OCTOBER 16, 2017

LM354 SUMMARIES
MMAP CONSOLIDATION

SIECKER, JJ
STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY
Stellenbosch
Week 1:
Why Research:
Research capabilities has become a useful skill for most individuals whether they
choose to pursue further studies (involving research) or a career in a chosen
discipline. The research skills developed in this module can easily become a
transferable skill for problem solving in logistics and supply chain management
issues.

What is Management Science?

Management Science is concerned with developing and applying models and
concepts that help to illuminate management issues and solve managerial
problems.

Some systems that are used to help are Data-Driven decision support systems and
Model-Driven decision support systems.

Introduction to Research:
What is Research?
 Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current
knowledge by discovering new facts. It is divided into two general
categories:
Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for solving
problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques, and
Basic research is inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge.
 According to Collis & Hussey (2013:2) there is general agreement that
research is:
• a process of inquiry and investigation (research problem & question)
• systematic and methodical, and
• increases knowledge (at various levels).

What are the typical aims of Research?

The typical aims of research can be summarized as follows (Collis & Hussey,
2013:2):
 to review and synthesize existing knowledge
 to investigate some existing situation or problem
 to provide solutions to a problem
 to explore and analyse more general issues
 to construct or create a new procedure or system
 to explain a new phenomenon
 to generate new knowledge
 A combination of any of the above.

Research Language Key Terms:

Distinction commonly drawn between quantitative research and qualitative
research.

The nature of the relationship between theory and research.

Ontology, what we know about the world.

Epistemology, how we get to know something.
Epistemological issues: what is regarded as appropriate knowledge about the
social world; can a natural science model of research be used for studying the
social world.
Ontological issues: whether the social world is regarded as something external to
social actors or as something that people are in the process of constructing.

Theory and Research:

There are several important issues related to the understanding of the link
between theory and research. Two stand out:
 First, the link depends on what form of theory is being referred to.
 Secondly, there is the question of whether data are collected to test or to
build theories (deductive vs. inductive respectively).

The term ‘theory’; the common meaning is as a way of explaining observed

regularities (phenomena).

A concept is the basic building block of a theory. A concept is a vehicle of thought

to describe our perceptions of the world/things we can observe (e.g. "a chair").

A construct serves the same function as a concept, but it is more abstract/not so

easy to observe (e.g. "source credibility").

Concepts and constructs have variables typically associated with them. We try to
find correlation between the variables or indicate similarities/differences.

Then there is also theory at different levels; a distinction is made between:

 "low-level" theories (explanatory, descriptive or empirical theory),
 theories of the "middle range" (imposes meaning on events and issues),
 "Grand theories" (which operate at a more abstract and general level).

Deductive theory is the most common view of the relationship between theory
and research. The researcher, on the basis of what is known about a domain and
the theoretical considerations within it, deduces a hypothesis (or hypotheses) that
must be subjected to empirical scrutiny.

Whereas deduction entails a process in which:

Theory-> observations/findings,

With induction the connection is reversed:

Observations/findings-> theory.

Epistemological Considerations:
An epistemological issue concerns the question of what is (or should be) regarded
as acceptable knowledge in a discipline.

Positivism is an epistemological position that advocates the application of the

methods of the natural sciences to the study of social reality.

Interpretivism - It is predicated upon the view that a strategy is required that

respects the (a) differences between people and the objects of the natural
sciences and (b) therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective
meaning of social action.
Ontological Considerations:
Social ontology is concerned with the nature of social entities. The central question
here is whether social entities can and should be considered objective entities that
have a reality external to social actors, or whether they can and should be
considered as social constructions built up from the perceptions and actions of
social actors.

Objectivism - Is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and

their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors.

Constructionism is an ontological position which asserts that social phenomena

and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors.

A paradigm is a cluster of
beliefs and dictates that
influences:

- What should be studied;

- How research should be
conducted;
- How results should be
interpreted.

Resulting in social science

consists of competing
paradigms.

Research Strategies:
Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes quantification in the
collection and analysis of data and that:
 entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and
research, in which the emphasis is on the testing of theories;
 has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural scientific model
and of positivism in particular; and
 takes a view of social reality as an external, objective reality
Features of quantitative research:
 A measurement of social variables
 Common research designs: surveys and experiments
 Numerical and statistical data
 Deductive theory testing
 Positivist epistemology
 Objectivist view of reality as external to social actors

Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasises words rather than

quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that:
 Predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship
between theory and research, in which the emphasis is placed on the
generation of theories;
 Has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of
positivism in particular in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which
individuals interpret their social world; and
 Takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting emergent property of
individuals’ creation.
Features of qualitative research:
 Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist
epistemology)
 Common methods: interviews, ethnography
 Data are words, texts, and stories
 Inductive approach: theory emerges from data
 Social constructionist ontology

It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative strategies within a research

project.

Factors influencing a researchers’ choice of methods:

 Values:
 Organizational
 Historical
 Political
 Ethical
 Evidential
 Personal
o Practical considerations:
 May influence or determine choices on:
research strategy
design
method
resources and costs
 May be influenced or determined by:
nature of the topic
people being investigated
political acceptability

Week 2:
Research Designs:
What is Research Design:
A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. A
choice of research design reflects decisions about the priority before given to a
range of dimensions of the research process. These include the importance
attached to:
 expressing causal connections between variables;
 generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those actually forming
part of the investigation;
 understanding behavior and the meaning of that behavior in its specific
social context;
 Having a temporal (i.e. over time) appreciation of social phenomena and
their interconnections.

What is research method:

A research method is simply a technique for collecting data. It can involve a
specific instrument, such as a self-completion questionnaire or a structured
interview schedule, or participant observation whereby the researcher listens to
and watches others.
An easy way to see the difference between method and design:
Research design provides the structure that guides the use of research method(s)
and the analysis of the subsequent data.
“Think architect”
A research method is a technique for collecting data.
“Think builder”

Research can be classified according to:

 Purpose – The reason why it was conducted?
 Process – The way I which the data was collected and analysed
 Logic – Whether the research logic moves from the general to the specific
or vice versa.
 Outcome – Whether the expected outcome is the solution to a particular
problem or a more general contribution to knowledge

Quality Criteria in business Research:

 Reliability
 Replication
 Validity:
 Measurement Validity
 Internal Validity
 External Validity
 Ecological Validity
An alternative criteria according to Lincoln & Guba is Trustworthiness which can
be divided into four subcategories, namely: Credibility, Transferability,
Dependability and Confirmability.

Types of Research Designs:

 Experimental Design Elements:
 Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups
 Pre-testing of both groups
 Independent variable manipulated; all other variables held constant
 Post-testing of both groups
 Computation and analysis of group differences
 Comparison
 Cross-Sectional Design:
o Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control
groups
 o Pre-testing of both groups
o Independent variable manipulated; all other variables held
constant
o Post-testing of both groups
o Computation and analysis of group differences
o Comparison
 Longitudinal Design:
o Survey of the same sample on more than one occasion “(over
time)”
o Typically used to map change in business and management
research
o Two types:
 panel study
 cohort study
 Case Study Design:
o Detailed and intensive analysis of unique features of one case
idiographic approach
o E.g. a specific person, event, organization or community
o Often involves qualitative research
o Case is the focus of interest in its own right location/setting just
provides a background
o Types of case: critical, unique, extreme, revelatory, exemplifying
o Widely used in business research
 Comparative Design:
o Using the same methods to compare two or more meaningfully
contrasting cases
o Can be qualitative and/or quantitative
o Often cross-cultural, international comparisons
o Includes multiple case studies
o Problems experienced, e.g.:
 translating research instruments
 finding comparable samples
 different cultures in one country

Bringing research approach and research design together:

 Both quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used in any of the
research designs covered in this chapter.
 Business research designs often use a combination of quantitative and
qualitative methods.
 Increasingly, research that combines quantitative and qualitative
approaches is referred to as mixed methods research.

The Research Process:

The research process is based on six steps:
 Choose a topic and search the literature.
 Review the literature and define the research question(s).
 Design the research and write the proposal.
 Collect the research data.
 Analyse and interpret the research data.
 Write the dissertation, thesis or research report.

