting of sand dunes also, cultivation and grazing on
the dunes reactivate sand erosion,especially during drought years in 1972,1979,1987,2000
and 2002 in the Shekhawati region. Drought year recorded by Shekhawati region are 56%
results soil erosion. (Table-2.1.2)
Table-2.1.1 Average annual rainfall in Shekhawati region (1990 to 2012)
TEHSILS AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL(mm.) 23
YEARS(1990-2012)
JHUNJHUNU 413.48
CHIRAWA 459
KHETRI 581.78
UDAIPURWATI 550.19
NAWALGARH 479.57
BUHANA 489.61
DANTARAMGARH 459.28
FATEHPUR 386.30
LAXMANGARH 419.48
NEEM KA THANA 511.04
SIKAR 487.52
SRIMADHOPUR 458.44
SHEKHAWATI REGION 474.64
Source: Computed by research scholar
Table-2.1.2 Frequency of drought intensities in Shekhawati region.(1901 to 2005)
DISTRICTS MILD MODERATE SEVERE TOTAL OF
DROUGHT
SIKAR 23 21 14 58(56)*
JHUNJHUNU 28 20 08 56(55)
SHEKHAWATI 26 20 11 57(56)
*Percent of total drought year.
Source:CAZRI,Jodhpur,2006
Figure 2.1.1a. Annual average Rainfall distribution in Shekhawati region(1990-2012)
 Table2.1.3
DISTRICT-SIKAR
RAINFALL (MM.) FOR LAST FIVE YEARS (2007-2011)
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DE R/F %D
P EP
2007 0.8 - 88 16..8 100 8.3 124 3.5 0 5.3 - 74 48.0 16 77.3 - 55 68.3 - 50 84.0 45 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 2.8 -7
2008 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 19.9 469 66.4 229 154.2 272 59.2 -66 150.5 9 85.6 48 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 0.0 -
100
2009 0.6 -91 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 2.6 -87 40.5 -2 63.8 -63 58.6 -57 10.2 -82 0.6 -91 0.0 -100 0.0 -
100
2010 0.8 -88 2.2 -74 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 44.6 7 210.5 22 265.5 93 181.3 214 0.4 -94 33.0 965 5.8 93

2011 0.0 -100 33.5 304 4.5 7 0.0 -100 11.9 -38 114.5 138 133.4 -20 178.3 33 110.6 108 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 0.0 -
100

Source: Hydromet Division, Metrological department, India, District- Sikar.

Table2.1.4
DISTRICT-JHUNJHUNU
RAINFALL (MM.) FOR LAST FIVE YEARS (2007-2011)
YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %DEP R/F %D
EP
2007 0.5 - 95 62.6 520 12.5 71 4.0 -26 7.7 - 65 39.1 -17 87.3 - 44 78.4 -47 106.8 59 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 0.4 - 94
2008 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 0.0 - 100 4.2 -22 6.7 -70 92.7 96 75.6 -51 187.9 27 116.9 74 0.1 -99 0.2 -95 0.0 -
100
2009 0.8 -91 0.8 -92 1.5 -79 0.0 -100 2.1 -91 46.6 -1 81.0 -48 72.5 -51 44.7 -34 0.0 -100 0.7 -81 0.0 -
100
2010 1.8 -80 1.2 -88 0.3 -96 0.0 -100 1.0 -95 48.9 4 139.4 -10 258.3 75 203.0 202 0.1 -99 22.5 508 6.7 2

2011 0.2 -97 41.9 360 5.6 -11 2.0 -60 37.7 82 99.3 88 109.8 -28 206.1 43 149.2 149 0.0 -100 0.0 -100 0.0 -
100

Source: Hydromet Division, Metrological department, India, District- Jhunjhunu.

Note: (1) The District Rainfall (mm.) (R/F) shown below are the arithmatic averages of Rainfall of Stations
under the District.
(2) % Dep. are the Departures of rainfall from the long period averages of rainfall for the District.
(3) Blank Spaces show non-availability of Data.

It reveals from above table 2.1.3 & 2.1.4 that climatic data collection of Shekhawati region
about rainfall (in mm) temperature (in 0 C) and relative humidity (in %) was carried out for
five years (2007-2011). Shekhawati region recorded 51% of R.H. on a mean monthly average
in which the year of 2010 leads other years in this aspect. The representation of rainfall and
temperatures based on monthly and mean monthly values of districts respectively, from the
three values derived from the research period i.e., 2007 to 2011. 520% departure of rainfall in
Feb 2007 from the long period average rainfall in Jhunjhunu and 272% departure of rainfall
in June 2008 from the long period average rain fall in Sikar. 265.5mm highest rainfall in
Aug.2010 in Sikar and 258.3mm highest rainfall in Aug.2010 in Jhunjhunu