When starting a research process, ensure that you know what is required by your
institution/company/university, these can include the following:
 the form of binding;
  how the dissertation is to be presented;
 whether or not an abstract is required;
 how big the page margins should be;
 the format for referencing;
 the number of words;
 the structure of the dissertation;
 how much advice you can get from your supervisor;
 whether or not a proposal is required;
 plagiarism;
 deadlines;
 how much (if any) financial assistance you can expect;

How do we get to a research area / topic? We usually start out with a general
research area that interests us. It may derive from any of several sources:
 Personal interest/experience.
 Theory (the textbooks you've been using).
 The research literature.
 Puzzles (unsolved issues).
 New developments in organizations.
 Organizational problems.
As these types of sources suggest, in research we often start out with a general
research area or research objective that has to be narrowed down so that we can
develop a tighter focus out of which research questions can be developed.

Once you have selected a topic, you need to identity and develop research
questions:
 Totally open-ended research is risky
 Poorly formulated questions will lead to poor research
 Research questions help to focus your literature searches, data collection,
analysis and writing
Make sure your research questions are:
 clearly defined and researchable
 theoretically grounded
 linked together
 neither too large nor too small
Some more guidelines:
 A research question should end with a question mark. If there is no
question mark, it is not a research question.
 Be selective with your questions from the possible research areas.
 Be guided by the principle that the research questions we choose should
be related to one another. If they are not, our research will probably lack
focus.

The following criteria is extremely important when evaluating your research

questions:
 Questions should be clear.
 Questions should be researchable.
 Questions should connect with established theory and research.
 Questions should be linked to each other.
 Questions should have potential for making a contribution to knowledge.
 Questions should be neither too broad nor too narrow.
Week 3:

Basic Argument Structure: Claim + Grounds = Argument

Literature Review:

A literature review should allow you to explore the following:

 What is already known about this area?
 Which concepts and theories are relevant?
 Which research methods and strategies have been used in this area?
 Are there any controversies?
 Are there any inconsistencies in findings?
 Are there unanswered questions?
A literature review can be:
 a list of relevant theories;
 a search for relevant information;
 a survey of writing on the subject;
 a way of learning about the subject;
 a help in finding dissertation topics and research methods;
 An important component of a dissertation or report.

It is important to critically analyze the material you are reading. Academic journal
articles are a premier source for a literature review.

Why write a literature review?

 You need to know what is already known about your research area;
 You can learn from the mistakes of others;
 You can learn about different theoretical and methodological approaches
to your research area;
 It may help you to develop an analytic framework;
 It may lead you to consider including variables in your research of which
you might not have thought;
 It may suggest further research questions;
 It is required!

We need a structured approach for conducting a literature review. Three

approaches can help you:
 Triangle (Broad ...
more specific; also
some questions you
need to answer )
 Circles (Areas /
themes that overlay;
parts that explain the
same thing)
 Jigsaw puzzle
(broad area, how they
fit & fit together &
why they are
relevant... themes)
Referencing:
Why do we need to reference?

We provide references to acknowledge the persons who are the intellectual

owners of the information we are using. The intellectual owners could be the
authors of books or articles, the designers of a product, the producers of a film, or
even the webmasters of a website. We therefore provide references to:
 acknowledge all information or facts that we did not conceptualise or think
of ourselves;
 help the reader to easily locate the sources we have used;
 provide support or proof for the claims we make;
 show to the reader that we have read extensively on the subject;
 demonstrate that we can also participate in an academic discourse;
 give credibility to our writing; and
 Avoid plagiarism.

SideNote: Go and refresh Harvard referencing style

The Nature of Quantitative research:

Unit of Analysis (QN Research):

One of the most important ideas in a research project is the unit of analysis. The
unit of analysis is the major entity that you are analysing in your study.
For instance, any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a study:
 An individual
 A role
 A group
 A process
 A practice
 An organizational entity
 An organization
One simple rule "to decide on the level of the unit of analysis" to conduct the
analysis at the level at which one wants to make generalizations.
In many areas of social research hierarchies of analysis units have become
particularly important and have spawned a whole area of statistical analysis
sometimes referred to as hierarchical modelling.

Concepts are:
 Building blocks of theory
 Labels that we give to elements of the social world
 Categories for the organization of ideas and observations.
Concepts are useful for:
 Providing an explanation of a certain aspect of the social world
 Standing for things we want to explain
 Giving a basis for measuring variation

Steps in quantitative research:

Why use measurement in
quantitative research?
 To delineate fine differences
between people, organizations, or
any other unit of analysis.
 To provide a consistent device for
gauging distinction (i.e. a yardstick).
 To produce precise estimates of
the degree of the relationship
between concepts.

Why use more than one indicator?

 Single indicators may incorrectly
classify many individuals
 Single indicators may capture only
a portion of the underlying concept
or be too general
 Multiple indicators can make finer
distinctions between individuals
 Multiple indicators can capture
different dimensions of a concept

What does reliability mean?

"The consistency of a measure of a
concept"
Stability:
 Is the measure stable over time?
 e.g. test–retest method
Internal reliability:
 Are the indicators consistent?
 e.g. split-half method (Cronbach's
alpha test)
Inter-observer consistency:
 Is the measure consistent between observers?

What does validity mean?

Does the indicator really measure the concept? It does if it has:
 Face validity (right for the concept)
 Concurrent validity (supported by a relevant criterion today)
 Predictive validity (likely to be supported by a relevant criterion tomorrow)
 Construct validity (are useful hypotheses produced?)
 Convergent validity (supported by results from other methods)

Quantitative researchers are preoccupied by Measurement, Causality,

Generalisation and Replication.
There is some criticism of quantitative research because of their failure to
distinguish between objects in the natural world and social phenomena, artificial
and false sense of precision and accuracy, the lack of ecological validity, too much
reliance on instruments and measurements and a static view of social life.

Week 4:
When referring to Sampling the following basic terms and concepts should be
understood:
 Population: the universe of units from which the sample is to be selected
 Sample: the segment of population that is selected for investigation
 Sampling frame: list of all units
 Representative sample: a sample that reflects the population accurately
 Sample bias: distortion in the representativeness of the sample
 Probability sample: sample selected using random selection
 Non-probability sample: sample selected not using random selection
method
 Sampling error: difference between sample and population
 Non-sampling error: findings of research into difference between sample
and population
 Non-response: when members of sample are unable or refuse to take part
 Census: data collected from entire population

Four types of probability sample:

 Simple random sample:
o Each unit has an equal probability of selection
o Sampling fraction: n/N
o where n = sample size and N = population size
o List all units and number them consecutively
o Use random numbers table to select units
 Systematic Sample:
o Select units directly from sampling frame
o From a random starting point, choose every nth unit (e.g. every
4th name)
o Make sure sampling frame has no inherent ordering – if it has,
rearrange it to remove bias.
 Stratified random sample:
o Starting point is to categorise population into ‘strata’ (e.g. relevant
divisions, or departments of companies)
o So the sample can be proportionately representative of each
stratum
o Then, randomly select within each category as for a simple random
sample.
 Multi-Stage cluster sample:
o Useful for widely dispersed populations
o First, divide population into groups (clusters) of units, for example,
geographic areas or industries.
o Sub-clusters (sub-groups) can then be sampled from these
clusters, if appropriate.
o Now randomly select units from each (sub) cluster.
o Collect data from each cluster of units, consecutively.

Absolute size matters more than relative size. The larger the sample, the more
precise and representative it is likely to be. As sample size increases, sampling error
decreases. It is important to be honest about the limitations of your sample.
Factors that can affect sample size:
Time and cost
 After a certain point (n=1000), increasing sample size produces less
noticeable gains in precision
 Very large samples are decreasingly cost-efficient
Non-response
 Response rate = percentage of sample who agree to participate (or
percentage who provide usable data)
 Responders and non-responders may differ on a crucial variable
Heterogeneity of the population
 The more varied the population is, the larger the sample will have to be
Kind of analysis to be carried out
 Some techniques require large samples (e.g. contingency table; inferential
statistics)

Three types of non-probability sampling:

Convenience sampling:
 The most easily accessible individuals
 Useful when piloting a research instrument
 May be a chance to collect data that is too good to miss
Snowball sampling:
 researcher makes initial contact with a small group
 these respondents introduce others in their network (e.g. Bryman’s(1999)
sample of British visitors to Disney theme parks)
Quota sampling:
 Often used in market research and opinion polls
 Relatively cheap, quick and easy to manage
 Proportionately representative of a population’s social categories (strata)
 Non-random sampling of each stratum’s units
 Interviewers select people to fit their quota for each category, so the
sample may be biased towards those who appear friendly and accessible
(e.g. in the street), leading to under-representation of less accessible
groups

Findings can only be generalised to the population from which the sample was
selected, thus be wary of over-generalising in terms of locality. Aspects such as
time, historical events, and cohort effects may make the findings irrelevant,
therefore they will have to be updated (replicated).

Structured Interviewing:
What is a structured interview?
A structured interview (also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-
administered survey) is a quantitative research method commonly employed in
survey research. The aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is
presented with exactly the same questions in the same order. This ensures that
answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made with
confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods.

Different types of interviews:

 Structured interview
 Standardized interview
 Semi-structured interview
 Unstructured (/intensive) interview
 Qualitative interview
  In-depth interview
 Focused interview
 Group interview
 Oral history interview
 Life history interview

Seeing as this was specifically added to the slides:

Telephone interviewing:
Advantages:
 Quicker and cheaper (no travel required)
 Easier to monitor/evaluate
 Reduces interviewer effect (no non-verbal cues)
Disadvantages:
 Some people do not own a telephone, are not contactable, or are ex-
directory
 Limited time and rapport?
 Cannot respond to non-verbal signs of confusion
 Less satisfying experience for interviewee

Alternatives to structure interviewing:

 Critical incident method
 Projective methods, pictorial and photo-elicitation
 Verbal protocol approach
 Repertory grid technique

Problems with structured interviewing:

Characteristics of interviewers:
 Gender, age, ethnicity, class (rapport)
 Can evoke socially desirable responses
Response sets:
 People may respond in consistent but irrelevant ways, by acquiescence
(agreeing or disagreeing to all questions) or for reasons of social
desirability (interviewees reflect on the way their answers might be
perceived)
The problem of meaning:
 Interpretivist critique
 Interviewer and respondent may not attribute the same meanings to
concepts
 The meaning of questions is not pre-given but rather constructed in the
interview
 This problem is ‘side-stepped’ in structured interview research
The feminist critique (Oakley, 1981):
 Structured interviews epitomize the imbalance of power between
researcher and informant
 Interviewers extract information from passive ‘respondents’ and give
nothing in return
 Alternative of non-hierarchical relationship based on reciprocity and
empathy (unstructured interviews)
 Researchers’ values and personal involvement are a strength, not a
weakness
 Tends to favour qualitative research generally
Week 5:
Self-Completion questionnaires:

What is a self-completion questionnaire?

It is also called a self-administered questionnaire (SCQ), there is no interviewer
present and the respondent writes answers on form. This form is then returned to
researcher or deposited for collection. It is usually postal questionnaires and can
be distributed in person or by email.

Self-completion questionnaires versus structured interviews, self-completion

questionnaires tend to:
 have fewer open questions, since closed ones tend to be easier to answer;
 have easy-to-follow designs to minimize the risk that the respondent will
fail to follow filter questions or will inadvertently omit a question;
 be shorter, to reduce the risk of ‘respondent fatigue’, since it is much
easier for a respondent who becomes tired of answering questions in a
long questionnaire to consign it to a waste paper bin than it is for a subject
being interviewed to terminate the interview.

Advantages & Disadvantages of self-completion questionnaires:

Advantages:
 Cheaper and quicker to administer (to widely dispersed populations) than
face-to-face interviews
 No interviewer variability
 Convenient for respondents
Disadvantages:
 Interviewees cannot be probed or prompted
 Researchers can only ask salient questions
 Few open-ended or complex questions
 Respondent can see the whole questionnaire before answering (question
order effects)
 Cannot ensure that the ‘right’ person answers
 Cannot collect additional data
 Respondent fatigue if there are too many questions
 Excludes people with limited literacy skills
 Greater risk of missing data
 Lower response rates

How to improve response rate to postal questionnaires:

 Write a good covering letter
 Include a stamped addressed envelope
 Issuing reminders
 Using shorter questionnaires
 Giving clear instructions
 Using a layout attractive to the respondent
 Providing monetary incentives

When designing a SCQ:

Use an uncluttered layout, The questionnaire should be neither too short and
cramped nor too long and bulky.
Aim for clear presentation, a variety of font sizes, bold print, italics, and capital
letters can be used, but be consistent.
Asking Questions:
Open/Close questions:
Closed-ended questions are those which can be answered by a simple "yes" or
"no," :
Advantages:
 quicker and easier to complete (better response rate and less missing
data)
 easy to process data (pre-coded)
 easy to compare answers (inter-coder reliability)
Disadvantages:
 restrictive range of answers: no spontaneity
 difficult to make fixed choice answers exhaustive
 respondents may interpret questions differently

Open-ended questions are those which require more thought and more than a
simple one-word answer:
Advantages:
 respondents answer in their own terms
 allow for new, unexpected responses
 exploratory - generate fixed answer questions
Disadvantages:
 time-consuming for interviewer and respondent
 difficult to code
 more effort required from respondent
 interviewer variation in recording answers

Types of questions:
 Personal factual questions
 Factual questions about others
 Informant factual questions
 Attitudes
 Beliefs
 Normative standards and values
 Knowledge of a subject

General rules when designing questions:

Things to avoid:
 Ambiguous terms: ‘often’, ‘regularly’, ‘frequently’
 Long questions
 Double-barrelled questions: may be different answers to each part
 Very general questions: because they lack a frame of reference
 Leading questions: hinting at a preferred response
 Asking two questions in one
 Negative terms: ‘not’, ‘never’ - especially double negatives
 Technical terms, (jargon and acronyms)

Things to check:
 Do the respondents have the requisite knowledge?
 If you just want a yes/no answer, have you given more possibilities?
 Have you given an equal number of positive and negative responses to a
question to avoid bias?
 Are you relying too much on the respondent’s memory?
 Have you thought through whether you should include “don’t know”
options?
Some common mistakes:
 Excessive use of open questions
 Excessive use of yes/no questions
 No instructions as to how to indicate answers (tick box, circle, delete?)
 Overlapping categories
 More than one answer may be applicable
 Answers do not correspond to the question

Vignette Questions:
These present the respondents with a scenario. It then asks them how they would
respond or what they think the characters should do. It also anchors opinions and
choices in a concrete, specific context (may be easier to answer).
Useful for sensitive topics:
 Less threatening: imaginary characters suggest social distance from
respondent

Piloting and pre-testing questionnaires:

Check that the research instrument works:
 Gain practice in using the interview schedule
 Does each question flow smoothly on to the next?
 Identify vague or confusing questions
 Remove any questions that receive uniform responses

Open questions can generate fixed choice answers for closed questions in the main
research

Be careful that people who help with your pilot study are not included in the final
sample

Issues to consider in preparing questions:

 Have you devised a clear and comprehensive way of introducing the
research to interviewees or questionnaire respondents?
 Have you considered whether or not there are any existing questions used
by other researchers to investigate this topic that could meet your needs?
 Do the questions allow you to answer all your research questions?
 Could any questions that are not strictly relevant to your
research questions be dropped?
 Have you tried to put yourself in the position of answering as many of the
questions as possible?
 Have you piloted the questionnaire with some appropriate respondents?

Week 6:
Content Analysis:

What is content analysis?

Content analysis is a research technique used to make replicable and valid
inferences by interpreting and coding textual material. By systematically
evaluating texts (e.g., documents, oral communication, and graphics), qualitative
data can be converted into quantitative data. Although the method has been used
frequently in the social sciences, only recently has it become more prevalent
among organizational scholars.

Follow up on sample selection in textbook, mmap explanation is pathetic

What is to be counted when doing content analysis?
 Significant actors: protagonists and alternative voices
 Words: frequency of words or phrases ->> (e.g. ‘Japanese management’),
using computer software for analysis
 Subjects and themes
 Dispositions: values, bias, and ideology
 Images: particularly relevant to tourism and marketing studies

Coding:
A coding schedule follow these general guidelines:
 A tabular form onto which coded data will be entered.
 Each column represents a dimension to be analysed.
 Each row represents a unit of analysis / what we observe (item of text).
 Codes are written into blank cells in the table.
An example

Ensure that coding scheme has:

 discrete dimensions
 mutually exclusive categories
 exhaustive categories
 clear instructions to coders
 a clearly specified unit of analysis
Pilot the study to make sure of consistency between:
 coders (inter-coder reliability) and
 Consistency over time for each coder (intra-coder reliability).

Advantages & Disadvantages of content analysis:

Advantages:
 Transparency
 Ease of longitudinal analysis
 Unobtrusiveness
 Flexibility
 Ease of access
Disadvantages:
 Questions of authenticity, credibility and representativeness of documents
 Interpretation by coders
 Invalid inference of manifest content
 Inability to answer ‘why?’ questions
 Has an theoretical approach
Key points with regards to content analysis:
 Content analysis is located within the quantitative research tradition.
 It is a very flexible method that can be applied to a range of phenomena.
 Clarity about your research questions important.
 The coding schedule and coding manual are crucial stages.
 It is particularly controversial when used to seek out latent meaning and
themes.

Quantitative data (QN) analysis

Types of Variables (NOIR):

[I]Interval/[R]ratio:
 regular distances between all categories in range
 Cardinal data (also known as interval data) refers to data comprised of
consistent units/intervals. Higher numbers mean more of something
whereas lower numbers always mean less of something e.g. height,
weight, time, temperature, etc.
 Ratio data refers to data which can be ranked, has consistent units and has
a true zero e.g. age. Some statistics software packages may refer to
cardinal and ratio data as ‘scale’.

[O]Ordinal:
 categories can be ranked, but with unequal distances between them
 Refers to data which can be put into an order or ranked. Individual items
can be organised by importance, general size or some arbitrary preference.
Ordinal data ignores the exact degree of difference between individual
ranked items.

[N]Nominal:
 qualitatively different categories -
cannot be ranked
 Refers to data which can be
organised into categories e.g.
gender: men and women, type of
pet: cat, dog, fish, etc. Nominal data
does not refer to numbers or
quantities. You can’t divide a dog by
2 (or at least you shouldn’t)

Dichotomous:
 only two categories (e.g. gender)

Univariate Analysis:
Univariate analysis is analysis of one variable at a time, which employs some of
the following methods to assist in analysis.
Frequency tables:
 number of people or cases in each category
 often expressed as percentages of sample
 interval/ratio data need to be grouped
Diagrams:
 bar chart or pie chart (nominal or ordinal variables)
 histogram (interval/ratio variables)
Measures of central tendency encapsulate in
one figure a value that is typical for a distribution of values:
 Mean
o Sum all values in distribution, then divide by total number of
values.
 Median
o Middle point within entire range of values.
o Not distorted by outliers.
 Mode
o Most frequently occurring value.
Dispersion means the amount of variation in a sample:
 Measures of dispersion compare levels of variation in different samples to
see if there is more variability in a variable in one sample than in another.
 The range is the difference between the minimum and maximum values in
a sample.
 The standard deviation is the average amount of variation around the
mean, reducing the impact of extreme values (outliers).

Bivariate Analysis:
Analysis of two variables at a time. It explores relationships between variables
and searches for co-variance and correlations. Bivariate analysis cannot
establish causality.

Can sometimes infer the direction of a causal relationship

 if one variable is obviously independent of the other

Methods:

Contingency tables:
 connects the frequencies of two variables
 helps you identify any patterns of association

Pearson’s r:
The relationship between two interval/ratio variables, the coefficient shows the
strength and direction of the relationship.
  Coefficient lies between -1 (perfect negative relationship) and +1 (perfect
positive relationship)
Relationships must be linear for the method to work, so plot a scatter diagram
first.
Coefficient of determination
 found by squaring the value of r
 shows how much of the variation in one variable is due to the other
variable

Spearman’s rho: for the relationship between two ordinal variables, or one ordinal
and one interval/ratio variable (values of -1 to +1)

Phi coefficient: for the relationship between two dichotomous variables (values of
-1 to +1)

Cramer’s V: for the relationship between two nominal variables, or one nominal
and one ordinal variable (values between 0 and 1)

Comparing means: when a nominal variable is identified as the independent

variable, the means of the interval/ratio variable are compared for each sub-group
of the nominal variable

Multivariate Analysis:
Analysis of three or more variables
The relationship between two variables might be spurious
 each variable could be related to a separate, third variable

There might be an intervening variable

A third variable might be moderating the relationship
 e.g. correlation between age and exercise could be moderated by gender

Statistical significance:
A test of statistical significance allows the analyst to estimate how confident he or
she can be that the results deriving from a study based on a randomly selected
sample are generalizable to the population from which the sample was drawn.
 How confident can we be that the findings from a sample can be
generalized to the population as a whole?
 How risky is it to make this inference?
 Only applies to probability samples.

Tests of statistical significance:

 The chi-square test, establishes how confident we can be that there is a
relationship between the two variables in the population.
 Correlation and statistical significance, provides information about the
likelihood that the coefficient will be found in the population from which
the sample was taken.
 Comparing means and statistical significance – the F statistic, expresses
the amount of explained variance in relation to the amount of error
variance.

The chi-square test:

 The chi-square (c2) test is applied to contingency tables.
 Establishes how confident we can be that there is a relationship between
the two variables in the population.
  Calculates for each cell in the table an expected frequency or value - one
that would occur on the basis of chance alone.
 Value determined by calculating the differences between the actual and
expected values for each cell and then summing those differences.
 Achieving statistical significance depends not just on its magnitude but
also on the number of categories of the two variables being analysed.
 Governed by what is known as the ‘degrees of freedom’ associated with
the table.

Week 7:

*** Need to decide if I want to do SPSS ***

Infographics:

What are infographics:

“If you’ve read a newspaper or blog, flipped through a magazine, or used social
media recently, you’ve likely come across infographics – those self-contained
pictorials that tell you the gist of the story or concept at a glance”
(Smiciklas, 2012).

“An infographic is defined as a visualization of data or ideas that tries to convey

complex information to an audience in a manner than can be quickly consumed
and easily understood” (Smiciklas, 2012).

Creating infographics:
 Make the theme, story or message clear
 Infographic Sketch (compare to Final Result)
 Consider your audience
 Make it visually appealing
 Consider the size
 Consider simplicity
 Use your data effectively
 Consider the impact

10 Top Tips for Creating Infographics:

1) Sketch out a draft storyboard on paper before creating your digital design.
2) Be clear - have a title that is likely to 'grab' your audience.
3) Be concise - restrict the amount of ideas you are going to include.
4) Try to use different graphics to tell your story.
5) Limit your colour palette to keep the design simple.
6) Limit the amount of font styles used.
7) Try not to use too much text.
8) Only use data relevant to your infographic
9) Use simple graphics and icons that relate to your data
10) If you have a lot of information to convey consider breaking the
infographic into sections.
Week 9:
The nature of Qualitative Research (QL)

Introduction & Features of QL:

Inductive view of relationship between theory and research
 i.e. theories and concepts emerge from the data
 Interpretivist epistemology
 Constructionist ontology
 i.e. social properties are outcomes of the interactions between individuals,
rather than phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in
their construction

Emphasis on words/text rather than numbers

4 key traditions within QL:

 Naturalism
 Ethnomethodology
 Emotionalism
 Postmodernism

Main Steps of QL:

Theory and Research:

One key point that is implied by the above figure is that the typical sequence of
steps in qualitative research entails the generation of theories rather than the
testing of theories that are specified at the outset. Silverman (1993) is undoubtedly
correct that pre-specified theories can be and sometimes are tested with
qualitative data, but the generation of theory tends to be the preferred approach.

Research methods used in qualitative research:

 Ethnography/participation observation, prolonged immersion in the field
 Qualitative interviewing, in-depth, semi- or un-structured
 Focus groups
 Discourse/conversion analysis, Texts and Documents
 Documentary analysis
Concepts in QL:
Blumer (1954) argued against the use of definitive concepts in qualitative
research:
 because the indicators ‘fix’ the concept;
 Because what phenomena have in common becomes more important
than their variety.
He argued in favour of sensitizing concepts:
 Sensitizing concepts give a general sense of reference and guidance,
allowing the discovery of varied forms of phenomena, capable of being
gradually narrowed down.

Approaches to reliability and validity:

Adapting concepts from quantitative research
 Little change of meaning
 Quality, rigour, and wider potential
 External reliability (replication)
 Internal reliability (inter-observer consistency)
 Internal validity (good fit between data and theory)
 External validity (generalization)
Trustworthiness
 Credibility (a parallel for internal validity)
 Transferability (a parallel for external validity)
 Dependability (a parallel for reliability)
 Confirmability (a parallel for objectivity)
 Authenticity (Wider political impact of study)
 Fairness
 Ontological (better understanding of the social situation)
 Educative (better appreciation of others’ perspectives)
 Catalytic (impetus for change)
 Tactical (empowerment of participants)
SN: Just go over this in textbook.

The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers:

Seeing through the eyes of those studied:
 Taking the role of the other
 Understanding the meanings people attribute to their world
 Unexpected findings
 Empathy?
Description and emphasis on context:
 Detailed account of the social setting
 ‘Thick descriptions’ of what is going on
Emphasis on process:
 How patterns of events unfold over time
 Social worlds characterized by change and flux
Flexibility and limited structure:
 No ‘prior contamination’ by rigid schedules
 Sensitizing concepts
Concepts and theory grounded in data

Criticisms of QL:
 Too subjective, researcher decides what to focus on.
 Difficult to replicate, unstructured format.
 Problems of generalisation, samples not ‘representative’ of all cases.
 Lack of transparency, often unclear what researcher actually did.
Similarities between qualitative and quantitative research:
 The concern with data reduction
 The concern with answering research questions
 The concern with relating data analysis to the research literature
 The concern with variation
 The significance of frequency as a springboard for analysis
 The control of deliberate distortion
 The importance of transparency
 The question of error
 The appropriateness of research methods to questions

Key points with regards to the nature of QL:

 There is disagreement over what precisely qualitative research (QL) is.
 Qualitative research does not lend itself to the delineation of a clear set of
linear steps.
 It is more open-ended research strategy than is typically the case with
quantitative research.
 Theories and concepts are viewed as outcomes of the research process.
 Visual materials have become more popular.
 Reliability and validity are contested criteria associated with quantitative
research.
 Action research is connected with the method of cognitive mapping.
 Most qualitative researchers reveal a preference for seeing through the
eyes of research participants.
 Several writers have depicted qualitative research as having a far greater
affinity with a feminist standpoint than quantitative research?

Sampling in Qualitative (QL) Research

Sampling related to QL Research:

Related to QL research; Essentially to do with the selection of units (which may be
people, organizations, documents, departments, and so on), with direct reference
to the research questions being asked.
 Research questions should give an indication of what units need to be
sampled.
 Research questions are likely to provide guidelines as to what categories of
people are required.
 Two categories:
o Probability sampling
o Purposive sampling
Levels of Sampling:
There are two different levels of sampling; With such research designs, the
researcher must:
 First select one or more cases
 Then select sample units within the case
 The researcher must decide if they wish to select purposive or probability
sampling

==>>Refer back to Chapter 2 "Case study research design"

Purposive Sampling:
 Sampling is conducted with reference to the goals of the research
 Units of analysis are selected in terms of criteria that will allow the
research questions to be answered
 A non-probability form of sampling
 The researcher does not seek to sample research participants on a random
basis
 Not a convenience sample either
 Examples include theoretical sampling and snowball sampling

Theoretical Sampling:____________________
Glaser & Strauss (1967) ... Key Concept 15.3
 Probability sampling inappropriate for
qualitative research?
 aim to discover categories and their
properties
 ongoing process: collecting, coding and
analysing data, deciding where to look next
(purposive sampling) and developing
grounded theory
 theoretical saturation point: when
categories and concepts are dense enough; no
more data collection is needed
______________________________________

SN: Above taking directly from mmap, follow

up in textbook to clarify.

Snowball Sampling:
Convenience sampling approach:
 Researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who are
relevant to the research topic and then uses these to establish contacts
with others.
 Problem: unlikely to representative of population.
 Potential validity problems?

Sample Size:
Important when looking at the following aspects:
 How to establish how many people will be interviewed?
 Goal to achieve theoretical saturation, data saturation and informational
redundancy.
 The broader the scope of a qualitative study and the more comparisons
between groups in the sample that are required, the more interviews will
need to be carried out (Warren 2002; Morse 2004b).
Sampling does not just pertain to people, in can refer to any documents, artefacts,
texts, etc. that are used during the research process. Time and contexts can also be
used as units when sampling.

SN: Follow up on using more than one sampling approach in textbook as there is
no explanation in the mmap.

Key points regarding Sampling in QL:

 Sampling is a fundamental principle for selecting cases and individuals in
qualitative research.
 The investigation’s research questions is at the forefront of sampling
considerations.
 Entails considerations of the levels at which sampling needs to take place.
 Distinguish between theoretical sampling and the generic purposive
sampling approach.
 Theoretical saturation is a useful principle for making decisions about
sample size, but there is evidence that it is often claimed rather than
demonstrated.

Week 10

Writing up business research:

What is Rhetoric:
Concerned with attempts to convince or persuade audience
 Credibility of knowledge claims
Rhetoric is an essential ingredient of writing
 Convincing of credibility of knowledge claims
Examination of rhetorical strategies is concerned
with the identification of the techniques in those
texts that are designed to convince and persuade.

Writing up research (Tips):

 Start early
 Be persuasive
 Get feedback (use assistance provided to you)
 Avoid sexist, racist, and disablist language
Typical ways of constructing an "argument":
Think about facts/opinions/arguments

Structure of QN research:
 Strong opening statements
 The rationale of the research is spelled out clearly
 Research questions are spelled out very specifically
 The research methods, nature of data, measurement of concepts,
sampling, and data analysis are clearly and explicitly summarized
 The presentation of findings is oriented specifically to the research
questions
  The discussion spells out the implications of the findings for the research
questions and the theories examined earlier in the paper

Postmodernism:
 The social scientist’s account is seen as only one among many ways of
rendering social reality to audiences.
 The social world itself as a context out of which many accounts can be
hewn.
 ‘Offer “readings” not “observations”; “interpretations” not “findings”. . .’
(Rosenau, 1992: 8).
 Particular attention is given to the kinds of text produced by
ethnographers.
 A growing reflexivity in considerations about the conduct of business
research is encouraged.
 We are left with an acute sense of uncertainty.

Reflexivity:
 Reflexivity has several meanings in the social sciences.
 Used by ethno methodologists to refer to the way in which speech and
action are constitutive of the social world in which they are located.
 The other meaning of the term suggests business researchers should be
reflective about the implications of their methods, values, biases, and
decisions for the knowledge of the social world they generate.

Writing academically:
Tell a story.
 Think of each variable in the research as a character and explain how the
characters interact with each other.
Discuss fully your procedures and thought processes.
 Be open about weaknesses and limitations – this gives readers confidence
in the work.
Concentrate on the macrostructure.
 Make sure that all sections of the paper are coordinated and flow logically
from one to another.
Find the operational base of your research and stick to it.
 Think of the research design as the core of an empirical paper, to which
the theory, results, and discussion correspond.
Don’t exaggerate.
 It is better to be cautious in your argument than to overstate your claims.
Avoid statements like ‘these findings prove’ and instead say ‘these findings
suggest’.

Key points with regards to writing up business research:

 Good writing is probably just as important as good research practice.
 Clear structure and statement of your research questions are important.
 Be sensitive to the ways in which writers seek to persuade us of their
points of view.
 Rhetoric and writing strategies are designed to convince and to persuade.
 The emphasis on rhetoric is not meant to imply that there is no external
social reality; it merely suggests that our understanding of that reality is
profoundly influenced by the ways it is represented by writers.
 We want to persuade our readers that we have got things right. The
questions to ask are:
 Do we do it well?
 Do we make the best possible case?
Interviewing in QL research and focus groups:

QL Interviews:
 are less structured/standardized than quantitative interviews
 take the participant’s viewpoint
 encourage ‘rambling’ off the topic
 are more flexible than structured interviews
 seek rich, detailed answers
 Aim to understand rather than to generalize.

Unstructured or semi-structured:
Both approaches are flexible:
Unstructured interview
 Few, loosely defined topics.
 Open-ended questions to allow free response.
 Conversational style.
Semi-structured interview
 List of specific topics to cover (interview guide).
 Flexible question order and phrasing.

Preparing an interview guide:

 Have a logical but flexible order of topics
 Focus on research questions: ‘what do I need to know about?’
 Use comprehensible and relevant language
 Avoid leading questions
 Record ‘face sheet’ information (name, age, gender, position, etc.)

Preparing for the interview:

 Make yourself familiar with the interviewee’s world.
 Get a good quality tape recorder and microphone.
 Try to arrange a quiet setting for the interview.
 Familiarise yourself with Kvale’s (1996) criteria for a successful
interviewer.
___________________________________________________________________
Kvale’s criteria of a successful interviewer:
 Knowledgeable: familiar with the focus of the interview.
 Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off.
 Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.
 Gentle: let’s people finish; gives them time to think.
 Sensitive: listens to what is said and how it is said.
 Open: responds to what is important to interviewee.
 Steering: knows what he or she wants to find out.
 Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said.
 Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said.
 Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees’ statements.
___________________________________________________________________

Interview location:
 Find a quiet, private space in which to conduct an interview uninterrupted
(e.g. a suitable spare room that is not being used).
 Be careful of:
 agreeing to interview someone in their own office;
 frequent telephone calls or interruptions;
  Traffic, aircraft, machinery, or background noise making recorded speech
inaudible.
 Think about:
 closing doors or windows;
 turning off noisy heaters, fans, etc.;
 The comfort and convenience of your interviewee.
 Telephone Interviews?
Make a note of the following:
 How did the interview go (was interviewee talkative, cooperative,
nervous, well-dressed/scruffy, etc.?)
 Where did the interview take place?
 Did the interview open up new avenues of interest?
 What was the setting like (busy/quiet, many/few other people in the
vicinity, new/old buildings)?

Formulating questions for an interview guide (Image):

Kind of Questions:

 Introductory, tell me about

 Follow-up
 Probing
 Specifying, what happened next
 Direct
 Indirect, what do most people think
about…?
 Structuring, let’s move on to…
 Silence (SN: How is this a type of
Question?)
 Interpreting, do you mean that…?
 NB: always be flexible in your
interview approach.

Recording and transcription:

Audio-recording and transcribing
 researcher is not distracted by note-taking
 can focus on listening and interpreting
 corrects limitations of memory and intuitive glosses (Heritage, 1984)
 detailed and accurate record of interviewee’s account
 opens data to public scrutiny
Types of QL interview:
Life history (biographical) interview
 subject looks back across their entire life
 reveals how they interpret, understand, and define the social world
(Faraday & Plummer, 1979)
 shows how life events have unfolded
 naturalistic, researched, or reflexive (Plummer, 2001)

Oral history interview

 subject reflects on specific events in the past
 testimonies of ‘unexceptional’ social groups

Feminist approaches to interviewing:

The in-depth, face-to-face interview has become the paradigmatic ‘feminist
method’ (Kelly et al, 1994).
Unstructured or semi-structured rather than structured interviews (Oakley, 1981):
 indefensible for women to ‘use’ other women
 non-hierarchical research relationship
 rapport and reciprocity
Possible tension between researcher’s interpretation and women’s own
perspective.

Advantages of participant observation vs. qualitative interviewing:

 Seeing through others’ eyes
 Learning the native language
 Taken for granted ideas more likely to be revealed
 Access to deviant or hidden activities
 Sensitivity to context of action
 Flexibility in encountering the unexpected
 Naturalistic emphasis
 Finding out about issues resistant to observation
 Interviewees reflect on past events / life course
 More ethically defensible
 Fewer reactive effects
 Less intrusive
 Longitudinal research (follow-up interviews)
 Greater breadth of coverage
 Specific focus

What is a focus group?

 Form of group interview
 Several participants and a moderator
 Individuals in a social context
 Discussion of specific issue
 Study interaction between group members
 How are opinions expressed and modified through group discussions?

Key points with regards to interviewing in QL research and focus groups:

 Interviewing may be used as the sole method, part of an ethnographic
study, or with another qualitative method.
 Qualitative interviewing is meant to be flexible.
 An interview guide should not be too structured.
 Note the importance of using audio-recording and transcription
 Qualitative interviews tend not to employ random sampling.
  Qualitative interview is a popular method of data collection in feminist
studies.
 Be aware of differences between participant observation and qualitative
interviews.
 The focus group is a group interview that is concerned with exploring a
certain topic.

Week 11:
Documents as sources of data

Introduction
Documents can be in the form of material that:
 Can be read (but not just text – visuals as well);
 Have not been produced specifically for the purposes of research;
 Are preserved so that they become available for analysis;
 Are relevant to the concerns of the business researcher.

There are four different criteria when assessing the quality of research documents,
these are:
 Authenticity (is it genuine?)
 Credibility (is it free from error and distortion?)
 Representativeness (is the evidence typical of its kind?)
 Meaning (is it clear and comprehensible?)

The five main types of documents that is usually available for study purposes are:
 Personal
 Public
 Organizational
 Mass media outputs
 Virtual outputs

Organisational Documents:
Available in the Public domain:
 annual reports
 mission statements
 reports to shareholders
 transcripts of chief executives’ speeches
 press releases, advertisements
 public relations material in printed form and on the Internet

Not available in the public domain:

 company newsletters
 organizational charts
 external consultancy reports
 minutes of meetings
 memos
 internal and external correspondence
 manuals for new recruits
 policy statements
 company regulations
Public Documents:
From the state, in the form of legislation, reports of public enquiries, etc. For
example:
 Turner (1994): reports of public inquiries
 Vaughan (1990): analysis of the Challenger tragedy using documents
gathered by the Presidential Commission
Can be a very time-consuming form of research, and question of credibility exist
because the original report may be biased.

Mass Media Outputs:

Newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, film. Problems with authenticity occur when
the authorship is unclear. There can be problems with credibility because of the
possibilities of image distortion.

Visual Documents:
Some types are:
 Photographs: illustrations, data or prompts
 Videos: e.g. Film, YouTube clips

Need to know the context in order not to accept the photograph at ‘face value’.
Problem with representativeness in terms of the choice exercised over which
photographs to keep. And different interpretations of the same images are
possible.

Virtual Documents:
Documents which appear on the internet (e.g. Blogs, Wikipedia), these have huge
potential and are very accessible.
However, remember to question:
 Authenticity.
 Credibility.
 How representative websites are of a certain topic.

Personal Documents:
Includes diaries, letters and/or autobiographies

Could be the primary source of data within a qualitative study. Could be used as
adjuncts to other methods, such as interviews or participant observation. These
might be used to trace the history of an organization. Diaries may also be used as a
method of data collection – in turn, they are then made available to other
researchers.

Documents are windows onto social and organizational realities

Interpreting Documents: Analytic methods

Qualitative Content Analysis:
 Sometimes called ethnographic content analysis.
 Less frequently used than quantitative content analysis.
 Comprises a searching-out of underlying themes in the materials being
analysed.
 The processes through which the themes are extracted are usually left
implicit.
 The extracted themes are usually illustrated.
 Constant revision of themes or categories.
Semiotics:
A sign is something that stands for something else:
 made up of a signifier (a word or image)
 And the thing signified (the meaning).

The meaning is denotative (the obvious meaning) and connotative (the meaning in
a particular context). Signs can be interpreted in many ways (polysemy). This type
of analysis is mostly used in marketing and advertising research.
(SN: Polysemy - the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase.)

Hermeneutics:
The meaning of a document must be understood from the perspective of its
author.
 Who was the intended recipient?
 What was the semiotics ‘code’?
Requires sensitivity to the social and historical context in which the document was
produced.

Historical Analysis (Not suggested):

 To trace the actual history of an organization or industry.
 To study the methods used historically to interpret documents.
 Analysing particular versions of events to discover vested interests in the
reporting the promotion of certain viewpoints at the expense of others.
 Enables interpretation of existing organizational arrangements as the
result of decisions made in the past, rather than determined by objective
laws.
 Enables more rigorous assessment of the claims made by management.

Key points with regards to documents as sources of data:

 Documents constitute a very heterogeneous set of data sources.
 Such materials can be the focus of both quantitative and qualitative
enquiry.
 Documents of the kinds considered may be in printed, visual, digital, or
indeed any other retrievable format.
 For many writers, just about anything can be ‘read’ as a text.
 Criteria for evaluating the quality of documents are.
 Ways of analysing documents within qualitative research.

Week 12:
Qualitative data analysis

General strategies of Qualitative

Data Analysis:
There are two general strategies,
analytic induction and grounded
theory.

Analytic Induction:
A rigorous search for universal
explanation of phenomena:
1. Rough definition of
research question.
2. Hypothetical explanation.
 3. Data collection (examination of cases).
4. If any deviant cases found, redefine or reformulate hypothesis.
5. Continue until all cases fit hypothesis.

Grounded Theory:

Theory is derived from the data, which are systematically gathered and analysed.
This is an iterative process, Repetitive interplay between data collection and
analysis / theory building.
Developments in grounded theory:
 Straussian model more prescriptive.
 Term used loosely by researchers today.

Tools of Grounded theory:

 Theoretical sampling
 Coding
o Begins during initial stages of research
o Important first step in generating theory
 Theoretical saturation
 Constant comparison (between concepts and indicators)

Outcomes of grounded theory:

 Concepts (produced by open coding)
 Categories (higher level of abstraction)
o Core categories
 Properties (attributes of a category)
 Hypotheses (initial hunches)
 Theory
o Explanation of relationship between concepts
o Substantive or formal theory.

Memos:
Notes written by researchers to themselves which help to generate concepts and
categories:
 Reminder of what terms mean
 Encourage reflective thinking about emerging ideas
 Crystallize ideas and keep researcher on track

Criticisms of grounded theory:

 Cannot suspend awareness of theories and concepts (Bulmer, 1979)
 Funding proposals require clear statement of aims, theories and research
questions
 Time consuming
 Does not necessarily produce a theory - usually specific explanations of
substantive issues
 Confusing use of terms ‘concepts’ and ‘categories’
 Fragments data (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
 Competing accounts of what is involved
Process and outcomes in grounded theory:

More on Coding:

Coding, steps and considerations:

1. Code as soon as possible
2. Read through your initial set of transcripts
3. Do it again!
4. Review your codes
5. Consider more general theoretical ideas in relation to codes and data
6. Any one item or slice of data can and often should be coded in more than
one way
7. Do not worry about the number of codes generated
8. Keep coding in perspective – it is not analysis
Turning data into fragments:
 Cut & paste / code & retrieve
 3 levels of coding (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
o Basic coding
o Content and language
o Broad analytic themes
 Not just a mechanical task of data management - coding helps to generate
ideas and build theory.

Problems with coding:

 Losing the context of what was said
 Fragmentation of data - loss of narrative flow (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
 Could narrative analysis be a solution? (Riessman, 1993)
 Risk of only providing a descriptive account of the data rather than
theorizing

Thematic analysis:
Themes are categories identified by the analyst through his/her data; relates to the
analyst's research focus (and quite possibly the research questions); builds on
codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes; provides the researcher with the
basis for a theoretical understanding of his or her data that can make a theoretical
contribution to the literature relating to the research focus.

Second analysis of qualitative data:

Advantages:
 Offers opportunities because of the tendency for qualitative researchers to
generate large datasets
Disadvantages:
 It can be hard to understand the original context
 Possible ethical issues concerning participant permissions

Key points with regards to QDA:

 Qualitative data collection frequently results in the accumulation of a
large volume of information.
 Qualitative data analysis is not governed by codified rules.
 Grounded theory is the most prominent approach.
 Coding is a key process in most qualitative data analysis strategies
 Problem of fragmentation
 Secondary analysis of qualitative data is increasingly prominent.

Mixed methods research: Combining quantitative and qualitative research

Take note: The arguments against multi-strategy research

The embedded methods argument:
 research methods carry epistemological and ontological commitments
 thus multi-strategy research is not feasible or even desirable
The paradigm argument:
 quantitative and qualitative research are separate, incommensurable
paradigms
 Thus even when combined they are incompatible.
Two versions of the debate:
 Epistemological version:
o Incompatible epistemological principles of quantitative and qualitative
research.
 o e.g. embedded methods/paradigm arguments

 Technical version:
o quantitative and qualitative research strategies can be combined
o relative strengths and weaknesses of each for data collection/analysis

Classifying mixed methods research in terms of priority and sequence:

Different types of mixed methods research design:

Approaches to mixed methods research:

The logic of triangulation:
 Results of one method/research strategy can be cross-checked against the
results of another
 e.g. Stiles (2001): impact of boards of directors on corporate strategy
 Structured interviews, questionnaire survey, case studies – all provided
different perspectives
 Planned or unplanned?
 What happens if results are inconsistent?
 Treat one set of results as definitive

Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research:

 By providing hypotheses: an unstructured, open-ended approach is
helpful in generating hunches for testing through experimentation or
survey.
 By aiding measurement: focus groups and semi-structured interviews can
provide the measurements of concepts to be tested in quantitative
research, leading to much more appropriate specification of questions.
Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research:
By providing a basis for representative sampling in qualitative research:
 E.g. samples of people or companies, in particular sets of characteristics,
for in-depth interviewing or case study.

Filling in the gaps:

When neither research strategy can provide all the answers
 e.g. particular methods do not provide access to required information /
groups of people
Quantitative and qualitative methods both compensate for the other’s
weaknesses:
 e.g. when ethnographers use structured interviewing or self-completion
questionnaires, because not everything of research interest is accessible
through observation.

Static and processual features:

 Quantitative research can uncover regularities
 Qualitative research reveals social processes
e.g. Zamanou and Glaser (1994)
 a questionnaire survey to provide a static picture of organizational culture
before and after the intervention of a communication programme
designed to change the culture;
 Followed by interviews to explore perceptions of culture in the process of
change.

Researchers’ and participants’ perspectives:

 Quantitative methods test researcher’s theories.
 Qualitative methods make participants’ meanings the centre of attention.
 Some research studies require both perspectives.

The problem of generality:

 Some quantification of findings from qualitative research can help to
uncover the generality of phenomena (Silverman, 1984,1985).
 Case study research often uses mixed methods to enhance generality.
 Quantification can counter criticisms of anecdotalism in qualitative studies.

Qualitative research may facilitate interpretation:

 Quantitative researchers constantly face the problem of explaining the
relationships between variables.
 Qualitative research can discover the presence and role of intervening
variables.

Studying different aspects of a phenomenon:

 Quantitative research is better suited to the study of ‘macro’ phenomena
(such as social mobility).
 Qualitative research is better suited to the study of ‘micro’ phenomena
(such as small group interaction).
 Different phases in a research study suit one strategy more than another,
because of the different aspects studied.
 Different kinds of research questions are better answered by one strategy
more than another.
 This leads to choices of methods – and how they should be interweaved -
in mixed methods research.
Solving a puzzle:
 Research outcomes can yield unexpected results, inconsistent data and
puzzling surprises.
 Sometimes anticipated results fail to materialize, such that findings are
inconsistent with the research hypothesis.
 Using a second method can help to explain data (unplanned triangulation).
 It can also provide a ‘salvage operation’ as an alternative to reconstructing
the hypothesis or simply filing them away.

Indicators of quality in mixed methods research:

 Is the research well designed and conducted?
 Are the methods appropriate to the research questions?
 Is there an explicit rationale for the mixture?
 Are the separate components integrated?
 Is there a detailed account of the entire research process?
 Are resources spread too thinly, or unevenly?
 Are the researchers more skilled in one strategy than another?

Key points with regards to combining research:

 There has been growth in the amount of mixed methods research, but not
all writers support this.
 Objections to mixed methods:
o epistemological impediments
o ontological impediments
 There are several ways of combining quantitative and qualitative research
and of representing mixed methods research.
 Outcomes of combining quantitative and qualitative research can be
planned or unplanned.

Week 13:
E-research: Internet research methods

The internet as an object of analysis:

 Websites and web pages are potential sources of data in their own right.
 Potential use for both quantitative and qualitative content analysis (refer
to chapters 11 & 18).
 However ... problems with:
o Authenticity, credibility, representativeness and meaning
o Time consuming
o Websites change all the time
 Analysis of websites is a new and dynamic area.

Opportunities for business research using the internet:

 The Internet as an object of analysis
 Ethnographic study of the Internet
 Qualitative research using online focus groups
 Qualitative research using online personal interviews
 Online surveys

Using the internet to collect data from individuals:

Advantages over traditional methods:
 Saves time and money
 Can reach larger, geographically dispersed samples
 Data can be collected quickly
Disadvantages over traditional methods:
 The Internet is not accessible to everyone
 Loss of personal touch / lack of rapport
 Participants’ concerns about viruses, hackers, and nuisance email

The internet as a method of data collection:

Web-based methods
 Data collected through the world wide web
Communication-based methods
 Data collected by email or other medium
Synchronous communication
 Occurs in real time (e.g. chat rooms)
Asynchronous communication
 Delay between responses (e.g. mailing lists)

Virtual ethnography:
‘Cyberspace’ as a new site of research, participation, observation, and interviews
with members of an online community
Markham (1998)
 Synchronous online interviews in chat rooms and multi-user domains
 Participants challenged distinction between life online and ‘real life’ -
online experiences are real too

Qualitative research using online focus groups:

Synchronous focus groups
 contributions seen and responded to immediately
 using conferencing software, which participants must have installed
Asynchronous focus groups
 use of email distribution lists
 useful if participants are in different time zones
 easier for people with less advanced computer skills

Comparing online focus groups and face-to-face interviews:

Advantages:
 cheaper
 access to more dispersed population
 participants have time to give considered replies
 no travel time/costs
 no need for audio-recording and transcription
 helpful for sensitive issues
 appeals to shy people
 more egalitarian
Disadvantages:
 digital divide; access to online facilities
 difficult to establish rapport
 questions can be ignored
 greater risk of attrition and non-response
 less spontaneity of responses
 risk of identity deception
 cannot read non-verbal cues
Qualitative research using online personal interviews:
 Synchronous or asynchronous
 Trying to build up trust
 Should questions be all sent at once or not?
 Face to face is better (Curasi, 2000)
 More commitment and motivation needed by researcher to conduct
interviews online.

 Using e.g. Skype

 Flexible , cost-efficient, and convenient option
 Fewer safety concerns
 Potential limitations

Online Surveys:
These can consists of the following:
 Email surveys
 Web surveys:
o Wider variety of embellishments in terms of appearance
o Filter questions
o Convenience
o Respondents can be contacted directly
 Mixed methods, paper, online and email

Sampling issues:
 Not everyone has Internet access.
 Those who do may not be able to handle questionnaires online, in e-mail
or web formats.
 Many people have more than one e-mail address.
 Many people use more than one Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 A household may have one computer but several users.
 Internet-users are a biased sample of the population.
 Few sampling frames exist of the general online population.

Advantages of online surveys compared to postal questionnaire surveys:

 Low cost
 Faster response
 Attractive formats
 Mixed administration
 Unrestricted reach
 Fewer unanswered questions
 Better response to open questions
 Better data accuracy, especially in web surveys

Disadvantages of online surveys compared to postal questionnaire surveys:

 Low response rate
 Restricted to online populations
 Requires motivation
 Confidentiality and anonymity issues
 Multiple replies

Ethical considerations in Internet research:

The behaviour of lnternet users is governed by 'netiquette', the conventions of
politeness or definitions of acceptable behaviour that are recognized by online
communities, as well as by service providers' acceptable use policies
The Association of Internet Researchers recommends thinking through this issue
early on in the research.

Different types of Internet messages present varying concerns for anonymity,

confidentiality, informed consent.

Barnes (2004) identified 6 types of messages:

 exchanged in online public discussion lists;
 exchanged in private discussions;
 between individuals and on private lists;
 Personal messages sent to the researcher;
 re-posted and passed around the Internet;
 Generated by computer programs.

Key points with regards to e-research:

 The Internet offers opportunities to access to large and growing
populations.
 Many research methods can be adapted to online investigations.
 Websites as objects of analysis vs using the Internet to collect data.
 Online surveys may be of two major types:
o Web surveys;
o Email surveys.
 Most of the same considerations that go into designing research that is not
online apply to e-research.
 Quantitative and qualitative research can be adapted to e-research.

Ethics in business research

The following is the core value statement followed at the University of

Stellenbosch.
At Stellenbosch University, values constitute a frame of mind that should guide
our actions to achieve our vision and mission in a morally responsible way.

As a university, we are committed to:

1. Excellence: unfettered pursuit of knowledge that adheres to the highest
standards of integrity, relevance and innovation
2. Mutual respect: civility in our mutual and public discourse and due regard for
the freedom, equality and dignity of all
3. Equity: transformation, restitution and support based on an understanding of
the historical legacy of our university
4. Accountability: taking responsibility for our actions and keeping our
commitments
5. Compassion: recognition of, and care for, the wellbeing of all our students and
staff
Ethical Stances:
Universalism
 Absolute rules about un/acceptable conduct

Situation ethics
 Case-by-case assessment
 Does the end justify the means?

Ethical transgression is pervasive

 Virtually all research involves some ethically questionable practices
Ethical Issues:
 How should we treat the people on whom we conduct research?
 Are there activities in which we should – or should not – engage in our
relations with those people?

Ethical Principles:
Based on Diener and Chandall (1978) there are four main categories:
 whether there is harm to participants;
 whether there is a lack of informed consent;
 whether there is an invasion of privacy;
 Whether deception is involved.

Potential harm to participants:

 Physical
 Damage to self-esteem
 Damage to career prospects
 Revelation of their identity / break confidentiality
 Stress
Informed Consent:
 Research participants must know that is what they are and what the
research process is but implementing this principle is easier said than
done.
 It is extremely difficult to present prospective participants with absolutely
all the information that might be required to make an informed decision
about their involvement.
 In ethnographic research, the researcher is likely to come into contact with
a wide spectrum of people, and ensuring that absolutely everyone has the
opportunity for informed consent is not practicable, because it would be
extremely disruptive in everyday contexts.
Invasion of privacy:
 Privacy is very much linked to the notion of informed consent.
 The research participant does not abrogate the right to privacy entirely by
providing informed consent.
 Covert methods are usually deemed to be violations of the privacy
principle.
 The issue of privacy is invariably linked to issues of anonymity and
confidentiality in the research process.
 Researchers may be asked to sign confidentiality agreements
Deception:
 Deception usually means we represent our research as something other
than it is, so that participants will respond more naturally.
 Deception means not telling the whole truth, while not actually telling a
lie.
 We must be vigilant in keeping deception to a minimum and, when it is
necessary to the research, mitigating its degree and effects as much as
possible.
 Apart from moral objections to deception, research participants and
funders can become wary of being fooled, or tricked into providing data.
 This can have potential legal implications.
Reciprocity and trust:
 Tenets of openness and honesty
 Importance of adhering to a Code of Ethics
 Review ESRC Framework for Research Ethics
 Sharing research findings
Other ethical and legal considerations:
 Data management
 Affiliation and conflicts of interest
 Copyright
 Intellectual Property
 Consequences of commercialization of research funding in universities

So why should there be a problem?

 Unfortunately, a lot of writers about ethics in business differ about what is
and is not ethically acceptable.
 The same issues arise persistently.
 Certain research methods have a bad name because they are identified
with a few extreme cases.
 The real problem is that the potential to behave unethically in research is
constant and it does not just depend on particular situations or methods.

Some legal considerations:

The 1998 Data Protection Act states that personal data must be:
 obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purpose and not
further processed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those
purposes;
 adequate, relevant, and not excessive in relation to the purpose or
purposes for which they are processed;
 Not kept longer than necessary.
Copyright is an intellectual property right, extending to interviews – in which the
interviewee keeps the copyright to the spoken words. Permission is needed from
the interviewee in order to share this data.
What is POPI?
The purpose of POPI Act, (The Protection Of Personal Information Act) is to ensure
that all South African institutions conduct themselves in a responsible
manner when collecting, processing, storing and sharing another entity's personal
information, by holding them accountable. ALL information users now must have
strict chain-of-custody processes in place.
More info: www.easypopi.co.za

Difficulties of ethical decision-making:

 The boundary between ethical and unethical practices is not precise.
 The potential for deception / lack of informed consent pervades most
social research.
 There is insufficient guidance on marginal areas of research (but be
familiar with the existing guidelines).
 Internet-based research provides new ethical dilemmas, for which we are
still debating solutions.

Research ethics at Stellenbosch University:

“Stellenbosch University (SU) is committed to applying the values of equity,
participation, transparency, service, tolerance and mutual respect, dedication,
scholarship, responsibility and academic freedom in all its activities (as contained
in the SU Vision Statement). This includes, by definition all the research conducted
at the University. SU is of the view that good science assumes ethical
accountability according to nationally and internationally acceptable
norms. The responsibility for this lies with every person conducting research under
the auspices of SU.”
Four mayor research areas of concern:
 Humanities research ethics
 Health research ethics
 Animal Care and Use research ethics
 Biosafety and Environmental research ethics

Also to take not of:

 Policy for responsible research conduct at Stellenbosch University
 Departmental Ethics Screening (DESC)
 Research Ethics Committee (REC)

Key points with regards to ethics in business research:

 Focus mainly on relations between researchers and research participants.
Other ethical issues can arise in the course of business research.
 While the codes and guidelines of professional associations provide some
guidance, they often leave the door open for some autonomy with regard
to ethical issues.
 The main areas of ethical concern relate to: harm to participants; lack of
informed consent; invasion of privacy; and deception.
 Covert observation and certain notorious studies have been particular
focuses of concern.
 The boundaries between ethical and unethical practices are not clear cut;
writers on social research ethics have adopted several different stances in
relation to the issue.